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Learning is the process by which an individual acquires knowledge, attitudes and skills that are necessary to
meet the demands of life. While touching a burning candle, a child gets burnt and he withdraws the fingers.
When he faces a similar situation again he withdraws his fingers faster. Gradually he learns to avoid not only
the burning candle but also other burning things. The behaviour of an individual is thus changed through
experiences. This change in behaviour brought about by experiences is commonly known as learning.

Thus, Learning means change in behaviour or behaviour potential that occurs as a result of experience.
Learning can result from both vicarious and direct experiences. Vicarious means observing someone and
learning from that observation and not being directly involved in the experience. For example, a child learns
how to clap hands by seeing someone else do it. Learning also takes place through direct experiences. For
example, a child learns to write by practicing writing. A child normally learns from his parents, teachers and
the environment.

Definitions of Learning:

1. Gardener Murphy: The term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet environmental
requirements.

2. Henry P. Smith: Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening or weakening of old
behaviour as the result of experience.
3. Crow & crow: Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge & attitudes. It involves new ways of doing
things and it operates in individuals attempts to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It
represents progressive changes in behaviour. It enables him to satisfy interests to attain goals.

NATURE OF LEARNING

1. Learning is Universal. Every creature that lives learns. Man learns most. The human nervous system is very
complex, so are human reactions and so are human acquisition. Positive learning vital for childrens growth
and development.

2. Learning is through Experience. Learning always involves some kind of experience, direct or indirect
(vicarious).

3. Learning is from all Sides: Today learning is from all sides. Children learn from parents, teachers,
environment, nature, media etc.

4. Learning is Continuous. It denotes the lifelong nature of learning. Every day new situations are faced and
the individual has to bring essential changes in his style of behaviour adopted to tackle them. Learning is birth
to death.

5. It results in Change in Behaviour. It is a change of behaviour influenced by previous behaviour. It is any

activity that leaves a more or less permanent effect on later activity.
6. Learning is an Adjustment. Learning helps the individual to adjust himself adequately to the new situations.
Most learning in children consists in modifying, adapting, and developing their original nature. In later life the
individuals acquire new forms of behaviour.

7. It comes about as a result of practice. It is the basis of drill and practice. It has been proven that students
learn best and retain information longer when they have meaningful practice and repetition. Every time
practice occurs, learning continues.

8. Learning is a relatively Permanent Change. After a rat wake up from his nap he still remembers the path to
the food. Even if you have been on a bicycle for years, in just a few minutes practice you can be quite
proficient again.

9. Learning as Growth and Development. It is never ending growth and development. At reach stage the
learner acquires new visions of his future growth and news ideals of achievement in the direction of his effort.
According to Woodworth, All activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual.

10. Learning is not directly observable. The only way to study learning is through some observable behaviour.
Actually, we cannot observe learning; we see only what precedes performance, the performance itself, and
the consequences of performance.

Teaching Principles
Teaching is a complex, multifaceted activity, often requiring us as instructors to juggle
multiple tasks and goals simultaneously and flexibly. The following small but powerful
set of principles can make teaching both more effective and more efficient, by helping us
create the conditions that support student learning and minimize the need for revising
materials, content, and policies. While implementing these principles requires a
commitment in time and effort, it often saves time and energy later on.
 1. Effective teaching involves acquiring relevant knowledge about
students and using that knowledge to inform our course design
and classroom teaching.
When we teach, we do not just teach the content, we teach students the content. A
variety of student characteristics can affect learning. For example, students cultural and
generational backgrounds influence how they see the world; disciplinary backgrounds
lead students to approach problems in different ways; and students prior knowledge
(both accurate and inaccurate aspects) shapes new learning. Although we cannot
adequately measure all of these characteristics, gathering the most relevant information
as early as possible in course planning and continuing to do so during the semester can
(a) inform course design (e.g., decisions about objectives, pacing, examples, format),
(b) help explain student difficulties (e.g., identification of common misconceptions), and
(c) guide instructional adaptations (e.g., recognition of the
need for additional practice).
2. Effective teaching involves
aligning the three major
components of instruction:
learning objectives, assessments,
and instructional activities.
Taking the time to do this upfront saves time in the end and
leads to a better course. Teaching is more effective and
student learning is enhanced when (a) we, as instructors,
articulate a clear set of learning objectives (i.e., the
knowledge and skills that we expect students to demonstrate
by the end of a course); (b) the instructional activities (e.g., case studies, labs,
discussions, readings) support these learning objectives by providing goal-oriented
practice; and (c) the assessments (e.g., tests, papers, problem sets, performances)
provide opportunities for students to demonstrate and practice the knowledge and skills
articulated in the objectives, and for instructors to offer targeted feedback that can
guide further learning.
3. Effective teaching involves articulating explicit expectations
regarding learning objectives and policies.
There is amazing variation in what is expected of students across American classrooms
and even within a given discipline. For example, what constitutes evidence may differ
greatly across courses; what is permissible collaboration in one course could be
considered cheating in another. As a result, students expectations may not match ours.
Thus, being clear about our expectations and communicating them explicitly helps
students learn more and perform better. Articulating our learning objectives (i.e., the
knowledge and skills that we expect students to demonstrate by the end of a course)
gives students a clear target to aim for and enables them to monitor their progress
along the way. Similarly, being explicit about course policies (e.g., on class participation,
laptop use, and late assignment) in the syllabus and in class allows us to resolve
differences early and tends to reduce conflicts and tensions that may arise. Altogether,
being explicit leads to a more productive learning environment for all students. More
information on how clear learning objectives supports students' learning. (pdf)
4. Effective teaching involves prioritizing the knowledge and skills
we choose to focus on.
Coverage is the enemy: Dont try to do too much in a single course. Too many topics
work against student learning, so it is necessary for us to make decisions sometimes
difficult ones about what we will and will not include in a course. This involves (a)
recognizing the parameters of the course (e.g., class size, students backgrounds and
experiences, course position in the curriculum sequence, number of course units), (b)
setting our priorities for student learning, and (c) determining a set of objectives that
can be reasonably accomplished.
5. Effective teaching involves recognizing and overcoming our
expert blind spots.
We are not our students! As experts, we tend to access and apply knowledge
automatically and unconsciously (e.g., make connections, draw on relevant bodies of
knowledge, and choose appropriate strategies) and so we often skip or combine critical
steps when we teach. Students, on the other hand, dont yet have sufficient background
and experience to make these leaps and can become confused, draw incorrect
conclusions, or fail to develop important skills. They need instructors to break tasks into
component steps, explain connections explicitly, and model processes in detail. Though
it is difficult for experts to do this, we need to identify and explicitly communicate to
students the knowledge and skills we take for granted, so that students can see expert
thinking in action and practice applying it themselves.
6. Effective teaching involves adopting appropriate teaching roles to
support our learning goals.
Even though students are ultimately responsible for their own learning, the roles we
assume as instructors are critical in guiding students thinking and behavior. We can
take on a variety of roles in our teaching (e.g., synthesizer, moderator, challenger,
commentator). These roles should be chosen in service of the learning objectives and in
support of the instructional activities. For example, if the objective is for students to be
able to analyze arguments from a case or written text, the most productive instructor
role might be to frame, guide and moderate a discussion. If the objective is to help
students learn to defend their positions or creative choices as they present their work,
our role might be to challenge them to explain their decisions and consider alternative
perspectives. Such roles may be constant or variable across the semester depending on
the learning objectives.
7. Effective teaching involves progressively refining our courses
based on reflection and feedback.
Teaching requires adapting. We need to continually reflect on our teaching and be ready
to make changes when appropriate (e.g., something is not working, we want to try
something new, the student population has changed, or there are emerging issues in our
fields). Knowing what and how to change requires us to examine relevant information
on our own teaching effectiveness. Much of this information already exists (e.g.,
student work, previous semesters course evaluations, dynamics of class participation),
or we may need to seek additional feedback with help from the university teaching
center (e.g., interpreting early course evaluations, conducting focus groups, designing
pre- and posttests). Based on such data, we might modify the learning objectives,
content, structure, or format of a course, or otherwise adjust our teaching. Small,
purposeful changes driven by feedback and our priorities are most likely to be
manageable and effective.

What are the Seven Principles?

Encourage contact between students and faculty

Develop reciprocity and cooperation among students
Encourage active learning
 Give prompt feedback
Emphasize time on task
Communicate high expectations
Respect diverse talents and ways of learning

What are the Seven Principles?

How can undergraduate education be improved? In 1987, Arthur W. Chickering and Zelda F. Gamson
answered this question when they wrote "Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate
Education." They defined what good education means at the undergraduate level. The seven
principles are based upon research on good teaching and learning in the college setting.

These principles have been intended as a guideline for faculty members, students, and administrators
to follow to improve teaching and learning. Research for over 50 years on practical experience of
students and teachers supports these principles. When all principles are practiced, there are six other
forces in education that surface: activity, expectations, cooperation, interaction, diversity, and
responsibility. Good practices work for professional programs as well as the liberal arts. They also
work for a variety of students: Hispanic, Asian, young, old, rich, poor.

Teachers and students have the most responsibility for improving undergraduate education.
However, improvements will need to be made by college and university leaders, and state and federal
officials. It is a joint venture among all that is possible. When this does occur, faculty and
administrators think of themselves as educators that have a a shared goal. Resources become
available for students, faculty, and administrators to work together.

The goal of the seven principles is to prepare the student to deal with the real world.

Principle 1: Encourage contact between students and faculty.

Building rapport with students is very important. The contact between students and teachers are vital
to the students' success. One of the main reasons students leave school is the feeling of isolation that
they experience. The concern shown will help students get through difficult times and keep working.
Faculty have many avenues to follow to open up the lines of communication.

For the regular classroom:

Invite students to visit outside of class.

Know your students by name.
Help students with problems in their extracurricular activities.
Personalize feedback on student assignments.
Attend student events.
Advise students regarding academic courses and career opportunities.
Seek out students you feel are having a problem with the course or are frequently absent.
Encourage students to present their views and participate in class discussions.
Have regular office hours.
Help students to work with other faculty. Let them know of options, research, etc. of other faculty.
 Share personal experiences and values.
Use the one-minute paper at the end of class to get feedback on what the student is learning and
how well they are learning it.
Talk to students on a personal level and learn about their educational and career goals.

For distance and online courses:

Try computer conferencing.

Use list serves.
Clearly communicate your email response policy.
Encourage e-mail correspondence and discussion forum use, especially beneficial for those that
are shy or are from different cultures because it allows them a different avenue of communication
that might be more comfortable.
"Chat time" online with faculty (at various times, scheduled weekly).
Use pictures of faculty/students.
Visit the distance sites, if possible.
Have an on-site support person.
Maintain eye contact with camera and local students.
Arrange for group work at a distance site.

Principle in action:

A York College (PA) professor has incorporated an invitation in the syllabus to encourage contact
during office hours: "You are encouraged to stop in during office hours to talk about any problems
or suggestions you may have concerning the course; about careers (especially graduate school or
the benefits of majoring or minoring in (Insert your course here); or just about things in general. If
you want to talk to me and find the schedule hours to be inconvenient, feel free to schedule an
appointment."
Faculty at St. Norbert College, Wisconsin, use electronic mail discussion groups. Many instructors
find that the students are more willing to participate in a written discussion than to speak up in
class. The instructor monitors the discussions and participates along with the students, adding
personal perspectives and ideas to those of the students.
The Residential College of Winona State University has implemented a "living-and-learn"
environment to encourage student and faculty interaction. It is located 12 blocks from the main
campus and houses 400 students in large, mostly single rooms. Academic activities at the
Residential College include freshman seminars, sophomore common reading seminars, and an in-
resident program with notable scholars or artists participating with students in a variety of
experiences. Residential College faculty are located there and hold office hours. The interaction
between students and faculty are enhanced because of the increased interaction.

Technology, like e-mail, computer conferencing, and the World Wide Web/Internet, now gives more
opportunities for students and faculty to converse. It is efficient, convenient, and protected. It allows
more privacy so that students are able to discuss more openly without fear that other students are
going to hear. E-mail also gives student more time to think about what they want to say. With these
new alternatives to face-to-face communication, interaction from more students should increase
within the classroom.
Resources:

Building awareness and diversity into student life: Pomona College. (1991). Liberal Education, 77
(1), 38-40.
First year experience creates a community of learners: Augsburg College. (1989). Liberal
Education, 75 (5), 28-29.
Furlong, D. (1994). Using electronic mail to improve instruction. The Teaching Professor, 8 (6), 7.
O'Neill, K.L. and Todd-Mancillas, W.R. (1992). An investigation into the types of turning points
affecting relational change in student-faculty interactions. Innovative Higher Education, 16, (4),
227-290.
Wilson, R.C., Gaff, J.G., Dienst, L.W., and Bavry, J.L. (1975). College Professors and Their Impact
on Students. New York, NY: John Wiley.

Principle 2: Develop reciprocity and cooperation among students.

When students are encouraged to work as a team, more learning takes place. Characteristics of good
learning are collaborative and social, not competitive and isolated. Working together improves
thinking and understanding.

