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G U I DA N C E
01
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
02
INTRODUCTION
04
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
06
S U M M A R Y O F R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S
10
3. THE BENCHMARKS
18
6 . R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S
44
7. CONCLUSION
55
E N D N OT E S
56
Appendices and the cost report commissioned from
PricewaterhouseCoopers are available to view at www.gatsby.org.uk/GoodCareerGuidance
Appendix 1: Reports from the overseas visits; Appendix 2: Reports from the independent school visits;
Appendix 3: Key literature resources; Appendix 4: Contributors and consultees; Appendix 5: The school survey
02
FOR E WOR D
BY LO R D S A I N S B U RY O F T U RV I L L E
Settlor of the Gatsby Charitable Foundation
In my 2007 review of science and It was against this background that, I am tremendously grateful to John
innovation policies for the previous last year, my charitable foundation, and all those who have supported him
government, I identified actions Gatsby, commissioned Sir John Holman in producing this excellent report.
required on a number of fronts which to examine what pragmatic actions could I commend it to everyone committed
I considered essential if the UK was to be taken to improve career guidance to ensuring that all young people in this
remain economically competitive in the in Englands secondary schools. From country are supported in making informed
coming decades. In the reviews final our first meeting to discuss the project, choices about their future. If the principles
report, The Race to the Top, I noted John and I were in agreement that, rather of this report are followed, I am convinced
the widespread consensus across than add to the pile of reports criticising that collaborative action by key players
both the public and private sectors the current system, what was needed can, for the first time in a generation,
that the career guidance on offer in this was work which would identify good address current deficiencies and deliver a
country was severely lacking. It was practice in career guidance both world-class career guidance system in our
considered insufficient, of dubious quality, here and abroad and then point schools that is both effective and efficient.
and often provided too late to meet the the way to embedding such practice
needs of the majority of young people. in all of our schools. John set about
this challenge with typical tenacity.
Numerous other reports, issued
His reflective insight and thoughtfulness
before and since mine, have been heavily
have resulted in a report which offers
critical of career guidance provision in this
practical steps that schools, employers
country. Yet the situation has certainly not
and government working collaboratively
improved and, with employers reporting
can take to improve career guidance.
difficulties in filling skilled job vacancies
at a time when high levels of youth That John found no magic bullet or
unemployment persist, the need to panacea will come as no surprise to
take sustained action to improve career anyone who has examined this area.
guidance is more pressing than ever. But But his call for all schools to be supported
blame for the undoubted shortcomings in embedding clear, stable, long-term
in career guidance cannot be laid at the programmes of activities which are
feet of the current government alone. understood by teachers, pupils, parents
Over the last 30 years governments and employers alike, is compelling.
of every hue, while reorganising and
renaming the system, have spectacularly
failed to take the actions necessary to
improve the quality and consistency of
career guidance provision for all young
people. It is an appalling history which
reflects well on no-one.
David Sainsbury
Settlor
04
INTRODUCTION
FROM SIR JOHN HOLMAN
John Holman
University of York
April 2014
06
E X ECU T I V E SU M M A RY
GOOD CAREER
G U I DANCE I S
I M P O R TA N T F O R
SOCIAL MOBILIT Y
BEC AUSE IT HELPS
OPEN PUPILS
E Y E S TO C A R E E R S
T H E Y M AY N O T
H AV E C O N S I D E R E D
06. From all this input we made a Table 1: Eight benchmarks for providing good career guidance
judgement on what good looks
1 A stable Every school and college should have an embedded
like. These judgements are in
careers programme of career education and guidance that is
the form of eight benchmarks,
progr amme known and understood by pupils, parents, teachers,
identifying different dimensions
governors and employers.
of good career guidance (Section 3).
The benchmarks are summarised
in Table 1.
07. We surveyed a 10% sample 2 Learning from Every pupil, and their parents, should have access to
of English schools, to see how career and good quality information about future study options
they measured up against the labour market and labour market opportunities. They will need the
benchmarks (Section 4). information support of an informed adviser to make best use of
available information.
08. We asked PricewaterhouseCoopers
(PwC) to assess the cost of the
benchmarks (Section 5.1). This
meant we could identify the costs 3 Addressing Pupils have different career guidance needs at
of implementing the benchmarks the needs different stages. Opportunities for advice and
in each school and across England. of each pupil support need to be tailored to the needs of each
PwC also assessed the economic pupil. A schools careers programme should embed
benefits of better career guidance equality and diversity considerations throughout.
(Section 5.2).
09. We used these results to make 4 Linking All teachers should link curriculum learning with
ten recommendations about how curriculum careers. STEM subject teachers should highlight the
the English career guidance system learning relevance of STEM subjects for a wide range of future
could improve (Section 6). to careers career paths.
THE BENCHMARKS
SECTION 3 5 Encounters Every pupil should have multiple opportunities to
10. Our work suggests that there with employers learn from employers about work, employment and
is no single magic bullet for good and employees the skills that are valued in the workplace. This can
career guidance: it is about doing be through a range of enrichment activities including
a number of things, identified in our visiting speakers, mentoring and enterprise schemes.
benchmarks, consistently and well.
11. One can think about career
guidance in terms of push and 6 Experiences of Every pupil should have first-hand experiences of
pull factors. Push factors are workplaces the workplace through work visits, work shadowing
school-based; pull factors come and/or work experience to help their exploration
from employers. Push and pull of career opportunities, and expand their networks.
complement each other, and our
conclusion from this study is that
employer-pull is as important
as school-push. 7 Encounters All pupils should understand the full range of learning
with further opportunities that are available to them. This includes
12. The eight benchmarks are listed and higher both academic and vocational routes and learning in
in the right hand table. The full education schools, colleges, universities and in the workplace.
benchmarks in Section 3 are each
accompanied by one or more
indicators which make it possible
to measure a schools performance
8 Personal Every pupil should have opportunities for guidance
against the benchmark.
guidance interviews with a career adviser, who could be internal
(a member of school staff) or external, provided they
are trained to an appropriate level. These should be
available whenever significant study or career choices
are being made. They should be expected for all pupils
but should be timed to meet their individual needs.
08
<1%
The percentage of a schools budget
required to implement all the benchmarks
in a medium-sized school outside London.
THE SCHOOL SURVEY COSTS AND BENEFITS 18. The estimated cost of implementing
SECTION 4 SECTION 5 all the benchmarks across England
13. The questions in the school survey is 207 million in the first year and
15. We commissioned an assessment
were derived from the benchmarks. 173 million per year thereafter.
of costs and benefits from PwC.