For the regular classroom:

Use cooperative learning groups

Have students participate in activities that encourage them to get to know one another.
Encourage students to join at least one organization on campus.
Assign group projects and presentations
Utilize peer tutoring.
Encourage students to participate in groups when preparing for exams and working on
assignments.
Distribute performance criteria to students is that each person's grade is independent of those
achieved by others.
Encourage students from different races and cultures to share their viewpoints on topics shared in
class.

For distance and online courses:

Use chat sites and discussion forums for student-to-student communication.

Set up teams to interact through e-mail or phone bridges with enough people at each site.
Encourage students to respond to each other's work by posting it on the internet.
Have a question and answer time online.
Use teleconferencing for idea sharing.
Encourage online discussion groups that require interaction.
Work on group projects through phone and e-mail.
Team-teach courses.
Include an "ice-breaker" activity to allow students to share their interest and to learn about others.

Principle in action:
 Students in communication courses at Miami University develop a group "code of conduct" to help
facilitate cooperative learning. A sample code is given out as a model. The sample code includes:
respect each other, criticize ideas instead of people, listen actively, seek to understand before
being understood, contribute to group discussion, keep an open mind, share responsibility, and
attend all meetings. Students are encouraged to customize the code to address other shared
concerns the group may have. Students refer to the code after each class or group session to assess
their performance and identify areas for improvement.
At Naugatuck Valley Community-Technical College, students are tested both individually and
collaboratively. Students are given a test date but are not told in which fashion they will be tested.
Group tests are highly structured and a unanimous decision must be reached for the answer. The
collaborative testing method helps students experience a sensitivity for diversity and others' point
of view; develop and refine skills in persuasion, listening, and reading; and share responsibility
and accountability. This method also reduces test anxiety among students.
In a first-year composition class at University of Minnesota students videotape themselves
discussing apprehensions before taking the course, their feelings when they received their papers
back, and what they learned from the class. Next quarter, the video is shown to new students in
the course to show that the feelings they are experiencing are shared by others and helps motivate
them to succeed.

Cooperative learning has several benefits. Students care more about their learning because of the
interdependent nature of the process. Retention is higher because there is a social and intellectual
aspect on the content material. Students also find the method more enjoyable because there is no
competition placed upon them. Cooperation, not competition, is more effective in promoting student
learning.

Resources:

Cassini, C. (1994). Collaborative testing, grading. The Teaching Professor, 8 (4), 5.

Grading student projects: A project in itself. (1994). Adapted from For Your Consideration, 3 (3),
by The Teaching Professor, 8 (2), 3-4.
Johnson, D.W. and Johnson, R.T. (1985). Cooperative Learning: Warm Ups, Grouping Strategies
and Group Activities. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Co.
McKinney, K. and Graham-Buxton, M. (1993). The use of collaborative learning groups in the
large class: Is it possible? Teaching Sociology, 21, 403-408.
Prescott, S. (1992). Cooperation and motivation. Cooperative Learning and College Teaching, 3
(1).
*Special note: The National Center on Post secondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment has
developed a source book on collaborative learning. Contact: NCTLA, Penn State University, 403 S.
Allen St. Suite 104, University Park, PA 16801.

Principle 3: Encourage active learning.

Learning is an active process. Students are not able to learn much by only sitting in classes listening to
teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignments, and churning out answers. They must be able to talk
about what they are learning, write about it, relate it to past experiences, and apply it to their daily
lives. Students need to make learning a part of themselves.

For the regular classroom:

Ask students to relate what they are learning to something in real life.
Use journaling.
Give students concrete, real-life situations to analyze.
Encourage students to suggest new reading, projects, or course activities.
Ask students to present their work to the class.
Use of simulation software to run "what-if" scenarios allows students to manipulate variables and
circumstances.
Practice role modeling and use web-based case studies to practice new thinking skills.
Encourage students to challenge your ideas, the ideas of other students, or those ideas presented
in readings or other course materials in a respectful matter.
Set up problem solving activities in small groups and have each group discuss their solutions with
the class.

For distance and online courses:

Allow flexibility in choosing material so that it is more meaningful to the learner (e.g. students
choose their own topic, project format, etc.).
Have an interactive web page.
Debate on-line.
Present students work for other students to review.
Talk about what students are learning by creating a learning group through e-mail, telephone, chat
room, or conferencing.
Use e-mail for group problem solving.

Principle in action:

At Iowa State University, history students interview prominent historical individuals during a
press conference. After the press conferences, students work in groups identifying the main ideas
and creating headlines and news articles that highlight those ideas.
Structured journal writing is a major part of several classes at Lesley College. Each journal entry
has two parts: the first paragraph emphasizes points for recall and retention; the second part
emphasizes application of the content to the student's life experience and observation.
An education professor at the University of Wisconsin-LaCrosse has created a hypothetical school
system, complete with administration, teachers, pupils, and families. The goal is to help the
students learn the legal aspects of special education. During the semester, the students take on all
roles as they participate in legal cases involving students with disabilities. Students gain an
understanding of the law as it applies to special education and students with disabilities, and they
develop a human understanding of the human side of the cases.

Promoting active learning in higher education is a struggle because of the learning background that
many students come to classes with. This is due to the fact that the norm in our nation's secondary
schools has been to promote passive learning. A large amount of information needs to be covered with
not enough time, so teachers resort to lecture in order to economize their time to cover as much
material as possible. Students progress from topic to topic with no real understanding of the content
and how it relates to their life. Effective learning is active learning. The concept of active learning has
been applied to curriculum design, internship programs, community service, laboratory science
instruction, musical and speech performance, seminar classes, undergraduate research, peer
teaching, and computer-assisted learning. The common thread between all these events is to
stimulate students to think about how they as well as what they are learning and to take more
responsibility for their own education.

Resources:

Gabennesch, H. (1992). Creating quality class discussion. The Teaching Professor, 6 (9), 5.
Hands on experience in course's focus: Temple University. (1989). Liberal Education, 75 (4), 33-
34.
Harrison-Pepper, S. (1991). Dramas of persuasion: Utilizing performance in the classroom.
Journal of Excellence in College Teaching, 2.
Interdisciplinary approach to technology. (1998). Liberal Education, 74, (2), 23-24.
Nalcolmson, P. and Myers, R. (1993). Debates: Techniques for improving student thinking. The
Teaching Professor, 7 (3) 6.

Principle 4: Give prompt feedback.

By knowing what you know and do not know gives a focus to learning. In order for students to benefit
from courses, they need appropriate feedback on their performance. When starting out, students need
help in evaluating their current knowledge and capabilities. Within the classroom, students need
frequent opportunities to perform and receive suggestions for improvement. Throughout their time in
college and especially at the end of their college career, students need chances to reflect on what they
have learned, what they still need to know, and how to assess themselves.

For the regular classroom:

Follow-up presentations with a five minute period for students to write down what they have
learned in class.
Provide informative comments that show the students' errors and give suggestions on how they
can improve.
Discuss the results of class assignments and exams with the class and individual students.
Vary assessment techniques (tests, papers, journaling, quizzes).
Offer on-line testing, software simulations, and web-based programs that provide instantaneous
feedback.
Have question and answer sessions.
Use audio and/or video recordings to assess performances.
Return grades for assignments, projects, and tests within one week.

For distance and online courses:

 E-mail gives instant feedback instead of waiting for the next lesson.
Use on-line testing, software simulations, and web-based programs that provide instantaneous
feedback.
Monitor bulletin boards regularly and give specific information feedback to students.
Use pre-class and post-class assessments.
Schedule a chat group where you, the instructor are present. Use it as a question and answer
session when appropriate.
Send acknowledgment e-mails when you receive a students work.
Post answer keys after receiving assignment from all students.
Use of hyperlinks within text to provide feedback to questions raised within the text.

Principle in action:

At the University of Scranton, a management professor, used computer scored multiple choice
tests and quizzes which allowed the professor to have the tests graded during the break that
followed the test or quiz. The students immediately received their results and were able to discuss
the exam in detail. Students were able to understand the material better through the class
discussion that occurred after the test.
Hollins College students taking the Critical Thinking course submit two copies of their papers. The
second paper is critiqued by another student.
Faculty at Winona State University in the Communication Studies Department have to evaluate as
many as 30 speeches a day. They developed a system of codes for the most common comments on
speeches. These codes were programmed into a computer program and instructors were able to
listen to the speech and type in the codes for the appropriate comments. This gave extra time to
make specific comments on the individual speech and also gave students complete and prompt
feedback on the entire speech.

The importance of feedback is so obvious that it is often taken for granted during the teaching and
learning process. It is a simple yet powerful tool to aid in the learning process. Feedback is any means
to inform a learner of their accomplishments and areas needing improvement. There are several
different forms that feedback can take. They are oral, written, computer displayed, and from any of
the interactions that occur in group learning. What is important is that the learner is informed and
can associate the feedback with a specific response.

Resources:

Brinko, K.T. (1993). The practice of giving feedback to improve teaching. Journal of Higher
Education, 64 (5), 574-593.
Dohrer, G. (1991). Do teachers comments on students' papers help? College Teaching, 39 (2), 48-
54.
Enhancing instructor-class communication. (1994). The Teaching Professor, 8 (3), 3-4.
More on student self-assessment. (1992). The Teaching Professor, 6 (10), 7.
Svinicki, M.D. Four R's of effective evaluation. (1993). Reprinted from The Center for Teaching
Effectiveness Newsletter at the University of Texas as Austin, in The Teaching Professor, 7 (9), 3-
4.
Principle 5: Emphasize time on task.

Learning needs time and energy. Efficient time-management skills are critical for students. By
allowing realistic amounts of time, effective learning for students and effective teaching for faculty are
able to occur. The way the institution defines time expectations for students, faculty, administrators,
and other staff, can create the basis for high performance from everyone.

For the regular classroom:

Expect students to complete their assignments promptly.

Clearly communicate to your students the minimum amount of time they should spend preparing
for class and working on assignments.
Help students set challenging goals for their own learning.
Have realistic expectations (don't expect 10 papers in 10 weeks).
Encourage students to prepare in advance for oral presentations.
Explain to your students the consequences of non-attendance.
Meet with students who fall behind to discuss their study habits, schedules, and other
commitments.
Be careful that time on task is real learning, not busy work.
Do not use technology for technology's sake. It must be relevant and useful to the topic.
Have progressive deadlines for projects and assignments.
Teach time management.
Discussion topics from class posted in a discussion group on the web .

For distance and online courses:

Understand that there will be problems with the distance and technology along the way.
Identify key concepts and how those will be taught. Given the amount of time, decide what
realistically can be covered.
Each distance class should involve some kind of achievement expectation that is laid out at the
beginning of the course. Assign some content for out of class time.
Give up the illusion of doing it all as you might in a regular classroom.
Vary the types of interaction. In creating an interactive environment, it can be overwhelming to
the students and teacher if the types of interaction required are too time consuming.
Consider both in and out of class time.
Make sure you know what your goals are and that the learners understand them as well.
Have regular discussions that require participation.

Principle in action:

At Fort Lewis College in Colorado they have an "Innovative Month". Students are offered a series
of five week summer domestic and foreign travel experiences that help them relate what they
learned in the classroom to real life. The groups are limited to eight to fifteen students pre faculty
member. Examples of Innovative programs include, "Management in Action", "Native American
Schools", and "Music and Theater in England".
At Lower Columbia College, the Integrative Studies Program is a block of 15 to 18 credit hours,
organized around a theme. Students enroll in "traditional" courses, ut must enroll in the full block.
This lets the faculty reorganize the day from the traditional fifty minute classes to include
 whatever schedule of lectures, seminars, conferences, and discussion groups needed to achieve
learning objectives for that week.
Wake Forest University teaches time management and study skills in their Learning Assistance
Program and in the Learning to Learn class. Through a counseling/teaching model in the Learning
Assistance Program, students are individually encouraged to learn and develop strategies to
improve their academic performance. In the Learning to Learn Course, first and second year
students study learning theory with emphasis on demonstrating how good time management and
appropriate study skills positively affect outcome.

An easy assumption to make would be that students would be more successful if they spent more time
studying. It makes sense but it over simplifies the principle of time on task. Student achievement is
not simply a matter of the amount of time spent working on a task. Even though learning and
development require time, it is an error to disregard how much time is available and how well the
time is spent. Time on task is more complicated than one might assume.

Resources:

Britton, B.K., and Tesser, A. (1991). Effects of time management practices on college grades.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 83 (3), 405-410.
Earth-sea-sky course combines art, science: Mississippi State University. (1988). Liberal
Education, 74 (2), 29-30.
Geiger, K. (1994). Rethinking school time: New, Better, and different...as well as more. The
Washington Post, June 12, 1994. p. C3.
Ludewig, L.M. (1992). The ten commandments for effective study skills. The Teaching Professor, 5
(10), 3.
Terenzini, P.T., and Pascarella, E.T. (1994). Living with myths: Undergraduate education in
America. Change, pp. 28-32.

Principle 6: Communicate high expectations.

Expect more and you will get it. The poorly prepared, those unwilling to exert themselves, and the
bright and motivated all need high expectations. Expecting students to perform well becomes a self-
fulfilling prophecy when teachers and institutions hold high standards and make extra efforts.