The results of the survey show how They used the Standard Cost Model 19. PwC assessed the benefits of
a representative sample of English to estimate the cost of implementing improved career guidance in terms
schools measures up against each each benchmark in a range of schools of higher skills and qualifications,
of the benchmarks. of different sizes and locations in leading to higher earnings, and
14. The results show that schools England (Section 5.1). This work reduced likelihood of being not
are presently a long way from involved breaking down each in employment, education or
fulfilling all the benchmarks: no benchmark into a set of tasks and training (NEET), leading to
school fulfils more than five of the estimating how long each task would lower costs to the Exchequer
eight. But in many cases, schools take, and who would carry it out. (Section 5.2).
partially fulfil them and by doing From this, they estimated the cost
20. Comparing the costs with the
a little more they could get there. of implementing all the benchmarks
benefits, PwC estimate that,
in an average school. Aggregating the
for example, if one more pupil
school costs across England gave an
is prevented from becoming
estimate of the cost of implementing
NEET, the avoided cost to the
them across the whole system.
Exchequer would be enough to
16. The cost of implementing all the provide career guidance to the
benchmarks in a medium-sized benchmark level for 280 pupils
school outside London is estimated (Section 5.3).
at 53,637 in the first year and
21. In addition to the longer term
44,676 per year thereafter. This
economic benefits, shorter term
is equivalent to 54 per pupil from
benefits accrue during pupils school
the second year onwards. This
careers, including better motivation
is less than 1% of schools budgets.
and higher attainment (Section 5.4).
17. These estimates work on the Schools should consider these when
assumption that schools would be deciding the priority they give to
starting from scratch with career career guidance in the school budget.
guidance. In reality, all schools are
already doing some careers work so
the actual costs are likely to be lower.
09
RECOMMENDATIONS
SECTION 6
22. Our ten recommendations are
presented in detail in Section 6, IN ADDITION TO THE LONGER
and summarised on page 10. In
drawing them up, we followed TERM ECONOMIC BENEFITS,
these principles:
01. Minimise statutory requirements
SHORTER TERM BENEFITS ACCRUE
to allow schools the autonomy DURING PUPILS SCHOOL CAREERS,
to produce the career guidance
programme that works best INCLUDING BETTER MOTIVATION
for their pupils;
02. Optimise incentives to
AND HIGHER ATTAINMENT
encourage schools to prioritise
career guidance among the
many other demands on them;
03. Provide support through
the National Careers Service,
which currently has a very limited
remit with schools;
04. Improve access to employers
so all schools can provide multiple
encounters for their pupils with
the workplace.
10
SU M M A RY OF
R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S
T H E F O L LOW I N G T E N
R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S A R E
D E S I G N E D TO H E L P A L L
SCHOOL S R E ACH TH E
BENCHMARKS
11
Table 2: Recommendations
2 The School To government and schools Every secondary school should be required to have
Careers Plan a Careers Plan, published on the schools website.
3 Destinations To schools and government Every secondary school should be responsible for publishing the destinations
data of all pupils for three years after their leaving date. The published destination
data should be at an aggregated level, showing the main categories of employment,
apprenticeship and further and higher education. The responsibility should be placed
on schools, but they should have the support of HESA, NCCIS and other agencies
that are currently involved in collecting destination data for the government.
4 The National To government The remit of the National Careers Service (NCS) should be extended
Careers Service to give it unequivocal responsibilities towards schools. It should:
Significantly expand its work with schools, young people and parents;
Develop and extend its online services targeted at schools, young
people and their parents, and support training in their use;
Provide a channel for live labour market information from
the LMI for All data source;
Disseminate good practice in career guidance to schools;
Collaborate with employers organisations to broker employer
encounters with schools;
Support schools in creating their Careers Plan.
To make it more responsive to employers, the NCS should be reconstituted
as an independent agency with its own board on which employers are strongly
represented, alongside schools and colleges.
5 Career To government Alongside career information, live labour market information should
and labour be available to all schools through the LMI for All service. This should be
accessible through the NCS website as well as other outlets. Those involved
market in career guidance should be trained in its use.
information
6 Curriculum To the National Centres The National STEM Centre, National Science Learning Centre, and National
learning and their funders Centre for Excellence in Teaching Mathematics should lead exemplary work
to show how curriculum resources for science, technology, engineering and
and careers mathematics teachers can more effectively showcase career learning opportunities.
7 A review of To employers and Employers, their representative organisations and organisations promoting
encounters business-link organisations business links should cooperate in a comprehensive review of what they offer.
The review should focus on what could be done to make sure every school
with employers has enough employer links to meet the benchmarks in this report.
and the
workplace
8 Employer To employers and schools Every school should have a member of their governing body who
governors has a remit to encourage employer engagement and to take a strategic
interest in career guidance.
9 Encounters To the National Employers and further and higher education institutes should investigate
with young Apprenticeship Service, the potential for greatly expanding existing programmes for sending young
further and higher education ambassadors into schools from apprenticeships, colleges and universities.
ambassadors and employers
10 Career advisers To government and schools The governments guidance for schools should be amended to make it clear
that personal guidance can be provided by both internal and external advisers.
Advisers can be a member of school staff, provided they are trained to an
appropriate level to give advice that is in the best interests of the pupil.
12
W hy is career
guidance so critical ?
I f young
people know more
about the range
of careers open to
people with the right
q ualifications , they
will have a clearer
idea of the routes
to better jobs
Good career guidance has never Career choices are closely tied
been more important. Changes in in with educational choices: once
technology and in the labour market a pupil has some idea of their future
mean that increasing numbers of jobs career, they can make informed choices
require specific education and training. about which subjects to study. These
This has produced new vocational choices can make a big difference to
options which, at present, are not future earnings.1 For example, people
well understood by many young people with A level mathematics on average
or their teachers. Furthermore, the earn 10% more in their lifetimes than
decision to go to university now means those without.2 These are benefits
a major financial commitment, rather to individuals; in Section 5 we describe
than being a safe default choice. some of the economic benefits
to the country as a whole.
13
T here is no single
magic bullet in
career guidance .