For the regular classroom:

Give a detailed syllabus with assignments, due dates, and a grading rubric.
Encourage students to excel at the work they do.
Give students positive reinforcement for doing outstanding work.
Encourage students to work hard in class.
Tell students that everyone works at different levels and they should strive to put forth their best
effort, regardless of what level it is.
Help students set challenging goals for their own learning.
Publicly acknowledge excellent student performance.
Revise courses when needed so students remain challenged.
Work individually with students who are struggling to encourage them to stay motivated.
 Encourage students to do their best instead of focusing on grades.

For distance and online courses:

Give a detailed syllabus with assignments, due dates, and a grading rubric.
Call attention to excellent work in bulletin board postings or class list serves.
Show examples of your expectations with previous students' work.
Publish student work.
Provide corrective feedback. State what you did and did not like.
Be a role model to students. Model the behavior and expectations that you expect from students.
Expect students to participate.
Try to make assignments interesting and relevant to create interest.
Ask students to comment on what they are doing.
Suggest extra resources that support key points.

Principle in action:

At Bellevue University (Nebraska), students in the Introductory Psychology course are given a
guide for answering essay questions on their syllabus. The suggestions are designed to provide
direction to answering a broadly stated essay question. Three exams are given throughout the
course. The list of suggestions as well as the essay question are included on the first two exams. On
the final exam, only the essay question is given. Students are allowed to practice their writing skills
until the assistance is no longer needed.
In order to understand how students at SUNY-Plattsburgh learn and develop and how the school
can help them to do so, students are required to take the College Outcomes Measures Project
examination of the American College Testing Program (ACT COMP) as freshmen and again at the
end of their sophomore year.
Clayton State College requires students to exhibit seven different writing styles. Several levels of
proficiency are present for each of the seven criteria. All students must pass writing assessments
on four different occasions.

Although it is often only discussed at the instructional level, high expectations also includes the
students' performance and behavior inside and outside the classroom. College and universities expect
students to meet their high expectations for performance in the classroom, but also expect a personal
and professional commitment to values and ethics. They include the discipline to set goals and stick
with them, an awareness and appreciation of the diversity of society, and a philosophy of service to
others.

Resources:

An American Imperative: Higher Expectations for Higher Education. An open letter to those
concerned about the American future. Report on the Wingspread group in Higher education.
(1993).
Defining what students need to know: Clayton State. (1988). Liberal Education, 74 (3), 29-30.
Gabelnick, F., MacGregor, J., Matthews, R.S., and Smith, B.L. (1990). Learning communities:
Creative connections among students, faculty, and disciplines. New Directions for Teaching and
Learning, (4), San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
 Nuhfer, E.B. (1993). Bottom line disclosure and assessment. The Teaching Professor, 7 (7), 8.
Williams, J.H. (1993). Clarifying grade expectations. The Teaching Professor, 7 (7), 1.

Principle 7: Respect diverse talents and ways of learning.

There are many different ways to learn and no two people learn the same way. Students bring
different talents and learning styles to the classroom. Students that excel in the seminar room may be
all thumbs in the lab or art studio and vice versa. Students need the opportunity to show their talents
and learn in ways that work for them. Then, they can be guided into new ways of learning that are not
as easy for them.

For the regular classroom:

Use Web technologies to allow students to pick and choose learning experiences that fits the way
they learn.
Encourage students to speak up when they do not understand.
Use diverse teaching activities and techniques to address a broad range of students.
Select readings and design activities related to the background of students.
Provide extra material or activities for students who lack essential background knowledge or skills.
Integrate new knowledge about women, minorities, and other under-represented populations into
your courses.
Use learning contracts and other activities to provide students with learning alternatives for your
courses.
Encourage students from different races and cultures to share their viewpoints on topic discussed
in class.
Use collaborative teaching and learning techniques and pair students so they compliment each
other's abilities.
Give students a problem to solve that has multiple solutions. Guide them with clues and examples.
Consider field trips.
Be familiar with Howard Gardner's research on multiple intelligences.

For distance and online courses:

Encourage students to express diverse points of view in discussions.

Create learning activities filled with real-life examples and diverse perspectives.
Provide Saturday lab experiences by contracting with local high schools or community colleges.
Some CD-Roms are available that offer a simulated lab.
Balance classroom activities for all styles (some books, some hands on, some visual).
Explain theory from a practical approach first then add the structural approach.

Principle in Action:

Realizing that students can interpret exam questions in different ways, students at Georgia State
University in the nursing program are given the chance to modify multiple choice exam questions
that they find confusing. This student input lessens test anxiety and gives the student an
opportunity to demonstrate what they know.
 Western Washington University's Fairhaven College has a cluster college with an interdisciplinary
curriculum and an emphasis is place on student-centerd approaches to teaching and learning.
At Kalamazoo College, the K Plan gives students an on and off campus study that allows them to
spend a significant amount of their time in college on career-development internships, foreign
study, and individualized projects.

The meaning of diversity is very clear from effective institutions. They embrace diversity and
systematically foster it. This respect for diversity should play a central part in university decisions, be
apparent in the services and resources available to students and resources available to students, be a
feature of every academic program, and practiced in every classroom.

Top 10 Principles of Effective Teaching

By Shaun Killian 11 Comments

Effective teaching is not about jargon, buzzwords or particular philosophies of teaching. Yet, when
you look at academics efforts to describe the principles of effective teaching, that is exactly what
you find.

Rather, effective teaching is about helping your students to achieve the best results they can at
school.

Most teachers want to help kids and to make real difference in their lives. This is what keeps them
going each day.

Thankfully, research shows that teachers do make a difference. However, some teachers make far
more difference than others do.
Source: Sanders, W. L., & Rivers, J. C. (1996). Cumulative and residual effects of teachers on
future student academic achievement: University of Tennessee Value-Added Research and
Assessment Center.

Therefore, to identify the true principles of effective teaching, you need to explore what it is that our
most successful teachers do.

There is a wealth of information available on the practices and factors that have a high impact on
student achievement. John Hattie summarised much of it in his book Visible Learning, though there
have been further meta-analyses and reviews since then.

After exploring these practices and factors, ten principles of effective teachingemerged. Here are
the ten principles of effective teaching in plain English.

10 Evidence Based Principles of Effective Teaching

Teachers that have the largest impact on their students results follow these ten principles of effective
teaching.

Principle 1: Care about helping your kids to do the best that they can
Effective teachers are passionate about helping their students to learn. They form warm and caring
relationships with their students. However, they also set high expectations, and they demand that
their students meet them. This leads to a situation where the teacher and the students are working
together towards a common goal helping every child to learn as much as they can.

Principle 2: Understand but dont excuse your students

Effective teachers seek to understand their students, but so do most teachers. The difference is that
effective teachers still expect each of their students to behave and to achieve well. Effective teachers
use their understanding to adjust their approach to teaching, but they did not use it to excuse
misbehaviour, poor effort or a lack of real academic progress.

Principle 3: Be clear about what you want your students to learn

Effective teachers are clear about what they want their students to learn and they share this with their
students. Everyone understands what success entails. Effective teachers also know where students
are currently at in this area. They then work towards developing the understanding and skills their
students need to demonstrate that they have mastered the material.

Principle 4: Disseminate surface knowledge and promote deep learning

Effective teachers want their students to be able to think critically and to develop a deep
understanding of the material being taught in class. However, they recognise developing this deep
understanding requires sharing a foundational set of knowledge and skills. Armed with this
foundation, teachers can help students to develop a deep understanding of the topic at hand.

Principle 5: Gradually release responsibility for learning

Effective teachers do not ask their students to perform tasks that they have not shown their students
how to do. Rather, they start by modelling what students need to do. They then ask their students to
have a go themselves, while being available to help as needed. Only when students are ready, do
they ask their students to perform the tasks on their own. Finally, they offer ongoing cumulative
practice, spaced out over time, to help students retain what they have learned.

Principle 6: Give your students feedback

Effective teachers give students dollops of feedback. This feedback tells students how they are going
and gives them information about how they could improve. Without feedback, students are likely to
continue holding misconceptions and making errors. Feedback allows students to adjust their
understanding and efforts before it is too late.

Principle 7: Involve students in learning from each other

Effective teachers supplement teacher-led, individual learning, with activities that involve students in
learning from each other. When done well, strategies such as cooperative learning, competition and
peer tutoring can be quite powerful. Yet, these activities must be carefully structured and used in
conjunction with more traditional teaching.

Principle 8: Manage your students behaviour

Effective teachers know that students behaviour can help or hinder how much students learn in the
classroom. They implement strategies that nurture positive behaviour and minimise misbehaviour.
They are consciously aware of what is going in the classroom, and they nip problems in the bud
before quickly returning the focus to the lesson at hand. Finally, they follow up on more serious
misbehaviour and help students to change any entrenched bad habits.

Principle 9: Evaluate the impact you are having on your students

Effective teachers regularly assess student progress, and they then use this insight to evaluate the
impact they are having on their students. If what they are doing is working, they continue to use or
even make more use of a particular approach. If what they are doing is not having the desired impact
(even for just one student), they reflect on and refine what they are doing until they are getting the
results they want.
 Principle 10: Continue learning ways that you can be of even more help to more students
Effective teachers love learning and are always seeking to improve their own practices. They seek
out evidence-based insights, and they are happy to challenge their existing beliefs about teaching.
However, they are also critical of mindless innovation, innovation for the sake of it, and innovation
that adopts practices that are not supported by research.

You can use these principles of effective teaching to reflect on your own practice, to discuss effective
teaching with colleagues or evaluate particular programs/approaches you are considering.

Carroll model of school learning

1Definition
2The Model
3Time needed to learn and quality of instruction
4Links
5References

1 Definition

In 1993, John Carroll proposed a model for school learning. Learning was defined as function of
efforts spent in relation to efforts needed. Most of the model is time based.

According to Huitt ([1]): School Learning = f(time spent/time needed). (DSchneider believes that
this definition does not capture the full model).

2 The Model

According to Reeves (1997) Carroll's model include six elements with one output variable, one input
variable and 4 intermediate variables.

Academic Achievement is the output (as measured by various sorts standard achievement
tests)

Aptitude is the main explanatory variable defined as the "the amount of time a student needs to
learn a given task, unit of instruction, or curriculum to an acceptable criterion of mastery under
optimal conditions of instruction and student motivation" (Carroll, 1989: 26). This definition of
aptitude very much reminds the principle behind mastery learning. "High aptitude is indicated
when a student needs a relatively small amount of time to learn, low aptitude is indicated when a
student needs much more than average time to learn" (Carrol: 1989: 26).

Opportunity to learn: Amount of time available for learning both in class and within homework.
Carroll (1998:26) notes that "frequently, opportunity to learn is less than required in view of the
students aptitude.

Ability to understand instruction: relates to learning skills, information needed to understand,

and language comprehension.
 Quality of instruction: good instructional design, e.g. like it is usually defined in behaviorist
frameworks like nine events of instruction. If quality of instruction is bad, time needed will
increase.

Perseverance: Amount of time a student is willing to spend on a given task or unit of instruction.
This is an operational and measurable definition for motivation for learning.

3 Time needed to learn and quality of instruction

The most important question the Carroll model (and numerous follow-up studies) raises is: What is
appropriate time needed to learn (TTL) ?
The model of school learning assumes that students differ in the amount of learning time they need.
If these differences are to be adequately taken account of, considerable skill in classroom
management is required of teachers (Carroll 1989: 29).
See also the instructional time article.
Carrol's model differs from Bloom's by seeking equality of "opportunity", not necessarily equality
of attainment. Emphasizing equality of opportunity means not only providing appropriate
opportunities to learn (appropriate, not necessarily equal for all students), but also pushing all
student's potentialities as far as possible toward their upper limits. (Carroll 1989:30). According to
Carroll, good planning is a key factor, but also good instructional design.

4 Links

Huitt, Overview of Classroom Processes / Carroll's Model of School Learning, HTML (retrieved
17:24, 23 May 2006 (MEST)).

SLAVIN'S QAIT MODEL

Citation: Huitt, W. (2000). Slavin's QAIT model. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta
State University. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/process/QAIT.html

Return to | EdPsyc Interactive |

Robert Slavin's QAIT model is a revision of John Carroll's model of school learning. In the QAIT model shown
in the Slavin (1997) text, he eliminated those elements that were not under the control of educators and kept or
redefined elements those elements that could be altered or modified by teachers. According to Slavin, all of the
elements must be present if classroom learning is to be effective.

1. Quality of instruction--Slavin defines quality of instruction as "The degree to which information or

skills are presented so that students can easily learn them" (p. 310). He presents his own view of direct
instruction and compares these to models by Gagne and Gagne and Briggs; Rosenshine and Stevens;
Madeline Hunter; and Good and Grows (p. 287). The events of instruction presented by Dr. Huitt also
represents a direct instruction model.
2. Appropriate levels of instruction--Slavin defines appropriate levels of instruction as "The degree to
which the teacher makes sure that students are ready to learn the lesson (that is, have the necessary skills
and knowledge to learn it) but have not already learned the lesson" (p. 310). Slavin has redefined
Carroll's variable ability to understand instruction which is a student characteristic and made it
a teacher classroom behavior.
3. Incentive--Slavin defines incentives as "The degree to which the teacher makes sure that students are
motivated to work on instructional tasks and to learn the material being presented" (p. 310). He has
redefined Carroll's variable perseverance which is a student classroom behavior and again made it a
teacher classroom behavior.
4. Time--Slavin defines time as "The degree to which students are given enough time to learn the material
being taught" (p. 310). This is essentially equivalent to John Carroll's variable Opportunity.

This version of Slavin's QAIT model can be contrasted with the Classroom Processes section of Huitt's
(1997) model of the teaching/learning process. The latter is a slight adaptation of the Dimensions of Classroom
Effectiveness developed by Squires, Huitt, and Segars (1983). The major difference between Slavin's and
Huitt's classroom models is that Slavin has redefined the important variables in John Carroll's model into
Teacher Classroom Behavior variables. By doing this Slavin has emphasized the importance of the classroom
teacher in arranging the conditions that will optimize student learning. However, he has simultaneously
eliminated student classroom behavior as an influence on teacher behavior.
Huitt's view of important classroom processes emphasizes the interaction between teachers and students. In this
model the subcategories of teacher behavior (planning, management and instruction) are viewed as groupings of
classroom practice that affect student behavior, especially Academic Learning Time. However, teacher behavior
is, in turn, influenced by student classroom behavior (the most important being content overlap, involvement
and success) which produces the transactional cycle that is the focus of the teaching/learning process. From this
perspective, both teachers and students are responsible for classroom learning. Teachers are responsible for
arranging conditions and students are responsible for paying attention and striving for success.

It should be noted that Huitt has included planning (getting ready for classroom activity) and management
(getting control of the classroom) as specific categories of variables that are only implicitly addressed in both
the Carroll and Slavin models. This allows the full range of teacher classroom behavior to be included and
discussed in the model.

A more complete version of Slavin's model is shown in the following diagram (Slavin, 1995).

Notice that in this version of the model, Slavin includes student characteristics as an important part of the
teaching/learning process. He also adopts the concept of intermediate outcomes as advocated by Cruickshank
(1985). However, he considers student achievement as measured by standardized tests as the only measure of
student outcomes of schooling.

While Slavin's expanded QAIT model includes student characteristics and student classroom behaviors, these
are not shown to influence teacher classroom behavior. In addition, Slavin still does not consider teacher inputs
such as Teacher Efficacy as an important category of variables to consider. He includes Content Overlap as a
component of Quality Instruction, but does not highlight it as a separate intermediary outcome measure. In
addition, he completely omits any reference to context variables such as school characteristics or processes.
In summary, Slavin's (1995) expanded QAIT model is quite similar to Carroll's (1963) model in that it considers
how student characteristics, teacher behavior, and student behavior impact school learning as measured by
standardized achievement tests of basic skills. There is nothing in these two models that are not included in
Huitt's (1997) model of the teaching/learning process. However, Huitt's model considers measures of school
learning beyond those of standardized tests of basic skills, teacher characteristics such as teacher efficacy, and
context factors such as school characteristics and processes and home environment.

1 Definitions

An 'advance organizer is a cognitive instructional strategy used to promote the learning and
retention of new information

An advance organizer is information that is presented prior to learning and that can be used by
the learner to organize and interpret new incoming information (Mayer, 2003)., cited by Advance
organizers

These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also presented at a higher
level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content of a given
organizer or series of organizers is selected on the basis of its suitability for explaining,
integrating, and interrelating the material they precede, this strategy simultaneously satisfies the
substantive as well as the programming criteria for enhancing the organization strength of
cognitive structure." (Ausubel, 1963:81) cited by Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel), retrieved
19:35, 2 October 2006 (MEST).
 An advance organizer is not an overview, but rather a presentation of information (either verbal
or visual) that are "umbrellas" for the new material to be learned. Advance Organizers, retrieved
19:35, 2 October 2006 (MEST).
The avance organizing principle is compatible with many modern instructional design models like
Merril's first principles of instruction.

2 The framework and the instructional design model

According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and
combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. A primary process in
learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive
structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel), retrieved
19:35, 2 October 2006 (MEST).

Ausubel suggests that advance organizers might foster meaningful learning by prompting the
student regarding pre-existing superordinate concepts that are already in the student's cognitive
structure, and by otherwise providing a context of general concepts into which the student can
incorporate progressively differentiated details. Ausubel claims that by presenting a global
representation of the knowledge to be learned, advance organizers might foster "integrative
reconciliation" of the subdomains of knowledge - the ability to understand interconnections among
the basic concepts in the domain. (Ausubel's Advance Organizers, retrieved 19:35, 2 October
2006 (MEST))
Advance organizers are used in good "transmissive" teaching, e.g. direct instruction. Such teaching is
different from simple rote learning, since learners are encouraged to relate new knowledge to old
knowledge (what they already know).
According to Joyce et al. (2000), the advance organizer model has three phases of activity:

Phase I (includes presentation of the advance organizer)

Clarify the aimes of the lesson

Presentation of the advance organizer
Prompting awareness of relevant knowledge
Phase II (includes making links to/from the organizer)

Presentation of the learning task or learning material

Make organization and logical order of learning material explicit
Phase III (strengthening of the cognitive organization)

Integrative reconciliation and active reception learning (e.g. the teacher can ask learners to make
summaries, to point our differences, to relate new examples with the organizer).
Elicit critical approach to subject matter (have students think about contraditions or implicit
inferences in the learning material or previous knowledge)
The simple principles behind advance organizers are that:

1. Most general ideas should be presented first in an organized way (not just a summary) and
then progressively differentiated.
 2. Following instructional materials should integrate new concepts with previously presented
information and with an overall organization.
Therefore, advance organizers present a higher level of abstraction. They are not just simple
overviews, illustrating examples etc. ! But they share with such techniques the idea, that they must be
integrated with other teaching/learning activities.
Advance organizers provide the necessary scaffolding for students to either learn new and
unfamiliar material (an expository organizer which provides the basic concept at the highest level of
generalization) or to integrate new ideas into relatively familiar ideas (a comparative organizer which
compares and contrasts old and new ideas). Ausubel contends that these organizing ideas, which
may be single concepts or statements of relationship, are themselves important content and should
be taught because they serve to organize everything that follows. Advance organizers are based on
major concepts, generalizations, principles, and laws of academic disciplines. (The Advance
Organizer, retrieved 19:35, 2 October 2006 (MEST)).

3 Variants

Novak and Gowan's hierarchical cognitive maps.

K-W-L group instructional strategy (Ogle)

4 Technology

concept maps or other kinds of concept drawings

Text and talk passages

USING ADVANCE ORGANIZERS

Educational researchers have shown that the activation of prior knowledge is critical
to learning of all types. You can view (and print, if you like) this information,
organized in a cluster map.

The theories and research-backing described in this outline is derived from my notes
from chapters 6 & 10 from Classroom Instruction that Works by Robert J. Marzano,
Debra J. Pickering, and Jane E. Pollock.

WHAT IS AN ADVANCE ORGANIZER?

an instructional unit that is used before direct instruction, or before a new

topic; this is sometimes called a hook, set induction, or anticipatory set
popularized by David Ausubel, first in 1968
introduced in advance of direct instruction
presented at a higher level of abstraction than the information presented later
designed to bridge the gap between what the learner already knows and what she
needs to know
use of advance organizers has shown, through several research studies, to
improve levels of understanding and recall
HOW DO I USE ADVANCE ORGANIZERS?

should focus on what is important, and essential

"higher level" (more abstract) organizers produce deeper learning than "lower
level" (more concrete) advanced organizers (analysis, synthesis vs. knowledge,
comprehensionsee Bloom's Taxonomy)
different types of advanced organizers produce different results

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ADVANCE ORGANIZERS?

Expository
simply describes the new content
Narrative
presents new information in a story format
Skimming
skimming material before reading can be a powerful organizer
Graphical Organizers
effective with all types of organizers: pictographs, descriptive patterns,
concept patterns, etc.

BENEFITS OF TECHNOLOGY USED WITH GRAPHIC AND ADVANCE ORGANIZERS

Fluid and Dynamic

Diagrams can be easily manipulated and updated
Diagrams can be begun through a teacher template and completed by the
student
Resource Saving
using a digital medium saves in paper and copier costs
teachers can review student cues with a computer sometimes easier than
using paper
Organizer can extend into the Direct Instruction
saved organizers can be used throughout a lesson, or for review at a later
time
Organizer can Adapt Easily into Notetaking and Summarization
the graphic organizer can serve as a model for later organizational skills
students may complete

USING IMAGERY KNOWLEDGE

Allan Paivio's Dual-Coding Theory of Information Storage [link 1, link 2, link 3]

proposes that knowledge is stored in two forms:

Linguistic Form
most widely used in schools today
involves writing and speaking
Nonlinguistic, or "imagery" form
mental pictures
 physical sensations: smell, taste, touch, sound, kinesthetic associations
explicitly engaging students in the creation of nonlinguistic
representations stimulates and increases activity in the brain

HOW TO TAP INTO IMAGERY KNOWLEDGE

a variety of activities produce imagery representations:

creating graphic representations
making physical models
generating mental pictures
drawing pictures and pictographs
engaging in kinesthetic activities
Imagery Activities should elaborate on knowledge
students understand a topic in greater depth
students can recall information more easily

CREATING GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

Graphic Organizers combine the linguistic and non-linguistic modes of information

storage

Descriptive Patterns
Time-Sequence Patterns
Process/Cause-Effect Patterns
Episode Patterns
Generalization/Principle Patterns
Concept Patterns

Other Imagery Methods

Physical Models
Mental Pictures
Drawing Pictographs
Engaged MotionKinesthetic Activity

EXAMPLES OF GRAPHICAL AND ADVANCE ORGANIZERS

The following examples pair an advanced and/or graphical organizer with a Virginia
SOL. These are all designed with the following guidelines:

The activity is not the major focus of the lesson in itself

If used as an advanced organizer, more abstract concepts have purposely been
included.
A variety of methods can be used to implement advanced and graphical
organizers, including computer technology

Example 1
 SOL 3.11Science
Resource: Web Link: Energy.gov Kids Zone

Students covering this SOL investigate different types of energy sources, consider
renewable and nonrenewable energy sources, and identify uses of energy. A lesson
on this topic could involve a visit to the site linked above, where student essays are
published on these topics.

The organizer used here is skimming. Students skim the webpage for a limited
period of time, then discuss answers to questions in small groups. Questions to
consider? "How can we (personally) save energy on a typical school day? Why do we
keep using more energy each year? How could we save money at home?

Example 2

SOL K5Science
Resource: Teacher-Created AppleWorks Template

Students in Kindergarten must identify the different forms of water: solid, liquid,
and gas. The organizer in this case is drawing. The teacher designs a template in
AppleWorks drawing mode by creating three Paint areas. Students will use the
computer to draw a picture in each area that includes one of the three states of
water. Colors around the box are used to identify which state of matter goes where,
and a helpful graphic from AppleWorks' clippings was added to give the students
some "inspiration."

This activity could also be printed out, and drawing and coloring could take place on
paper. The act of drawing is kinesthetic.
 Download the AppleWorks Template

Example 3

SOL 2.8Social Studies

Resource: Acting Out, iMovie; Play money

Students in the second grade must discriminate between barter exchange and
money exchange for goods and services. This organizer is multi-part. First, a
teacher might act-out, or role play with a student, a trade for his pencil. Later, when
the student needs the pencil, he can "buy" it back from the teacher using play
money.

Next, at a different time, students in small groups will act out the differences
between exchange through the use of barter and money. Skits will be recorded by
the teacher on video tape.

Finally, at a later stage, students will edit the footage of video set up for them on
the computer using iMovie. Students can use voice-overs in the editing process to
define the difference between bartering and money use. This activity
is kinesthetic and involves the manipulation of multimedia (imagery
knowledge) to discriminate between the two types of exchange.
 The video product may be used in a student portfolio assessment by the instructor,
if so desired. A pictograph (as seen above) may be used to show the sequence of
events required to produce a video, if so desired.

Example 4

SOL 6.8Science
Resource: Inpsiration or AppleWorks, MS Office

Students in the sixth grade investigate life processes of organisms. This activity
encourages students to think abstractly, and would make an excellent advanced
organizer after some study of SOL 6.8 had taken place.

This is an adapted Process/Cause-Effect Organizer

Download the Inspiration Template
 Three life processes are listed in this diagram, obviously these will be studied this
day in class. Without life processes we would die. How do humans adapt when these
processes are in jeopardy?

Students will fill-out the "preventions" in the diagram, providing the answers such
as "antibiotics, adoption," or "IV fluids." Students can produce this diagram, or
complete a teacher-generated template, using a variety of software. Inspiration
makes this type of diagramming a breeze. Inspiration also comes with many pre-
made graphic organizer templates.

Example 5

SOL 4.3English/Language Arts

Resources: Inpsiration or AppleWorks, MS Office

ENG SOL 4.3 requires students to know the differences between synonyms and
antonyms and to know what homonyms are. This graphical organizer is a concept
pattern organizer.

Download the Inspiration File

 This graphic organizer can be used in many different waysas an informal
assessment tool, as a cue tool, as an advance organizer, or a collaborative
activity. Concept Pattern Organizers begin with a concept in the center
(synonyms and antonyms). Characteristics branch-away from the main concept.
Under each characteristic (in this case, a definition), examples branch away.
Students may fill in any number of parts on this diagram, or, fit the words into a
diagram themselves.