I t is about doing
a number of things
identified in our
benchmarks
consistently
and well
2.1 The current situation 2.2 Our method From these studies, we have made
in England professional judgements about the
Defining what constitutes good practice
elements of career guidance that make
In April 2012, the government launched in career guidance is challenging. There
up good practice. Thus, the methodology
the all-age National Careers Service is a considerable amount of research
of our report is more like that of the
(NCS). At the same time, the former in the area.11 However, much of this
inspectorate Ofsted, with professional
network of Connexions offices and evidence depends on studies from the
judgements based on fieldwork, rather
advisers, which had been criticised as USA and on work from the 20th century.
than a set of quantitative measures
being excessively focused on young The published evidence base provides
of impact. We believe that this holistic
people who are not in education, some useful pointers; in this project we
approach is appropriate because
employment or training (NEET), have supplemented this with an in-depth
one of our key findings is that there
was wound up. Since 2012, the NCS look at places of repute where there
is no single magic bullet in career
has been offering career advice and is evidence that good practice exists
guidance. It is about doing a number
guidance via online and telephone and is respected and valued by pupils,
of things identified in our benchmarks
services for all ages (13 or over), but parents, employers and teachers.
consistently and well.
face-to-face services only for adults.
The timetable for our study is in Figure 1.
Alongside these new arrangements,
schools have had, since September 2012,
a duty to secure that all registered
2013
pupils at the school are provided with
independent careers guidance during February International visits
the relevant phase of their education.7 DECember
The definition of relevant phase was
extended in December 2012 to include
Years 8 to 13.8 june Independent school visits
The Statutory Guidance that supports
the above legislation, issued in April
2014, defines independent guidance
as external to the school. External october First draft benchmarks
sources of careers guidance and and consultation
inspiration could include employer workshop 1
visits, mentoring, website, telephone
and helpline access.9 This definition
points to the importance of encounters november Schools survey
DECember against benchmarks
with employers (and recent government
announcements have also indicated
a change to the remit of the NCS 2014
to give it a role in brokering employer january Second draft
engagement).10 Our study strongly benchmarks and first
draft recommendations
supports increasing employer
engagement, but also shows there
is more than this to an effective
january Consultation
careers programme. workshops 2, 3 and 4
February
Under the legislation, responsibility
rests entirely with schools. Given that
there is no longer a national network
February Third draft
giving face-to-face advice, schools have benchmarks
responded to this duty in a variety of
ways: sometimes using local authority
services where these are available,
sometimes using private specialists February Costing exercise
and sometimes, as the Ofsted march
review suggests, doing very little.
Fieldwork
February Writing up
and analysis
april
Drafting and
consultation
2.3 The overseas visits Details of these visits and their findings
are in Appendix 1 of the full report.14
In the last decade, global comparisons
The countries chosen were:
have become common in education
policy-making. This is partly due to The Netherlands, chosen for its Germany:
the greater availability of comparative successful education and its cultural low Youth Unemployment
data (notably from the Programme for similarity to the UK. We visited general
International Student Assessment (PISA) and vocational schools in the Breda A remarkable fact about Germany
and Trends in International Mathematics area and met policy-makers and is that the youth unemployment rate
and Science Study (TIMSS) studies) and academics in Utrecht; is lower than the general rate. In 2010,
partly because education is now seen unemployment for 15-24-year-olds was
Germany, chosen for its successful 6.8%, compared with the general rate
as a fundamental necessity for global
general education and outstanding of 7.7%. Compare this with 18.2% and
economic competitiveness. Prominently,
technical and apprenticeship routes. 7.2% for the UK in September 2013
studies of successful overseas education
We visited general and vocational (Office for National Statistics).
systems informed the revision of the
schools in Osnabrck, Lower Saxony,
National Curriculum for England.12 Low youth unemployment is linked
and met officials, employers and
International comparisons need to be academics in Osnabrck and Bielefeld; to Germanys highly structured training
handled with care if they are not to end and qualification system. There are
Hong Kong, chosen for its almost no jobs for people without
up as cherry-picking exercises in which
successful education and its historic qualifications, so remaining in education
the international evidence is used to
links with the UK education system. or training is the norm until people
justify prior beliefs. Our approach has
We visited a general secondary and are qualified to go into a job. This
been to use international case studies
a vocational school, and met officials, makes good career guidance in
to reflect on practice in English schools,
academics, employers and career schools all the more important.
and to provide calibration.
guidance specialists;
In selecting which countries to visit,
Ontario, Canada, chosen for its
we were able to draw on a series
successful education and the broad
of international comparative studies
similarity of its school system to
carried out by bodies such as
Englands. We visited three schools
the Organisation for Economic
in Toronto with varying degrees of
Co-operation and Development;
vocational and academic specialism,
United Nations Educational, Scientific
and met officials from the Toronto We decided
and Cultural Organisation; the European
School Board and the Ontario
Union; and the International Labour
Ministry of Education as well to look at
Organisation, which have so far
as career guidance specialists;
covered the career guidance systems countries which
in 55 countries.13 We decided to look at Finland, chosen for its highly
countries which had successful education successful education and celebrated had successful
systems, successful economies and had career guidance system. We visited
(in most cases) been shown to have comprehensive schools and an upper education
effective career guidance systems secondary school in Jyvskyl and
in the international studies. Helsinki, and met academics and
systems, successful
officials from the Finnish National economies and
Board of Education in Helsinki;
Ireland, chosen for its successful had been shown
and rapidly improving education
system and its cultural similarity
to have effective
to the UK. We visited a school career guidance
in Dublin and met officials at the
National Centre for Guidance systems in
in Education.
international
studies
17
T he benchmarks
E mployers can
give an authentic
picture of work
that schools alone
can never convey ,
but they need to
work in close
collaboration
with schools
In this section we present our eight The clear message from all our studies
benchmarks and show how we arrived is that there is no magic bullet. There
at them. Each benchmark relates to an is no single action that schools could use
area of school activity, with indicators to transform the quality of career guidance.
for measuring schools against the In all the places where we saw good career
benchmark. All the benchmarks are guidance, it was a matter of having a clear,
described from the point of view stable programme that is known and
of schools: this is important because understood by teachers, pupils, parents
decisions about career guidance are and employers. When the school has
made by school leaders and governors. a programme that includes a clear set
In our recommendations (Section 6) of activities and actions, and when the
we make some proposals for how school carries out all or most of these
government and other stakeholders well, career guidance is good.
might support and incentivise schools,
but in the end it will be schools
themselves who decide and take
the actions.