The use of more abstact pairs here (terrible, wonderful; serious, silly) qualifies this
as an advance organizer.

COMPUTER- BASED ORGANIZATIONAL TOOLS

Appleworks
Drawing and Painting
Presentations
Inspiration/Kidspiration
Outline Mode
Diagram Mode
iMovie
Manipulation of Digital Pictures and Digital Video
Filming of Digital Video
iPhoto
Kinesthetic Activities Captured
Pictographs
Microsoft Office (Word, PowerPoint, Excel)
Organizational Charts
Drawing Tools
Internet and Web-Formatted Media
Quicktime Streaming Video
Teacher-Supplied Web Documents
Information Gathering for Advanced Organizers (charts, skimming)
Write Design Online Website
Teach-o-logy Website
California SCORE Graphic Organizers
PS Print's Collection of Graphic Organizer Templates

What are some examples of advance organizers?

Advance organizers can present themselves in a plethora of ways. These can include anything from
skimming the reading material to the use of graphic organizers.
1. Narrative
2. Expository
3. Skimming
4. Graphic Organizers
5. KWL Chart
Narrative

This type of advance organizer presents new information in the format of a story. For example, a
teacher will provide the main and important concepts of the lesson by telling a story that includes
these concepts.

Expository

This type of advance organizer is used to present new or detailed information as oppposed to making
connections with previously introduced information.

Skimming

Skimming is when the teacher provides the learners with the opportunity to skim over the information
that is about to be introduced, focusing on highlighted information (headings).

Graphic Organizers

Graphic Organizers are used as a method of presenting information in the visual realm. They are
efficient because they highlight and focus on just the important aspects and they also show
relationships between necessary information. Graphic Organizers take on a plethora of avenues and
looks, but the two most utilized are Venn Diagrams and Concept Mapping.

Here is an example of a Venn Diagram used to show relationships

Here is an example of a concept map using only graphics

KWL Chart

A KWL chart is a type of advance organizer that can be used at any age and for any subject matter.
This particular chart has three steps:
1. What the learner already knows about the subject matter
2. What the learner wants to know about the subject matter
3. What the learner learned
The first two steps take place before instruction. These steps allow the teacher to activate prior
knowledge and get the students to ask questions and be active particpants. The third step is the last
step of instruction, the culmination of the lesson. Through this step, the learners reflect on what they
learned and if their questions were answered.

Below is an example of what a KWL chart looks like.

 Videos of advance organizers being used- under construction

If this link does not work properly, please cut and paste it into your web browser.
http://newali.apple.com/ali_sites/deli/exhibits/1000328/Advanced_Organizers.html

Unit 2 Activity

1. Reflect upon what you learned about advance organizers. Go back to the introduction activity; was
what you already knew accurate? Were your questions answered?

Go to UNIT 3- Culimating Activities

At a Glance

Multisensory instruction teaches to more than one sense at a time.

 Many reading programs for struggling readers use multisensory teaching methods.
Multisensory instruction gives kids more than one way to make connections and learn concepts.

Kids learn in many different ways. Some do best with information they hear. Others may find it easiest
to learn by seeing something. Multisensory instruction is a term schools use to describe ways of
teaching that engage more than one sense at a time.

How does multisensory instruction work?

Learning often relies on a childs sight to look at text and pictures and to read information. It also
relies on a childs hearing to listen to what the teacher is saying.

Multisensory teaching isnt just limited to reading and listening. Instead, it tries to use all of the
senses. Every lesson wont use all of a childs senses (taste, smell, touch, sight, hearing
and movement). But in most multisensory lessons, students engage with the material in more than
one way.

For example, lets say your childs class is studying apples. Your child might have the chance to
visually examine, touch, smell and taste applesinstead of just reading and listening to his teacher
speak about how they grow. Then he might hold a halved apple and count the number of seeds
inside, one by one.

Thats multisensory teaching. It conveys information through things like touch and movementcalled
tactile and kinesthetic elementsas well as sight and hearing.

What subjects is multisensory instruction used for?

Many programs designed to help struggling readers include a multisensory approach (in addition to
other components). OrtonGillingham pioneered this approach. Programs like these very deliberately
use sight, sound, movement and touch to help kids connect language to words.

For example, one of the techniques the Wilson Reading System uses is a sound-tapping system.
Students tap out each sound of a word with their fingers and thumbs to help them break the words
down.

The Barton Reading Program materials include color-coded letter tiles that help students connect
sounds to letters.

But multisensory instruction is used to teach other subjects, too. Some grade school math programs
use manipulatives (small objects like interlocking cubes or shape blocks) to help kids do math.

Science labs, in which kids perform experiments, write down the steps and report their findings, are
multisensory learning experiences.

Even songs and chants that teach things like the days of the week or the names of the states are
examples of multisensory learning.
 Who can benefit from multisensory instruction?

All kids can benefit from multisensory lessons, including kids who dont have learning and attention
issues. If a student learns something using more than one sense, the information is more likely to
stay with him.

But multisensory learning can be particularly helpful for kids with learning and attention issues. For
example, these kids may have trouble with visual or auditory processing. That can make it hard for
them to learn information through only reading or listening.

Using multiple senses gives these (and other) kids more ways to connect with what theyre learning.
This type of hands-on learning can make it easier for students to:

Collect information
Make connections between new information and what they already know
Understand and work through problems
Use nonverbal problem-solving skills

Multisensory instruction helps kids tap into their learning strengths to make connections and form
memories. And it allows them to use a wider range of ways to show what theyve learned.

Multisensory teaching takes into account that different kids learn in different ways. It helps meet the
varying needs of all kidsnot just those with learning and attention issues. And by providing multiple
ways to learn, it gives every kid in the class a chance to succeed.

Key Takeaways

Kids with learning and attention issues can have trouble learning through just reading or listening.

Multisensory instruction can help kids learn information more effectively.

All kids can benefit from multisensory instruction.
Multisensory instruction is a way of teaching that engages more than one sense at a time. For
kids with reading issues like dyslexia, the use of sight, hearing, movement and touch can be
helpful for learning. Here are a few of many possible examples of multisensory techniques
teachers use to help struggling readers.

1.2kFound this helpful


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Sand or Shaving Cream Writing

This activity allows students to use sight, touch and sound to connect letters and their sounds.
Students start with a handful of sand on a cookie sheet or a dollop of shaving cream on a
table.

Then they spread out the sand or shaving cream and use their finger to write a letter or word in
it. As they write, students say the sound each letter makes. They then blend those sounds
together and read the whole word aloud.

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Air Writing

Air writing (also called skywriting) reinforces the sound each letter makes through muscle
memory. It can also help reinforce letter forms that are commonly confused, like b and d.
Students use two fingers as a pointer (keeping elbows and wrists straight) to write letters in the
air. They say the sound each letter makes as they write it.

Theyre also encouraged to imagine the letter as they write it. Teachers may have students
pretend theyre writing in a certain color, for instance.

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Sandpaper Letters

Using letters cut out of sandpaper helps students retain a tactile (touch) memory of letters and
their sounds. Students trace each letter with their fingers while saying the sound of the letter
out loud. Teachers may use sandpaper letters to help students feel the shape of the letters as
they write.

Students can also arrange sandpaper letters on a table to spell out star or sight words. Then
they lay a long piece of regular paper on top and color over the letters like a gravestone
rubbing.

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Word Building

Word building can be done with tiles or magnetic letters. The Barton Reading Program uses
color-coded tiles in various ways to help kids connect sounds with letters. Students can also
use magnetic letters in which vowels are one color and consonants another.

Students say each letters sound as they lay it down. When theyve built the word, they read it
out loud.

Download your own color-coded word-building tiles.


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Read It, Build It, Write It

This technique to teach sight words can be done with a group or one-on-one. Students have a
piece of paper with three boxes on it, labeled Read, Build, and Write. They also have
cards with sight words, magnetic letters (or tiles) and a marker.

Students and the teacher read the sight word thats in the Read box. Then they build the
word in the Build box, using their letters. Finally, they practice writing it in the Write box.

Download your own Read It, Build It, Write It mat.


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Tapping Out Sounds

Tapping gives students a way to feel and hear how sounds are segmented and blended to
make words. The Wilson Reading System pioneered this technique, in which students break
down and blend word sounds by tapping out each sound with their fingers and thumb.

Take the word cat. Students tap an index finger to their thumb as they say the k sound. They
tap their middle finger as they say the short a sound. And they tap their ring finger to their
thumb as they say the t sound.

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Story Sticks

Story sticks can help students who struggle with reading comprehension to visualize the
elements of a story. Teachers use a different color craft stick to represent each element. Red
sticks might ask the question, Who are the characters? while blue sticks ask, What is the
setting?

While reading together with a teacher, students may be handed a stick and asked to answer
the question on it. Or they may be asked to highlight the elements of a printed story using the
proper colors.

Print and create your own story sticks.


 8 of 8
Multisensory teaching is effective for all students. In general, it means presenting all information to
students via three sensory modalities: visual, auditory, and tactile. Visual presentation techniques
include graphic organizers for structuring writing and pictures for reinforcing instruction; auditory
presentation techniques include conducting thorough discussions and reading aloud; tactile presentation
techniques include manipulating blocks and creating paragraphs about objects students can hold in their
hands. Overall, implementing a multisensory approach to teaching is not difficult; in fact, many teachers
use such an approach. It is important, however, to be aware of the three sensory modes and to plan to
integrate them every day.

Skinner's Teaching Machine and Programmed Learning Theory

Nichole Wleklinski

In 1954 B.F. Skinner embarked upon a series of studies designed to improve teaching methods for spelling,
math, and other school subjects by using a mechanical device that would surpass the usual classroom
experience. He believed the classroom had disadvantages because the rate of learning for different students was
variable and reinforcement was also delayed due to the lack of individual attention. Since personal tutors for
every student was usually unavailable, Skinner developed a theory of programmed learning that was to be
implemented by teaching machines.

The teaching machine is composed of mainly a program, which is a system of combined teaching and test items
that carries the student gradually through the material to be learned. The "machine" is composed by a fill-in-the-
blank method on either a workbook or in a computer. If the subject is correct, he/she gets reinforcement and
moves on to the next question. If the answer is incorrect, the subject studies the correct answer to increase the
chance of getting reinforced next time.

The teaching machine is merely a device for presenting the set of frames of which the program is composed.
However, it is not supplementary but all-inclusive. The program will do all the teaching through a
response/reward mechanism. Skinner also noted that the learning process should be divided into a large number
of very small steps and reinforcement must be dependent upon the completion of each step. Skinner suggested
that the machine itself should not teach, but bring the student into contact with the person who composed the
material it presented. He believed this was the best possible arrangement for learning because it took into
account the rate of learning for each individual student.

The machine is a laborsaving device because it can bring one programmer into contact with an infinite number
of students. Skinners programmed instruction became a major education and commercial enterprise that
flourishes today.

Modern Applications with Skinner's Programmed Learning Theory

Teaching machine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 Skinner's teaching machine, a mechanical device to control student progress in programmed
instruction

Teaching machines were originally mechanical devices. They presented educational materials and
taught students. They were first invented by Sidney L. Pressey in the mid-1920s.[1] His machine
originally administered multiple-choice questions. The machine could be set so it moved on only
when the student got the right answer. Tests showed that learning had taken place. [2][3][4][5] This was
an example of how knowledge of results causes learning. Much later, Norman Crowder developed
the Pressey idea further.[6][7]
B.F. Skinner was responsible for a different type of machine called GLIDER, which used his ideas on
how learning should be directed with positive reinforcement.[8] Skinner advocated the use of teaching
machines for a broad range of students (e.g., preschool aged to adult) and instructional purposes
(e.g., reading and music). The instructional potential of the teaching machine stemmed from several
factors: it provided automatic, immediate and regular reinforcement without the use of aversive
control; the material presented was coherent, yet varied and novel; the pace of learning could be
adjusted to suit the individual. As a result, students were interested, attentive, and learned efficiently
by producing the desired behavior, "learning by doing".[9][10]
There is extensive experience that both methods worked well, and so did programmed learning in
other forms, such as books.[11] The ideas of teaching machines and programmed learning provided
the basis for later ideas such as open learning and computer-assisted instruction.

Illustrations of early teaching machines can be found in the main sourcebook. [12]
Teaching machine

DEVICE

WRITTEN BY:

The Editors of Encyclopdia Britannica

See Article History

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balance
clock
computer
drilling machinery
 lubrication
machine
particle accelerator
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simple machine
Teaching machine, any mechanical device used for presenting a program of instructional material.
There are many types of teaching machines. In general, they all work on the same method, which is to present a
question, have the user indicate the answer, and then provide the user with the correct answer. Some machines
may be extremely simple, such as test sheets or books so programmed that the student locates the answers to the
questions later. For instance, a book may pose a series of questions, provide spaces for the answers, and then
give the correct answers on a different page. Another device may use a plastic cover to hide all but the question
and the space for an answer; when the question is answered, the cover is pulled down to reveal the correct
answer and the next question. One type uses chemically treated paper so that if the correct answer to a question
is marked, the paper turns colour. A more complicated machine presents multiple-choice questions in a window,
with various keys to press to indicate the correct answer. The following question appears only if the correct
answer was chosen. Computers (see computer-assisted instruction) and the recording equipment used in foreign
language laboratories are examples of teaching machines.
All teaching machines depend on a program, that is, a series of questions presented that provide a student with a
certain amount of challenge as well as a chance to learn. (See programmed learning.) There are many
advantages to the use of teaching machines. They are particularly useful in subjects that require drill, such as
arithmetic or a foreign language. Users can proceed at their own pace and also have an opportunity to review
their work. If the machines are used in a classroom, they relieve teachers of some of the time-consuming aspects
of drilling students, allowing them to give more attention to individuals with specific problems or to concentrate
on some particularly difficult area of instruction.

LEARN MORE in these related articles:

programmed learning

educational technique characterized by self-paced, self-administered instruction presented in logical sequence

and with much repetition of concepts. Programmed learning received its major impetus from the work done in
the mid-1950s by the American behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner and is based...

READ MORE
B.F. Skinner

His experiences in the step-by-step training of research animals led Skinner to formulate the principles of
programmed learning, which he envisioned to be accomplished through the use of so-called teaching
machines. Central to his approach is the concept of reinforcement, or reward. The student, learning by use of
the machine at his own pace, is rewarded for responding correctly to questions...

READ MORE

computer-assisted instruction (CAI)

a program of instructional material presented by means of a computer or computer systems.

What is a language lab

Modern language labs are known by many names, digital language lab, multimedia
language lab, language media center and multimedia learning center to name but a
few. View the video and read the text below to learn more.

Modern language labs in general offer the following

Text, images, audio and video can easily be integrated; teachers can alter materials to fit their
requirements
Learners can record their own voice and play back the recordings, interact with each other and
the teacher, and store results
Teachers can intervene and control the learners computers via the teachers console, track of
learners work, etc.
Self-access for independent learning which includes access to resources outside class

The purpose of a language lab is to involve students to actively participate in language learning
exercises and get more practice than otherwise possible in a traditional classroom environment.

Common components in a modern language lab:

Teacher has a computer with appropriate software for conducting language exercises
Teacher and students wear headsets that block outside sounds and disturbances
Students have a media player/recorder for listening to audio and recording speech
Teacher and student positions are connected via LAN (local area network), in some cases also
via separate audio cabling
A server computer or a separate storage device is often used to store lesson materials in a
digital format

Why use a language lab in language teaching?

In an average foreign-language class, all students combined speak only 23,5% of the class time (DESI
2006, pg. 48-49).
In a 45-minute long class 23,5% equals approximately 10 minutes. As this number is the speaking
time of all students put together, the time each student gets to practice speaking becomes less as class
size is increased.
How much speaking practice each student gets during a 45-minute foreign-language class, depending
on class size:

10 student class 30 student class

Traditional classroom ~1 minute ~21 seconds

Classroom with language lab ~11 minutes* ~11 minutes*

With a language lab, all students in the class can speak simultaneously without distracting
each other regardless of the class size. Without a language lab, in a class of more than 10 students,
each student gets less than one minute of speaking practice.
Language Lab o Have the self evaluation: the students
Language laboratory is an audio-visual can do a periodical self evaluation to
installation used in modern teaching methods to measure the progress as well as
learn the foreign languages. Perhaps the first lab evaluate his/her language with that of
was at the University of Grenoble. In the 1950s the expert.
up until the 1990s, they were tape based systems
using reel to reel or (latterly) cassette. But the o Independent learning: access to
current installations are generally multimedia resources beyond the timetable
computers. The language lab is a technological encourages independent learning.
break for imparting skills in English. The
language lab offers an exclusive result oriented o Janitor for learners: It care takes the
and efficient to enrich the English language learners to become skilled at the
learning process. The multimedia based language that they are learning.
language lab helps to learn and enhance the
language proficiency by sharing the course o Kaput the fear: The automated
materials with in a second where the teacher and learning environment removes ones
the students involved effortlessly. The language fear and creates a happy learning
lab is developed on the methodology of LSRW situation. Learn the need: The lab
skills. fulfills the need of the learner that is
learning the language skills in an
With the most advance computer effective way.
hardware performance and multimedia
technology, pure software solution will become o Medium of interactivity: The students
more and more common. Most of the software can record their own voice and play
companies with the experience in teaching back the recordings, interact with the
software, providing pure software based each other and the teacher, and store
language lab solution. It contains the following the results.
advantages: Using Function Oriented design
concept, divided teaching method, with the user-
friendly interface, user can use it easily. By Today's educational climate is
using professional sound technology with videoincreasingly diverse. Art has long been seen
broadcasting function, the language lab provides
as a visual language. The language lab plays a
a rich environment to learn the language. Break
key role to learn the foreign language in a
through the traditional teaching method with the
happy atmosphere and in a successful way.
rich teaching material contents, the digital Both the teacher and the students inputs are
language lab motivates students learning very important in this kind of learning
attitude, providing an interactive learning activity. The efforts of the both make the
environment. above points victorious. The computers are
just an aid and not a solution. The well
Advantages and Benefits of Language Lab planned contents and practice help the
learners learn the language very quickly.
o Auditory Oriented: The direct sound Though the language lab is believed as self
transmission gives step by step guidance learning accessible, we need an expert to
from the teacher to the heads of the handle the classes. Multicultural countries
students with crystal clear clarity. like India, students are taking taut try to learn
the English language and its proficiency. So
o Better Attention: The Lab software is we need a solution that facilitates the second
more attention enthralling for the language learning in a trouble-free way.
students, where they are engaged with
individual systems. Foreign language learning lends itself
naturally to the use of media. The content that
 o Comprehensive quickly: The Lab is now used in the new language labs is much
increases the pace of comprehension as richer and self authored or free: now not just
students coaching is purely based on the audio, but video, flash based games, internet
level of study. etc and the speed and variety of the delivery
of media from teacher to student, student to
o Damper the idea: The Lab regulates the teacher, is much quicker and therefore much
language through the different thoughts more engaging for both teacher and student.
created in the mind of the students.
The students feel different when they
o Effective learning: The lab provides to learn in different atmosphere. Apart from the
learn the foreign language practice in a traditional classroom, lab creates an easy
focused setting that eliminates the atmosphere. Language lab plays a pivotal role
feelings of self-consciousness. in learning the spoken English. The basic
proficiency in spoken English is imparted to
o Focus Veracity: By using text, audio and students through the language lab.
video can easily be integrated with
actuality in every day situations. It is concluded that the language lab is
the solution and need of the hour to learn the
o Guide the group: It is easy to guide the English language. The quality of the language
groups by monitoring each student proficiency will be more when they learn it
independently without disturbing the from the multimedia, digital and
others students. computerised Language Lab. We need some
trained expert to teach the faculties to know
how to handle the language lab and the
students in a proper way.

Surely language laboratories represent

the single largest investment and installment
of audio resources in education. By high merit
of its unique equipment and its unambiguous
pedagogy, it stands alone. The computer now
fulfills all the need of language educators and
gives life to language for many learners.

Does Teacher Customization Improve Student Learning?

By Joshua Littenberg-Tobias, Ph.D.

June 16, 2016

A key principle of CCEs Massachusetts Personalized Learning Network is Personalized Learning

Pathways - the idea that students experiences in school should be customized to meet their personal
learning needs. To accomplish this successfully, teachers need the freedom to modify their instruction
to support students personalized learning and academic growth.
There is a long-running debate in education circles about the benefits of teacher customization
having teachers modify the content and structure of existing lesson plans. Proponents argue that
providing teachers the freedom to customize lessons allows teachers to build off of their existing
knowledge of students content understanding and modify the content to meet the needs of different
types of learners (Apkinar & Ball, 2006; Boschman, McKenny, & Voogt, 2014). Critics, however,
contend that teachers who are not well-versed in the content and pedagogical goals of the curriculum
may make changes that undermine student learning (Davis et al., 2011; Remillard, 1999).

I recently completed a study with my co-authors Elham Beheshti (Northwestern University) and
Carolyn Staudt (Concord Consortium) that examined whether teacher customization benefited
student learning. We focused on science teachers who were participating in a program created by
Concord Consortium that was designed to introduce probes, sensors, and computer-based models
into low-resource classrooms. In addition to the classroom resources, teachers were able to access
an online lesson portal containing over 150 science lessons that use probes, sensors, and models to
teach scientific concepts.
Teachers in the program were given a choice about how to teach the lessons to students. They could
have presented the lessons as is to students without making any changes, or they could customize
the lesson using tools that were already integrated into the lesson portal.

My co-authors and I compared the learning outcomes for students who completed customized
lessons to those who completed the standard lessons. Both sets of students significantly improved in
their science knowledge, but the students who completed the customized lessons had an increase
that was more than double the size of those who did the standard lessons.

To better understand this finding, we took a closer look at a few teachers who had customized
lessons and whose students had above average gains in science knowledge. These teachers made
changes that improved the quality of the lesson: providing opportunities for students to revisit
predictions, offering different learning modalities, and bridging different scientific concepts.

We also looked at a teacher who customized a lesson but whose students had below-average gains
in scientific knowledge. This teacher made changes to the lesson that made it less effective, for
example, asking students to predict an outcome from an experiment without providing enough
contextual information to make an informed prediction.

These findings add some nuance to the debate over the effectiveness of teacher customization.
While some teachers made changes that likely improved the quality of the lesson, others made
changes that may have undermined student learning. This suggests that teacher
customization can improve student learning, but it requires certain skills and experience to do it
effectively. In particular, inexperienced teachers or those teachers who are not yet comfortable with
their content area may need additional support to effectively customize lessons. These teachers
might look to other educators, either in their school or through their educator networks, to help them
think about effective ways to customize their lessons.

Our MA Personalized Learning Network team is currently busy developing and presenting
professional development for educators, through in-person coaching and online training, to support
teachers in personalizing instruction for students. The results from this study will provide important
guidance to our staff as we seek to make a significant, positive impact in our approach to
personalizing teaching and learning throughout the state.

Importance of Effective Teacher Training

 Why Effective Teacher Training is Key to Teaching Success

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by Melissa Kelly

Updated February 21, 2017

Every four years, candidates for the presidency tout their plans on how they are going to fix the
problems of education. One of the many educational problems that some states face is teacher
shortages, particularly in the areas of science and math. One way that some areas have dealt with
these shortages is by providing a fast track towards teacher certification for individuals who are
coming from different fields. For example, an engineer might decide to become a teacher and is given
a different path towards certification than a student just finishing up their undergraduate degree. The
question then becomes, is this a successful model for creating new teachers?

The following items look at why it is so important for all teachers to have effective teacher training
programs. The sad truth is that not all programs are created equal. To provide new teachers with the
greatest chance of success, they need to have completed a teacher preparation program that provides
them with knowledge, experience, and guidance. When this does not happen, we not only risk
teachers leaving the profession quickly, but more importantly, we risk the education of entire classes
of students.

01

of 05

Helps Prevent Failure

izusek/Getty Images

New teachers have many challenges that they face each day. Effective teacher training helps prepare
new teachers for these challenges. While teacher training and student teaching won't completely
prepare new teachers for every issue they will face, it can help them feel more confident about many
common problems that arise for teachers each day. Without this background, teachers might feel like
failures and eventually give up.

02

of 05
Helps Avoid Teacher Burnout

Effective teacher training programs will address teacher burnout. First, it helps new teachers to
understand what can lead to teacher burnout. In some cases, this is just the stress of daily teaching.
However, it can also be caused by not varying the information and methods of teaching enough.
Teacher training programs that focus on particular subject areas like social studies or mathematics
can help students learn about different ways in which a subject can be presented.

03

of 05

Provides An Understanding Of The Benchmarks For Achievement

Many inexperienced teachers focus on getting students to memorize and regurgitate success.
However, does this show true student achievement? Without a background to what does and does not
constitute authentic student learning, new teachers sometimes create lessons that don't lead to the
results they were expecting. However, teacher preparation programs can help students understand
how to find and apply effective benchmarks for student achievement.

04

of 05

Provides Supported Practice In A Controlled Environment

When it comes to teaching, reading a book is not enough. Even hearing teachers talk about teaching
methods is not enough. New teachers need practice teaching combined with effective mentoring in
order to help them understand what is required from them in their new position. This happens
through student teaching in the classroom setting. However, it is imperative that student teachers are
placed in appropriate classes that meet their interests. Further, the supervising teacher must be
involved and provide feedback each day to help student teachers learn.

05

of 05

Stops Costly Experimenting On Students

While all teachers experiment with new lessons and techniques from time to time, teachers without
proper training will often try things that education might have taught them would not work. This
experimenting comes at a cost in terms of student learning. As most teachers know, it is very easy to
lose your students at the beginning of a term. If you do exhibit competence, fairness, and consistency
from the beginning, you risk losing respect and interest. The ultimate cost of this failure is in what the
student will not achieve in the classroom.

Great teachers help create great students. In fact, research shows that an inspiring and informed
teacher is the most important school-related factor influencing student achievement, so it is critical to
pay close attention to how we train and support both new and experienced educators.
VIDEO: Teacher-Preparation Overview: A Survey of Top Programs

Running Time: 9 min.

Teacher Preparation
The best teacher-preparation programs emphasize subject-matter mastery and provide many
opportunities for student teachers to spend time in real classrooms under the supervision of an
experienced mentor. Just as professionals in medicine, architecture, and law have opportunities to
learn through examining case studies, learning best practices, and participating in internships,
exemplary teacher-preparation programs allow teacher candidates the time to apply their learning of
theory in the context of teaching in a real classroom.