19
Encounters Personal
with further guidance
and higher
education
3.4 Benchmark 3:
Benchmark 3:
Addressing the
Addressing the needs
needs of each pupil
of each student
No-one could disagree that a schools Ontario:
Pupils have different career
careers programme should actively Individual Pathway Plans
guidance needs at different stages.
seek to challenge stereotypical thinking
Opportunities for advice and support
and raise aspirations, as Benchmark 3 The Individual Pathway Plan (IPP)
need to be tailored to the needs of each
suggests. However, it is hard to put into is a web-based tool which provides a
pupil. A schools careers programme structure for pupils career development
practice. Unrealistic aspirations can act
should embed equality and diversity activities and an online space where
in both directions: in Hong Kong and in
considerations throughout. resources and reflections relating to
some of the independent schools we
A schools careers programme visited, the challenge was often to lower career development can be saved.
should actively seek to challenge expectations to make them more realistic. Typically, an IPP tool provides access
stereotypical thinking and One independent school had to work to a bank of career profiles and an
raise aspirations. hard to get pupils to think of careers interest-matching facility, as well as
in STEM other than medicine. a host of optional modules including,
Schools should keep systematic
records of the individual advice given Other benchmarks are important in in some cases, opportunities to interact
to each pupil, and subsequent achieving this goal: encounters with online with employers. The Plan is
agreed decisions. employers (Benchmark 5) and further owned by the individual but follows
and higher education (Benchmark 7) a structure that can be determined
All pupils should have access at province, school board and school
are critical.
to these records to support their level. The Ontario Education
career development. The indicators for this benchmark Department sees the IPP as the tool
are mainly in terms of record-keeping. with which their career guidance policy,
Schools should collect and maintain
We saw some excellent examples of Creating Pathways to Success, will
accurate data for each pupil on their
digital record-keeping in Finland and be implemented.
education, training or employment
Ontario, and at Dulwich College.
destinations for at least three years The IPP is currently delivered through
Well-kept electronic records are a way
after they leave school. two commercially available software
to maintain consistent advice even if the
adviser changes, and they help pupils, packages (My Blueprint and Career
parents and advisers to keep on top Cruising). These were in use in the
of agreed actions and next steps. In schools we visited, but the IPP idea
Finland, the Wilma pupil management is new and has yet to be fully realised.
information system is well established Educators at all levels were optimistic
in the schools we visited and enables about the likelihood of the IPP
parents, pupils and teachers to keep in being successfully implemented and
touch about all school matters including embedded in practice, and it seems
career guidance. Ontario is introducing to offer a simple way to structure and
Individual Pathway Plans which has drive pupils individual career planning.
interesting possibilities for England. It is designed to be easily completed,
using occasional (1020 minute) sessions.
This benchmark includes an indicator There will be a requirement that every
on collecting data on pupils education, pupil discusses their Plan with a member
training or employment destinations. of staff at least twice a year, and shares
We believe this is important, not only it with their parents.
for purposes of record-keeping for
the individual pupils, but also because The implementation of IPPs has
good records can be valuable when been carefully mapped by the Ontario
it comes to getting alumni back to Ministry of Education: the first stage
act as ambassadors (Benchmark 5). is to provide funding and discuss
Destination data could also be an with stakeholders before formally
important way of incentivising schools mandating its use.
to deliver good career guidance
(see Recommendation 3).
23
Benchmark 5:
Encounters with
employers and employees
Every pupil should have multiple
opportunities to learn from employers
about work, employment and the skills
that are valued in the workplace. This
can be through a range of enrichment
activities including visiting speakers,
mentoring and enterprise schemes.
Every year, from the age of 11,
pupils should participate in at
least one meaningful encounter *
with an employer.
* A meaningful encounter is one in which
the student has an opportunity to learn
about what work is like or what it takes
to be successful in the workplace.
T he school survey
H ow do E nglish
state schools
currently measure
up against these
benchmarks ?
7 15
39
44 45
55
54 41
how many schools fulfilled all of the Fulfilling all the components of all A 88% of schools allocate an individual with responsibility
for careers; 44% of these individuals are members of the
conditions within each benchmark. the benchmarks is very demanding. Senior Leadership Team.
The benchmarks include several Figure 4 shows that 69% of schools B 6% of schools regularly evaluate their provision. This
includes feedback from pupils (73% of these schools),
components. For example, the first achieved at least one benchmark and teachers (54%), parents (39%) and employers (39%);
one states that every school should 39% achieved at least two. But only 21% of these schools seek feedback from all four groups.
have a structured careers programme 2% of schools achieved five of the eight C Where schools indicated that between 91% and 100%
of pupils participated in an event, this is viewed as indicating
that has the explicit backing of the senior benchmarks, and no schools achieved that all pupils participate. 32% of respondents said they
did not know the proportion.
management team, and an identified and six or more benchmarks.
D Pupils have access in 72% of the 202 schools that keep records.
appropriately-trained person of authority
The benchmarks represent a high E Destination data is collected for Year 13 leavers by 84%
responsible for it. There are therefore of all schools with Sixth Forms.
standard, but is the standard so high
three conditions that a school has to F 30% of schools with Sixth Forms (n=184) provided
that it was unrealistic for schools to a positive response to this question.
meet before it can be said to achieve the
achieve them? Or, would schools have G 53% of schools provide encounters with Sixth Forms;
benchmark; the survey asked questions
to simply adapt and extend their current 45% of schools have an encounter with colleges; while 21%
about each of these conditions. The full of schools have an encounter with apprenticeship providers.
practice to achieve more, or even all of 23% of schools said their pupils had encounters with all three.
results from each of the questions can
the benchmarks? To test this we analysed H 21% of schools with Sixth Forms (n=184) provided
be found in Appendix 5. a positive response to this question.
the data to see whether schools achieved
The percentages in Table 3 measure a set of relaxed benchmarks. These
affirmative responses (where the lowered the threshold for benchmark
benchmarks state all pupils, we have achievement so that for instance,
assumed a more pragmatic measure where the benchmark says all pupils
of between 91% and 100% of pupils). this is relaxed to 51% or more pupils.
However, a significant minority of The criteria for the relaxed benchmarks
respondents stated that they did not are set out in Table 12 in Appendix 5.
know the answer to some questions.
When the thresholds were relaxed,
For example, 22% did not know whether
we found that many more schools
every year, from the age of 11, pupils had
achieved them. 88% achieved at
participated in at least one meaningful
least one of the relaxed benchmarks,
encounter with an employer, and
50% achieved three, 13% achieved five
42% could not say whether pupils
and 1% of schools achieved all eight.
had opportunities to learn about
This is not to argue for relaxing the
STEM careers. This is not surprising
benchmarks, but rather to demonstrate
and reflects the findings of previous
that many schools already deliver a lot
research.38 It suggests that some senior
of good career guidance activity and that,
school leaders do not know the detail
with some adaptation and extension,
of their career guidance provision.
reaching all eight benchmarks is realistic.
8 0%
7 0%
No. of benchmarks achieved
6 0%
5 2%
4 6%
3 18%
2 39%
1 69%
0 20 40 60 80
2 Learning from 2.1 By the age of 14, all pupilsC should have accessed and used
career and information about career paths and the labour market to
inform their own decisions on study options. 20%
labour market
information 2.2 Parents and carers should be encouraged to access and use
information about labour markets and future study options
to inform their support to their children. 72%
3 Addressing 3.1 A schools careers programme should actively seek 73% (stereotypes)
the needs to challenge stereotypical thinking and raise aspirations. 88% (aspirations)
of each pupil 3.2 Schools should keep systematic records of the individual
advice given to each pupil, and subsequent agreed decisions. 56%
3.4 Schools should collect and maintain accurate data for each
pupil on their education, training or employment destinations
after they leave school. E 79%
4 Linking 4.1 By the age of 14, every pupil should have had the opportunity
curriculum to learn how the different STEM subjects help people to gain
entry to, and be more effective workers within, a wide range
learning of careers.
to careers 20%
5 Encounters 5.1 Every year, from the age of 11, pupils should participate
with employers in at least one meaningful encounter with an employer.
and employees 39%
6 Experiences of 6.1 By the age of 16, every pupil should have had at least one experience
workplaces of a workplace, additional to any part-time jobs they may have. 46%
6.2 By the age of 18, every pupil should have had one further such experience,
additional to any part-time jobs they may have. 30% F
7 Encounters 7.1 By the age of 16, every pupil should have had a meaningful encounter
with further with providers of the full range of learning opportunities, including
Sixth Forms, colleges, and apprenticeship providers.G This should
and higher include the opportunity to meet both staff and pupils. 23%
education
7.2 By the age of 18, all pupils who are considering applying for
university should have had at least two visits to universities
to meet staff and pupils. 21%H
8 Personal 8.1 Every pupil should have at least one such interview by the age 44% (age 16)
guidance of 16, and the opportunity for a further interview by the age of 18. 22% (age 18)
36
4.5 Significant differences Schools with a quality mark for career Notes on Tables 4, 5 and 6
A The critical word here is actively. It would be
between schools guidance are significantly more likely interesting to discover how actively the schools
interpret the benchmark in practice.
than those without to:
The results of the survey were tested B In the revised version of this benchmark, we are
for significance within each component Have a structured careers programme proposing that records of destinations should be kept
for three years, which is much more challenging.
to see whether particular types of schools that is written down (1.1); C We were surprised to see the low proportion of schools
were associated with particular elements that achieve this indicator. It may be that pupils are
P
ublish their careers plan on their visiting universities under their own or their familys
of the benchmarks. initiative, and the school is not recording this.
school website (1.2);
D This is a challenging indicator for two reasons: we are
The most frequently observed
E valuate the effectiveness of their expecting pupils to start doing this when young (age 14);
statistically significant relationships39 and it is difficult to get accurate labour market
careers plan every three years (1.3); information and make it accessible to this age group. See
were found to be associated with Recommendation 5.
schools with an Outstanding grading by Secure systematic feedback from E Although obviously attractive, this turned out to be a
challenging indicator to achieve in all the countries we
Ofsted and schools with a careers quality pupils, parents, employers and visited.
mark.40 Note that these are associations, teachers every three years (1.3); F It is likely that the schools in our survey interpreted this
but they are not necessarily causal as traditional work experience (e.g. a week-long
Have an individual responsible for placement) rather than the lighter-touch options that
relationships. It is also worth noting that we are proposing in Benchmark 6.
careers who is also part of the school
38% of schools with a quality mark are G The original benchmark used for the survey was in
senior leadership team (1.1); terms of a professional career adviser. The revised
also graded as Outstanding, so there benchmark clarifies that this does not mean they
is a significant overlap between these E ncourage parents to access and use necessarily have to be external to the school.
% of respondents
Table 4: Indicators already being achieved by most schools, and could readily be achieved by all, given the right incentives in survey
1 A stable 1.1 Every school should have a structured careers programme that has the
careers explicit backing of the senior management team, and has an identified
and appropriately trained person of authority responsible for it. 71%
programme
1.3 The programme should be regularly evaluated with feedback from pupils,
parents, teachers and employers as part of the evaluation process. 66%
2 Learning from 2.2 Parents and carers should be encouraged to access and use information
career and about labour markets and future study options to inform their support
to their children.
labour market
information 72%
3 Addressing 3.1 A schools careers programme should actively seek to challenge 73% (stereotypes)
the needs stereotypical thinking and raise aspirations. A 88% (aspirations)
of each pupil 3.2 Schools should keep systematic records of the individual advice given
to each pupil, and subsequent agreed decisions. 56%
3.3 All pupils should have access to these records to support their career development. 72%
3.4 Schools should collect and maintain accurate data for each pupil on their education,
training or employment destinations after they leave school. B 79%
Table 5: Indicators only being achieved by a minority of schools, but could be relatively easily achieved by all, given the right incentives
1 A stable 1.2 The careers programme should be published on the schools website in
careers a way that enables pupils, parents, teachers and employers to understand
the schools offer in this area.
programme 19%
7 Encounters 7.1 By the age of 16, every pupil should have had a meaningful encounter with
with further providers of the full range of learning opportunities, including 6th forms, colleges,
and apprenticeship providers. This should include the opportunity to meet both
and higher staff and pupils. 23%
education
7.2 By the age of 18, all pupils who are considering applying for university should
have had at least two visits to universities to meet staff and pupils.C 21%
Table 6: Indicators only being achieved by a minority of schools, harder to achieve by all because of the time and cost involved, but could be done, given the right incentives
2 Learning from 2.1 By the age of 14, all pupils should have accessed and used information
career and about career paths and the labour market to inform their own decisions
on study options. D
labour market
information 20%
4 Linking 4.1 By the age of 14, every pupil should have had the opportunity to learn how
curriculum the different STEM subjects help people to gain entry to, and be more effective
workers within, a wide range of careers. E
learning
to careers 20%
5 Encounters 5.1 Every year, from the age of 11, pupils should participate
with employers in at least one meaningful encounter with an employer.
and employees
39%
6 Experiences of 6.1 By the age of 16, every pupil should have had at least one experience of
workplaces a workplace, additional to any part-time jobs they may have. F 46%
6.2 By the age of 18, every pupil should have had one further such
experience, additional to any part-time jobs they may have. F 30%
8 Personal 8.1 Every pupil should have at least one such interview by the age of 16,
guidance and the opportunity for a further interview by the age of 18.G
44% (age 16)
22% (age 18)
38
A dopting
our proposed
benchmarks would
obviously have a
cost , but against
this are the
economic benefits
of better career
guidance
1 A stable The core team responsible for career guidance in each 18,525 18,525
careers school will develop and manage the implementation of in Year 1 in Year 1
a stable, structured career guidance programme with
programme subject matter input from class-based teachers, the 9,564 9,564
thereafter thereafter
career adviser(s) and IT support.