Many colleges and universities are revamping their education schools to include an emphasis on
content knowledge, increased use of educational technologies, creation of professional-development
schools, and innovative training programs aimed at career switchers and students who prefer to earn
a degree online.

Teacher-Induction Programs
Support for beginning teachers is often uneven and inadequate. Even if well prepared, new teachers
often are assigned to the most challenging schools and classes with little supervision and support.
Nearly half of all teachers leave the profession in their first five years, so more attention must be paid
to providing them with early and adequate support, especially if they are assigned to demanding
school environments.

Mentoring and coaching from veteran colleagues is critical to the successful development of a new
teacher. Great induction programs create opportunities for novice teachers to learn from best
practices and analyze and reflect on their teaching.

Ongoing Professional Development

It is critical for veteran teachers to have ongoing and regular opportunities to learn from each other.
Ongoing professional development keeps teachers up-to-date on new research on how children
learn, emerging technology tools for the classroom, new curriculum resources, and more. The best
professional development is ongoing, experiential, collaborative, and connected to and derived from
working with students and understanding their culture. Return to our Teacher Development page to
learn more.
Classroom Challenges

CLASSROOM CHALLENGES OVERVIEW

Sometimes, particular students may cause you problems in class, without warranting major
negotiation or intervention. A few common situations, and ways to work them out, are discussed
below.

PREVENTING CONFLICT
A sensitive approach to your work with students can save you from many problems.

By phrasing questions and criticism carefully, you can generally avoid defensive or hostile
responses.
If you are supportive, encouraging, and respectful of student ideas in class, you can correct
wrong answers or point out weaknesses without discouraging your students.
Always show students the courtesy of listening to and responding to their answers when they
offer an idea.
Rather than dismissing a weak or inaccurate idea immediately, ask the student to clarify it using
class material. Often, students can talk their way into a more thoughtful response.
You will also want to be careful about teasing or sarcastic humor, since these are all too often
easily misinterpreted.

You are also less likely to run into conflict with your students if you resolve any mixed feelings you
have about your authority as a teacher. Students expect you to set clear boundaries and to hold
them to their academic responsibilities.

STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING CHALLENGES

Arguments in Class
When arguments erupt in class, or when a student makes an inflammatory comment, your role as
the instructor is to preserve the learning environment. This task is two-fold:

1. First, maintain a safe environment for your students, which means preventing the debate from
turning into a prolonged attack on either individual students or groups with whom students may
identify. It also means keeping your cool and staying respectful if a student challenges you; this
preserves students trust in you.

2. Second, look for the learning opportunity in the experience. What is the value for students in
hearing opposing viewpoints or challenging commonly held stereotypes? Is there a way to use
the content of the argument to serve your teaching goals? Or, is student learning best served
by defusing the tension and swiftly refocusing students?

When a discussion between students becomes more heated than you would like, you can use the
following strategies to transform arguments into productive debate:
 Take a deep breath and assess what is happening. Is a student voicing frustration? Is a student
expressing a heartfelt opinion? Are two students misunderstanding each other?
Whenever possible, encourage students to discuss ideas, not individuals, in the classroom.
If a student attacks another students idea, ask that student to restate what he or she thinks the
other student meant. Make sure that the interpretation is accurate and allow both students to
clarify their statements.
Ask the students to generate all possible evidence for both sides of a debate as a way of
suspending judgment and encouraging reflection. Ask students to find counterexamples as well
as examples.
Offer to continue a discussion after class or ask interested students to email you their thoughts if
the topic of the argument is not central to the goals of the class session.

When a student challenges or criticizes you, take the following steps to stay calm and find some
value in the exchange:

Take a deep breath, and try to understand the content of the students complaint or challenge.
Ignore, for a moment, any rudeness; if you respond to the content, the students attitude and
approach may soften.
Remain calm and nonjudgmental, no matter how agitated the student becomes. Your emotional
response will only further fuel the students anger. This is especially true if a student makes a
personal attack.
Dont use your authority as a teacher to simply claim superior knowledge or logic; while in some
cases it may be true, it will almost never convince your students, and it discourages their active
engagement with the ideas.
Use evidence when disagreeing with a student and ask students to provide evidence for their
positions. You may ask other students to evaluate the evidence that you, or the student, provide,
if the argument is related to course content.
Never get into a power struggle with a student. As the teacher, you already have power; any
retaliation to a students provocation is likely to be viewed as an abuse of power.
If a student is agitated to the point of being unreasonable, ask him or her to carry the grievance
to a higher authority. Do not continue trying to reason with a student who is highly agitated.

When One Student Dominates the Classroom

Over talkative or disruptive students can derail a class. If a student dominates the classroom, try
the following strategies to refocus the class and involve other students:

Ask other students to comment on the dominant students ideas and to propose alternative
perspectives.
Try participation strategies that involve the whole group, such as taking a vote, breaking up into
pairs, or doing a round robin, where every student gives a brief response to a question,
problem, or thought-provoking quote.
If the dominant student seems to be well-intentioned, you might meet with the student privately,
thank them for their enthusiastic participation, and ask for advice on how to involve other
students. Let the student know that you want to distribute participation more evenly, and invite
her to be your collaborator (e.g., by not answering a question right away to give others an
opportunity, or by phrasing comments in a way that encourages others to respond).
If a student dominates by asking too many disruptive questions, you can ask the full class how
many students would prefer that you spend class time answering a specific question. If the class
 does not vote yes, let the student know that you can answer his question after class or in office
hours.

Recognize that talkative and even disruptive students often think they are displaying enthusiasm
and thoughtfulness; show appreciation for their commitment to the class, even as you help them
find an appropriate way to channel it.

When Students Remain Silent

Some days, the silence in a classroom can make you long for a little heated debate. If you have
students who never answer a question, offer an opinion, or participate in a demonstration, try
these strategies for involving them in the classroom:

Make sure that you know the names of your students and that all the members of a class know
each other by name.
Create a safe environment by responding positively to all student feedback, even if you need to
correct a statement. Thank each student for his or her contribution and try to find the seed of a
correct or more developed answer in the students response. Give students the opportunity to
revise or clarify their response.
Prepare students for full-group discussion by having them first discuss the topic in pairs or by
spending a few minutes writing out their response to a question.
Do not put a silent student on the spot unless you have established a norm of calling on
students who have not volunteered. A students embarrassment at being singled out may make
it even less likely he or she will want to participate in class.
If you decide to establish a norm of calling on students who have not volunteered responses,
begin with questions that do not have a single correct answer or questions that ask students to
make a choice between options. This makes it more likely that students will be able to answer
your question without feeling embarrassment or resentment.
Require all students in your class to stop by your office hours at the beginning of the quarter.
Getting to know each student may encourage them to participate in class.
Consider asking quiet students to email you their thoughts before or after class. Some students
will readily accept this invitation. If they email before class, you will have an opportunity to draw
them into the conversation at an appropriate point. If they email you after class, they have the
chance to put together a thoughtful response without the pressure of being in the classroom.

Talking with the student privately can also help. Reasons for being silent vary. A student may
simply enjoy listening. Another may lack the confidence to contribute. Some students have quiet
personalities; others may be undergoing personal difficulties that inhibit their participation. Some
may be unprepared and embarrassed to admit it. Others may come from an educational
background that discouraged active participation. Even after you gently encourage them to speak,
they may remain silent. This is their right, and ultimately you must respect their privacy.

Student Excuses
I was locked out of my dorm all night. I had to visit my grandmother, who was having surgery. I
slept through my alarm clock because I was up all night studying. I had the flu, then I had
bronchitis, then I had a bad reaction to the antibiotics they gave me. I had two other exams the
day the paper was due.

Which of these excuses would you allow? Does it depend on who uses the excuse and how many
other excuses youve heard from him? Deciding how to respond to students excuses can be a
 major challenge. No single policy is perfect inevitably, some deserving students will be unfairly
punished for lifes inconveniences and some manipulative students will be unfairly rewarded for
creative excuses. The best you can do is have a policy, let students know about it at the beginning
of the quarter, and retain the right to be accommodating if the situation merits it. Some policies
you might consider:

Offer all students some flexibility to use at their discretion, e.g., one grace day for a single
major assignment or one missing assignment if you have frequent assignments. Students dont
need to provide an excuse, but they get only one free pass.
Have a standard grade penalty for late assignments. It should be strict enough to encourage on-
time assignments but not so harsh that it discourages students from turning in work at all (one-
half of a letter grade per day late is probably just right).
All excuses related to other courses, athletic travel, or other events that students know about in
advance need to be discussed before the due date/exam.
Recognize that not all students feel comfortable giving excuses, even for valid and serious
problems. You might invite your students to include a note with each major assignment or exam
if they think that the work is not a reflection of their abilities or preparation. Let them know that it
wont influence the grade they receive for that assignment or exam, but it may be taken into
account in the final grading.

Sometimes a students excuses push the boundaries of plausibility or pile up one after the other
as each due date comes around. In these cases, have a conversation with the student about your
concerns. You can require some reasonable evidence for their excuse; often this is enough to
dissuade malingerers. If its a matter of too many excuses, have a discussion about accountability,
time management, and fairness. Particularly if the excuses are not compelling, let the student
know that other students have had similar difficulties but have not required special
accommodation.

Above all, have compassion for your students. Lifes little and big disasters do get in the way,
especially for students, whose lives are densely scheduled. You dont need to give students
grades or credit they didnt earn, but you should empathize with their situation and help them
formulate a plan for the rest of the course.

Grade Complaints
Inevitably, some students will complain if you give them a lower grade than they expected.
Because grade inflation is common at many top universities, and because family pressures can be
overwhelming, many students believe they need to maintain a near-perfect GPA in order to
achieve their personal and professional goals. You will have more success handling grade
complaints if you listen to and respond to their anxieties. In addition, there are ways to minimize
the likelihood of grade complaints:

Make it clear from the beginning exactly what you expect in papers or tests.
If possible, hand out guidelines for a good essay or examples of a superior exam answer.
When you return a graded assignment, note in some detail the weak or strong points of the work
and make suggestions for a better performance next time.
Give students the option of handing in a first draft of an assignment that you will not grade but
can critique.
Save examples of student work or exams that represent the full grade distribution; this will help
you explain to students why they did not receive the grade they hoped for.
 When students contest their grades, let them know that when you reconsider their marks, you
retain the right to adjust them up or down. If you are the TA, advise students that in difficult cases
the professor will make the final decision. (Be sure to discuss this with the professor beforehand,
however.) When no resolution is possible, let the student know which office (such as the
ombudsperson) will help him or her pursue an appeal.

5 Teacher's Challenges and The Best Educational Tools to Address Them

1. Time Management issues

If you ever felt the need to literally beat the clock, you have to seriously consider to clear your schedule
and put all your tasks in order. Making lesson plans in advance, thinking through projects and owning a
personal calendar can help in this kind of situations. One of the most basic tools that each educator should
use is Google Calendar. It is free and can help you to always be in time for meetings and know your
schedule at any given time. It sends friendly reminders on both email and phone. Add regular meetings,
classes and always know your spare time. Moreover, organizing all your data can also save some time. You
can use Dropbox or Evernote in this way. Learning to keep your data organized in the cloud is easy and
convenient.
2. Finding proper resources
When resources come up, it is only natural to think about budget. Although at the commencement of the
school year educators already have a plan in mind, it is always gratifying to find new resources, especially if
they are free. In this matter, platforms like Teachers Pay Teachers are more than welcomed. Structured as
an open market of resources, you can find many things there, from lesson plans to printables or all kind of
fun stuff for your class. Another way to catch some good offers are flash deal websites such as Educents.
Here you can find various educational resources at a discounted price or even for free.
3. Getting to know your students
Regardless if your students change from year to year, they all develop new skills, new habits and grow new
perceptions year after year. Thats why it is always important to know the children whom you are going to
work with. You can use a survey to make icebreakers and all kind of activities. You can use TeacherVision
for inspiration or use a free online survey tool to create online questionnaires and have student complete
them on computer or other gadgets. It can be great for a course beginning as you can customize it to fit
your needs and use it to find out important facts about your new students.
4. Adapting class activities
Children have become accustomed to new technologies and are always eager to learn new skills and
discover fun activities. Thus, educators have the task to always come with new educational apps, new
ideas for projects and ways to keep them interested while learning. More and more educators are
accepting gamification as part of their teaching routine. To get some inspiration and maybe to see how
other benefit from such apps, you can see Fun Brain, Math Chimp or Smart Kit. In addition you can use
online quizzes, iPad educational apps or find new group activities form the class. You can always check
websites such as Scholastic which have great resources and online activities.
5. Ease communication with parents
With a simple form builder you can get closer than ever to parents. For example, with 123ContactFormyou
can create forms to request feedback, to gather information and have everything centralized in a solid
database. Web forms have so many possible uses: from teacher appraisal to field trip approval or even
school fundraising. Forms are easy to create, do not require any special skills and are effective to use. In
addition, you can also use a tool like WDWDT, a custom messaging system that enables information about
students whereabouts and eases communication with parents. You have to always give parents access to
 the school status of their children, let them contribute to school activities if they wish and make them feel
involved in the educational process.
These are just a few of the educational tools and educational resources which you can use to facilitate certain
tasks or to improve your workflow. New educational apps emerge each day, we just have to select the proper
ones that will bring us the most favorable outcome. What kind of educational apps and tools did you use for this
school year beginning?
Overcoming teaching challenges

Teaching challenges
New faculty members will face a number of challenges as they begin their role as an academic. Each
institution, college, department and classroom may face a unique combination of challenges, but they
fall into some general categories. Accomplished faculty are not daunted by these challenges, and if
new faculty members anticipate them and navigate around, over or through them, their level of
success will increase, along with their level of satisfaction. A few of the common categories are
explored, with some suggestions for overcoming them. Talk with colleagues, check on campus
policies, brainstorm with students, and be creative. Addressing challenges with a sense of humor
helps place the challenges in perspective.