2 Learning from The core team will design and implement a strategy for 1,864 1,000 2,864
career and collating/purchasing and distributing career path and labour
market information, which will be delivered in class by the
labour market career adviser(s).
information
3 Addressing The core team will oversee data input into career 2,852 800 3,652
the needs guidance records for each pupil. Records will be
maintained by the career adviser(s) with some
of each pupil input from IT support.
5 Encounters The core team will be responsible for providing 1,363 1,363
with employers pupils with at least one meaningful encounter with
an employer per year.
and employees
6 Experiences of The core team will be responsible for the design 8,074 8,074
workplaces and management of the process for providing
workplace experiences, which will be implemented
by the career adviser(s).
7 Encounters The core team will be responsible for encouraging 1,363 270 1,633
with further encounters with further and higher education, including
covering transport costs for those pupils who would
and higher otherwise be unable to afford it.
education
8 Personal The core team will be responsible for managing 2,091 2,091
guidance and arranging structured interviews with pupils,
which will be conducted by the career adviser(s).
5.3 Interpretation of On the basis that the expected lifetime 5.4 Benefits to schools
the costs and benefits cost is approximately 200, then if: this section is not
part of the PwC report
PwC gleaned some sense of the ne more pupil is encouraged
O
scale of the potential economic and to attain an undergraduate degree PwCs work includes an estimate of
social benefits of the career guidance (when otherwise they would only the overall cost of implementing the
benchmarks relative to their costs have acquired A levels), this would be benchmarks in all schools in England.
of delivery by comparing the lifetime enough to offset the costs of providing However, it is not practical to suggest
cost of providing one pupil with career the benchmarks to 985 pupils; that these costs should be met by
guidance throughout their school the government passing additional
ne more female pupil is encouraged
O
career with the estimated total return earmarked funding directly to schools.
to attain a foundation degree (when
(i.e. increased lifetime earnings for the The well-established principle of school
otherwise they would only have
individual, enhanced income tax and autonomy means that it is not possible to
acquired A levels), this would be
National Insurance receipts to the ring-fence any additional funds exclusively
enough to offset the costs of providing
Exchequer and potential cost savings for use to improve career guidance.
the benchmarks to 535 pupils;
for public finances in areas such as
So, to implement the benchmarks,
benefits, crime, healthcare etc.). ne more pupil is encouraged
O
schools will have to find the necessary
to attain a Level 2 apprenticeship
funds from within their own budget.
(when otherwise they would only
For most schools, this means they will
have acquired a Level 1 qualification),
need to increase the priority of career
this would be enough to offset the
guidance within their budget. Although
costs of providing the benchmarks
the amounts involved are small relative
to between 395 and 610 pupils;
to the overall budget (less than 1% of total
O
ne more pupil is encouraged revenue expenditure), we appreciate that
to attain a Level 3 apprenticeship schools have many other competing calls
(when otherwise they would only on their budgets, and this is at a time when
have acquired a Level 2 qualification), school funding is at best at a standstill.
this would be enough to offset the
Schools need to assess the benefits to
costs of providing the benchmarks
their pupils of better career guidance,
to between 665 and 990 pupils;
and in many cases these benefits are not
O
ne more pupil is deterred or to be seen until several years after they
prevented from becoming NEET, have left school. That is why we believe
the avoided cost to the Exchequer that publishing destination measures is
would be enough to provide the an important part of incentivising schools.
benchmarks to 280 pupils.
But there is evidence that good
career guidance also brings benefits
in the shorter term, while pupils are
still at school.46 These benefits include
better motivation of pupils once they
have clear goals for future study and
careers, leading to:
Higher self-esteem;
Higher attainment;
Reduced drop-out rates.
Taken together with the long-term
benefits to pupils future lives, these
benefits stand up strongly against
competing priorities.
Finally, there is the pupil premium.47
Given the special benefit of career
guidance for pupils from disadvantaged
homes (Section 1), there is a strong case
for directing pupil premium funds towards
making improvements to career guidance.
44
R ecommendations
T he following
recommendations
are about how
schools could make
career guidance
a higher priority
6.4 our Ten The first priority is to have a It is in Benchmark 4 (Linking curriculum
Recommendations well-organised and well-understood learning to careers) that most schools
careers programme (Benchmark 1), have furthest to travel (and not only in
Below we set out our ten
because this subsumes all the other England). Our costing exercise suggests
recommendations. Each is
benchmarks. Closely tied to this is that this is also the most costly to do well,
followed by further explanation.
Benchmark 3 (Addressing each pupils because of the extensive training needed.
needs), although the measurement of This benchmark is one that most schools
recommendation 1:
pupil destinations, which is part of this are likely to implement over several years.
the benchmarks
benchmark, may take longer to put in
To schools, government, Ofsted place. Given what Ofsted has said about recommendation 2:
and employers the weakness of employer links, many The School Careers plan
schools may need to address Benchmarks
We recommend Benchmarks 1 to 8 To government and schools
5 and 6 (Encounters with employers and
as defining the elements of good
Experiences of workplaces) as a matter of Every secondary school should
practice in career guidance. Schools
high priority. Many schools will have be required to have a Careers Plan,
should be guided by them when
elements of Benchmark 7 (Encounters with published on the schools website.
setting their own careers programmes,
further and higher education) in place, but
and Ofsted should be aware of them This recommendation relates
our school survey suggests they will need
when making judgements about the to Benchmark 1.
to do more to introduce pupils to the full
quality of career guidance in a school.
range of learning opportunities, including
both academic and vocational routes, Further detail on this recommendation
Prioritising implementation if they are to meet the benchmark. Publishing the Careers Plan is important
of the benchmarks to enable pupils, parents and employers
Most schools will already have something to know what will be available to them,
Our school survey shows that schools
in place to give personal guidance to and as a basis for obtaining feedback
will not find it easy to implement all
pupils (Benchmark 8), but our school from them.
the benchmarks at once, and the costing
survey suggests that most are well short
exercise confirms that some will need
of the benchmark. Similarly, many schools
more resource than others. This implies
will have systems in place to provide
that schools will need to phase in some
career and labour market information
aspects of their careers plan, according
(Benchmark 2), but most will need
to the resources available and where
to extend its use to younger pupils,
they already stand in relation to
and to make more use of the growing
each benchmark.
availability of digital sources.
49
recommendation 6:
Curriculum learning
and careers
To the National Centres and
their funders
The National STEM Centre,
National Science Learning Centre
and National Centre for Excellence
in Teaching Mathematics should
lead exemplary work to show
how curriculum resources for
science, technology, engineering
and mathematics teachers can
more effectively showcase career
learning opportunities.
This recommendation relates
to Benchmark 4
Governors are
well placed to
act as brokers
between schools
and employers
54
recommendation 9:
Encounters with
young ambassadors
To the National Apprenticeship
Service, further and higher education
and employers
Employers and further and higher
education institutes should investigate
the potential for greatly expanding
existing programmes for sending Similarly, there is potential for a Further detail on this recommendation
young ambassadors into schools Student Ambassador programme From September 2012, schools have
from apprenticeships, colleges to bring students on vocational and had a duty to secure independent and
and universities. undergraduate courses into schools. impartial careers guidance for young
Again, this is best done through alumni people in schools (Section 2.1). The
This recommendation relates or through partnerships with local emphasis on independent and impartial
to Benchmark 7. colleges and universities, but there is career guidance is important. Career
a case for considering some kind of guidance needs to be given in the interest
Further detail on this recommendation national network, perhaps through of the young person only while this may
We have seen the evidence, from our an extension of the remit of STEMNET seem obvious, it is possible for advice
overseas and school visits, of the power or based on the Undergraduate to be biased in favour of a particular
of young people to inspire their peers Ambassador programme. 59 institution. For example, in 11-18
towards particular careers or courses schools there is an incentive to keep
Universities are required to engage
of study. When a young person meets pupils (especially high-achieving ones)
in school outreach through their
another who has come from the same in the school, even if it might be in their
access agreements with the Office
background and has gone on to success, best interest to go to a college or an
for Fair Access (OFFA). Schools
that can motivate them in a way that apprenticeship. Hence the emphasis
should make the most of this both to
encounters with older people cannot. on impartial advice that is in the interest
provide opportunities for curriculum
There are good examples of this kind of of the young person alone.
enhancement and to give their
ambassador approach in the outreach pupils opportunities to meet But in interpreting independent and
work that many universities are already student ambassadors. impartial, there has been a tendency
doing with schools. to assume that advisers have to be
The best way for schools to find young recommendation 10: external to the school. Indeed, this is
ambassadors is from their own alumni, but Career advisers reinforced by the April 2014 Statutory
we also see value in a Young Apprentice Guidance which defines independent
Ambassador programme that would give To government and schools as external to the school (though the
schools access to young role models who The governments guidance for schools associated non-statutory advice states
can visit schools and explain from their should be amended to make it clear that schools can retain in-house careers
own experience what being an apprentice that personal guidance can be provided advisers).60 While it may be appropriate
involves. This might be of interest to the by both internal and external advisers. for some schools or for some pupils,
National Apprenticeship Service (NAS), Advisers can be a member of school we do not think that external advice
though it is a very different concept from staff, provided they are trained to is necessary in every case. In all the
the existing NAS Apprenticeship an appropriate level to give advice countries we visited, it was normal
Ambassadors programme, whose that is in the best interests of the pupil. practice for guidance to be provided by
members are senior business leaders a trained member of school staff (though
who promote apprenticeships to This recommendation relates sometimes, as in Germany, augmented by
other businesses. to Benchmark 8. external advisors). We see no reason why
that should not apply in England, provided
the member of staff has appropriate
training (as assured by membership of the
Career Development Institute register,
for example) to ensure that their advice
is impartial, well-informed and in the
interests of the pupil alone, and that
the principle of impartiality is affirmed
by the school.
55
conclusion
6 House of Commons Education Committee (2013). Career guidance 22 Archer, L., DeWitt, J., Osborne, J., Dillon, J., Willis, B. & Wong, B. (2010).
for young people: The impact of the new duty on schools. London: Doing science versus being a scientist: Examining 10/11-year-old
Stationery Office. schoolchildrens constructions of science through the lens of identity.
Science Education, 94 (4): 617-639.
7 Education Act 2011, Chapter 22.
23 Woolley, M. E., Rose, R. A., Orthner, D. K., Akos, P. T., & Jones-Sanpei, H.
8 Department for Education & Department for Business Innovation (2013). Advancing academic achievement through career relevance in the
and Skills (2012). Consultation on extending access to independent careers middle grades. American Educational Research Journal, 50(6): 13091335.
guidance: Summary of consultation responses. Sheffield: Department
for Education. 24 Perkins, J. (2013). Professor John Perkins Review of Engineering Skills.
London: Department for Business Innovation and Skills.
9 Department for Education (April 2014). Careers Guidance and
Inspiration in Schools: Statutory guidance for governing bodies, 25 Hong Kong is a partial exception to this. The Hong Kong secondary
school leaders and school staff. school pupils we spoke to were strongly focused on getting to a good
university, and any kind of employment during their pupil years including
10 Department for Education & Department for Business, Innovation work experience was regarded as a distraction. However, in Hong Kongs
and Skills (2013). Careers guidance action plan: Government response vocational institutions there is a very strong emphasis on experience
to recommendations from Ofsteds thematic review and National Careers of work.
Councils report. London: Department for Education.
26 AIR UK (2008). The involvement of business in education: A rapid evidence
11 For example, Hooley, T., Marriott, J. & Sampson, J.P. (2011). Fostering assessment of the measurable impacts. London: Department for Children,
college and career readiness: How career development activities in schools Schools and Families.
impact on graduation rates and pupils life success. Derby: International
Centre for Guidance Studies, University of Derby. Mann, A. & Dawkins, J. (2014). Employer engagement in education: Literature
review. Reading: CfBT Education Trust.
12 Department for Education (2012). National Curriculum for England.
What can we learn from the English, mathematics and science curricula 27 Mann, A. (2012). Its who you meet: Why employer contacts at school make
of high-performing jurisdictions? London: Department for Education. a difference to the employment prospects of young adults. London: Education
and Employers Taskforce.
13 Watts, A.G. (2014). Cross-national reviews of career guidance
systems: overview and reflections. Journal of the National Institute 28 Hancock, M. (2013). Careers: Inspiration Vision statement. London:
for Career Education and Counselling, 32: 415. Department for Business Innovation and Skills with Department
for Education.
14 All Appendices are to be found in the web-based version of this report.
29 Speed dating events involve pupils and employers interacting in multiple,
15 Huddlestone, P., Mann, A. & Dawkins, J. (2012). Employer engagement in short encounters generally as part of a careers fair or recruitment event.
English independent schools. London: Education and Employers Taskforce.
30 Mann, A. (2012). Work experience: Impact and delivery - insights from the
Walford, G. (2005). British private schools: Research on policy and practice. evidence. London: Education and Employers Taskforce.
London: Taylor & Francis e-library.
31 The statutory duty for work-related learning was removed by statutory
16 Holman, J. & Finegold, P. (2010). STEM Careers Review. London: instrument in the explanatory memorandum to the draft Education
Gatsby Charitable Foundation. (Amendment of the Curriculum Requirements for Fourth Key Stage)
17 Commission on Adult Vocational Teaching and Learning (CAVTL) (2013). (England) Order 2012.
Its About Work...Excellent Adult Vocational Teaching and Learning. London: LSIS.
57
32 UK Commission for Employment and Skills (2013). 47 The pupil premium is additional funding given to publicly funded
Scaling the youth employment challenge. London: UKCES. schools in England to raise the attainment of disadvantaged pupils
and close the gap between them and their peers.
33 Perkins, J. (2013). Professor John Perkins Review of Engineering Skills,
London: Department for Business Innovation and Skills. 48 Ofsted (2013). Going in the right direction? Career guidance
in schools from September 2012. Manchester: Ofsted.
34 UK Commission for Employment and Skills (2013). Not just
making the tea: Reinventing work experience. London: UKCES. 49 Ofsteds subsidiary guidance gives a little more detail but makes
no mention of engagement with employers.
35 For example, see the November 2013 speech by the President of the
Association of Colleges to their national conference in Birmingham. 50 There are several quality awards for career guidance which have been
validated by Careers England through the Quality in Careers Standard.
36 Whiston, S.C., Tai, W.L., Rahardja, D. & Eder, K. (2011). School counseling
outcome: A meta-analytic examination of interventions. Journal of Counseling 51 Business Class provides a framework for partnerships between schools
and Development, 89 (1): 37-55. and business, providing support for young people facing social disadvantage.
www.bitc.org.uk/programmes/business-class
37 For full figures see Tables 3, 4 and 5 in Appendix 5: The school survey.
52 Career Academies UK brings together employers and schools to prepare
38 Hutchinson, J. (2013). School organisation and STEM career-related learning.
young people for the world of work. www.careeracademies.org.uk
York: National STEM Centre.
53 Confederation of British Industry (2013). Leading the way: Improving
39 The results of the data were systematically tested for statistical
school governance and leadership. London: CBI.
significance at a 95% level of confidence.
54 In fact, three-and-a-half years would be better than three because it
40 There are several quality awards for career guidance which have been
would carry the data collection past the end of three-year university
validated by Careers England through the Quality in Careers Standard.
courses, but it might not fit so well with normal data collection points.
41 Total revenue expenditure includes expenditure on teaching staff,
55 National Careers Council (2013). An Aspiration Nation: Creating a culture
educational support staff, other employee costs and running expenses,
change in careers provision. London: National Careers Council.
including Direct Revenue Financing (Revenue Contributions to Capital).
56 One concern about LMI for All is that it may not be granular enough
42 Gross expenditure differs from total revenue expenditure in that
in its present form. The UKCES should keep open the possibility
it does not include Direct Revenue Financing.
of making the data more granular by basing it on 5-digit Standard
43 See, for example, Mayston, D. (2002). Assessing the benefits of career Occupational Category (SOC) codes.
guidance. CeGS Occasional Paper. Derby: Centre for Guidance Studies,
57 Deloitte UK (2010). Helping young people succeed: How employers can support
University of Derby.
careers education. Increasing and improving employer involvement in providing
44 Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (2011). Returns to Intermediate young people with careers education, information, advice and guidance. London:
and Low Level Vocational Qualifications, BIS Research Paper Number 53. Education and Employers Taskforce.
45 Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (2011). The Returns 58 Mann, A. and Dawkins, J. (2014). Employer Engagement in Education:
to Higher Education, BIS Research Paper Number 45. Literature Review. Reading: CfBT Education Trust.
46 Hooley, T., Marriott, J. & Sampson, J.P. (2011). Fostering College and Deloitte (2010). Helping Young People Succeed: The Role of Employers
Career Readiness: How Career Development Activities in Schools Impact to Inspire and Inform. London: Education and Employers Taskforce.
on Graduation Rates and Pupils Life Success. Derby: International Centre
59 The Undergraduate Ambassador Scheme is run by an independent
for Guidance Studies.
organisation. It provides university departments with a framework for
Christensen, G. & Sgaard Larsen, M. (2011). Evidence on Guidance and a classroom-based degree module awarding academic credit to STEM
Counseling. Aarhus: Danish Clearinghouse for Educational Research. undergraduates working with teachers in local schools.
Morris, M., Rudd, P., Nelson, J. & Davies, D. (2000). The Contribution of 60 Department for Education (April 2014). Careers Guidance and Inspiration
Careers Education and Guidance to School Effectiveness in Partnership in Schools: Non-statutory departmental advice for governing bodies, school
Schools. London: Department for Education and Employment. leaders and school staff.
Lapan, R.T., Gysbers, N.C. & Sun, Y. (1997). The impact of more fully
implemented guidance programs on the school experiences of high school
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75(4): 292302.
58
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1
REPORTS FROM THE OVERSEAS VISITS
APPENDIX 2
REPORTS FROM THE INDEPENDENT SCHOOL VISITS
APPENDIX 3
K E Y L I T E R AT U R E R E S O U R C E S
APPENDIX 4
C O N T R I B U TO R S A N D C O N S U LT E E S
APPENDIX 5
THE SCHOOL SURVEY