Resource availability
The availability of resources in institutions varies widely. When interviewing, it is helpful to ask about
teaching resources that are of importance to your style of teaching. These may include technology,
space, laboratory supplies, models, simulations, specimens, library materials, support for
writing/math/technology skills, and many others. Know the budget available to support your teaching,
and how to order needed materials. Look for teaching support in the form of grants, equipment,
mentoring, and professional development activities. If your campus does not provide them, there
may be community, professional or governmental organizations or associations that may help. Being
an accomplished instructor can be a bit like being a scavenger, collecting materials over a lifetime of
teaching to develop a comprehensive set of teaching support materials. New faculty members should
begin developing a wish list of materials and thinking about ways to go about procuring them.

Student skills
All faculty face students with a wide range of skills, abilities, and experiences. Being aware of the
range and how to support students to help them each learn is a characteristic of an accomplished
instructor. There are external supports on each campus in the form of centers for writing, math, and
computer skills. There are counseling centers to help students address emotional issues that may
interfere with learning. Some skills are discipline specific and need to be explicitly taught. These can
be incorporated into course content, or required as modules to be completed outside of class, as
appropriate. Accomplished faculty address the diverse needs of their students by becoming aware of
the needs, locating resources to support students and making referrals, and teaching those skills that
are critical to student learning success.

Student behavior
In spite of college students being adults, their expectations for what is appropriate in a college
classroom varies widely. New faculty members need to address behavior directly. Most often
appropriate behavior is addressed in the form of policies outlined in the course syllabus and
discussed when going over the syllabus. If issues still arise, it is most effective to address them
quickly and directly. Issues may include: plagiarism, ethical dilemmas, rudeness, disrespect,
attendance, lack of preparation for class, interruptions or inattentiveness, among others. New faculty
members are most successful when they have anticipated the possible issues, and determined a
response in advance. Many issues are appropriately addressed in the syllabus, and discussed at the
beginning of class. This practice helps avoid many problems by clarifying expectations and
consequences before an incident occurs.

Classroom environment
College classrooms are shared by many people and this multi-use situation can cause
challenges. Classrooms may be occupied when class is scheduled to begin, tables and desks may
be dirty, trash left behind by previous students, trash cans overflowing, whiteboards may be filled with
writing from other classes, equipment broken or malfunctioning, or furniture may have been
rearranged. Some classes have more enrolled students than chairs, others are awkwardly arranged
for the style of teaching planned. Many campuses are overcrowded leaving few options, but new
faculty members can be prepared by looking at the space assigned and finding out if there are
alternative spaces available, alternative ways to arrange the room, replacement equipment or repair
personnel available, or alternative equipment types to support their teaching. You will never know
unless you ask, and do a bit of investigation. Sometimes the squeaky wheel does get the grease.

Issues of difference
University faculty members have long noted particular challenges faced by individuals who differ from
their colleagues and community in any of a number of ways. This may include gender, race,
ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion, urban / rural, or political commitments, among others. While
typically a university community better addresses these issues of difference than other settings, there
remain some particular challenges for instructors, and these may be particularly acute for new faculty
members. These situations are best addressed directly, openly and early on to minimize the impact
on an individuals career.

Tips for Handling General Challenges

Tomorrows Professor Mailing List

Stanford Center for Teaching and Learning
This site lists numerous posts on topics related to being an effective professor.

Problems, Pitfalls, Booby Traps & Surprises

Graduate School of Arts & Sciences Teaching Center, Columbia University
This site offers a list of brief tips for when the unexpected happens.

Teaching Challenges
MERLOT Pedagogy Portal
This collection of challenges identified by faculty offers links to materials others have used to address
them. Issues include: accessibility, plagiarism, classroom civility, ethics and values, first day of class,
information literacy, large classes, motivating students, and writing / math skill development.

Narratives Supporting Excellent Teaching (NEXT)

Turns, J., University of Washington
This NSF sponsored project focuses on teaching challenges of engineering educators and a website
to address them. This searchable site offers ways faculty have addressed a number of issues,
including: low student ratings, being swamped, bored students, difficult students, and poor student
performance, among others.
Managing Teaching Loads and Finding Time for Reflection and Renewal
King, R.M., (January, 2002) Association for Psychological Science, APS Observer, Vol. 15, No. 1.
Northern Virginia Community College
These teaching tips address the drain on time and energy of being an effective instructor.

Inventive Faculty Development Strategies

Knobloch, N.A., (2005). University of Illinois
This powerpoint presentation addresses challenges faculty face with three strategies: active learning,
inquiry learning, and service learning. Examples of faculty using each are provided, along with links
for each.

Educause Names Top Teaching with Technology Challenges for 2009

The Chronicle of Higher Education (January 9, 2009)
These challenges were selected by focus groups, surveys, face-to-face brainstorming and a final
vote.

The Faculty Excellence Interview Series

University of Maryland University College
This series of interviews by distinguished faculty address how challenges are handled. They come
from a wide range of disciplines, including biology, communications, math, psychology, computer
science and business. The faculty members teach in Asia, Europe and the United States.

Challenges of Multicultural Faculty

Multicultural Faculty and the Challenges they Face from Students and Administration: A
Multiracial Perspective
Signal, S.M., Peon-Casanova, L., & Foss, M.S. (2004). Ninth annual conference of People of Color in
Predominantly White Institutions (POCPWI)
The focus of this presentation is identification of Stereotypes and challenges multiracial faculty face,
including examination of ways to effectively deal with these challenges, and ways all faculty of color
can work to bring these issues to the forefront to change perceptions.

Anti-Racist Pedagogy: Challenges Faced by Faculty of Color in Schools of Nursing

Hassouneh, D. (July, 2006). Journal of Nursing Education, Vol. 45. No. 7
Despite significant effects of systems of oppression on health, nursing education tends not to include
anti-racist pedagogy in its curricula, instead focusing more narrowly on culture. In contrast, anti-racist
pedagogy educates in ways that make racialized power relations explicit.

Cross-Cultural Mentoring for Faculty of Color

Barrett, R. K., (2005), Department of African American Studies, Loyola Marymount University, Ace
Department Chair Online Resource Center
This article is mean to highlight good departmental practices and resources to help women and
faculty of color thrive and contribute to the academic experience.

International Faculty Members: Challenges in Teaching

Early Career Geoscience Faculty: Teaching, Research and Managing Your Career, On the Cutting
Edge,
Professional Development for Geoscience Faculty. Carleton College
This site provides vignettes by faculty who have faced challenges, and how they have addressed
them.

Challenges of Teaching in a Distance Education Environment

Distance Education: Facing the Faculty Challenge
Bower, B.L. (Summer, 2001). Department of Educational Leadership, Florida State University, Online
Journal of Distance Learning, Vol. 4, No 2Faculty resist distance learning for a number of reasons, in
particular the adequacy of institutional support, change in interpersonal relations, and quality.

Advantages and Challenges of Hybrid Courses

Faculty Resources, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
This site outlines a number of common challenges with a combination of face-to-face and online
courses.

Challenges of Female Faculty

Women Faculty Forum

Yale University
This forum addresses issues of gender equity throughout the university, promotes collaboration and
networking on gender issues, and supports scholarship on gender, and scholarship about and by
women.

References on Chilly Climate for Women Faculty in Academe

Freyd, J., Psychology, & Johnson, J.Q., Library, University of Oregon
This page contains references on biases, achieving balance, and pay inequities.

A Younger Female Faculty Perspective

A feminist perspective (January, 2007)
This blog addresses the particular challenges this young female faculty member has faced, in
contrast to those her male colleagues experience.

Successes, Challenges Seen in Report on Women Faculty

Delgado, R. (2004). Stanford University News
A three-year study comparing female and male faculty members shows no significant gender based
differences in measures of overall satisfaction or in non-salary compensation and support in most
parts of the university. It also pointed out some disparities that need further study.

UCSF Leaders Gather to Present Results, Examine Challenges in Nurturing Diversity

Shukla, S. (2009). Nurturing Diversity at University of California San Francisco News
Campus leaders report on progress made in creating a more diverse campus community, address
gaps and share plans in this article.

Challenges with GLBTQ Stereotypes

Faculty Panel Challenges Stereotypes

Madormo, M. (2008). The BC Heights.com, The independent student newspaper of Boston College
This guess whos gay panel sponsored by Lambda and GLBTQ Leadership Council allowed
audience members to ask questions of a panel of faculty to determine whether they were GLBTQ or
straight. It was intended to break stereotypes surrounding the GLBTQ community.

Challenges with International Students

Teaching International Students

Redden, E. (2014). Inside Higher Ed
This article addresses critical issues in teaching international students on U.S. campuses.
Teaching International Students: Some Tips
Rees-Miller, J., International Office, Marietta College
Helpful tips for accommodating international students in the classroom, assignments, and testing.

Challenges due to Religious Diversity

Religious Diversity: Challenges and Opportunities in the College Classroom

Letwica, M., Associate Professor of Religion, Concordia College (2008). Diversity and Democrazy,
Vol. 11, No. 1. Diversity Web,
An Interactive Resource Hub for Higher Education
This article addresses issues of religion that arise in college classrooms and suggests ways to
respond and take the opportunity to teach.

Religious Diversity, Epistemic Humility, and Religious Tolerance

Kraft, J. Assistant Professor of Philosophy and Religion. Huston-Tilletson University (2005). Faculty
Resource Network, New York University
This paper uses an externalist epistemology and philosophy of mind as a foundation for an attitude of
epistemic humility towards the beliefs one retains in light of religious diversity.

Challenges for Universities

New Challenges: Demographic, Economic, Cultural, and Political

Transforming the U (2007). University of Minnesota
This article outlines a number of challenges facing universities generally in the increasingly diverse
culture in which we live.

Back to Instruction

top of page

To understand the skills and competencies needed by the tutor in teaching at a distance, it is first necessary to
look at a variety of relevant examples from different contexts and settings around the world. Traditionally, the
tutor has been under-valued in the process of teaching at a distance. Despite valuable attempts in the research
literature to define distance tutor roles, experts have commented critically on the lack of importance assigned to
the role of being a tutor at a distance. Lentell and ORourke for instance, argue that tutoring as a professional
activity has been carried out largely unseen and unanalysed, certainly in comparison with the attention given to
course hard and software: tutoring tends to be the less visible element of ODL, but is no less essential than
good materials and effective administration. Distance education cannot exist without tutors who provide
feedback and guidance to students (Lentell and ORourke, 2004, p. 1).

3
It has also been suggested that tutors may be unheard (Lentell, 1994), or undervalued (Lentell, 2003).
Traditionally, the development of distance courses has been separated from their delivery, and tutors have often
been employed on part-time, temporary contracts with no real career prospects. J.Tait (2004) cites the example
of the OUUK, where the role of the tutor as the interface between learners and institution is of particular
importance because

[the tutors] feedback forms a crucial link between course designers and student learning outcomes and,
because of the model of student learning that underpins UKOU course design and student support, feedback
aims to build a relationship and a sense of contact between the student and the tutor. (J.Tait, 2004, p. 99)

5
A further link between tutor and student at the OUUK is that tutors are centrally involved in providing feedback
to students continuous assessment, and institutional research there has demonstrated that students rate the
continuous assessment and its marking by tutors as very helpful (see J.Tait, 2004, p. 100). So how do we
define the tutor in open and distance Education? There is no singledefinition of the tutoring role in distance
education:

Your tutoring role may be part-time or full-time; or as a freelance (self-employed) consultant. You may be one
of several tutors for the same course, who work with a senior tutor, or you may be solely responsible for all the
students in the course. You may have a direct role in authoring the course, you may be a colleague of the course
author(s), or you might not know the course authors at all. (Commonwealth of Learning, 2003, p. 9)

7
The different roles that tutors might have depend on the institutional context in which they work. This also
means that the literature has taken a variety of approaches to the investigation of aspects of these roles. Early
studies of the roles and competencies required of tutors were based on the hopes and expectations that learners
might have of their tutors. A study by Stevenson et al.(1996) built on previous work in this area at the OUUK
(see Naylor, Cowrie and Stevenson, 1990). It was based on questionnaires and semi-structured interviews on
one Social Sciences course which disclosed that students liked:
Distraction is the process of diverting the attention of an individual or group from a desired area of
focus and thereby blocking or diminishing the reception of desired information. Distraction is caused
by: the lack of ability to pay attention; lack of interest in the object of attention; or the great intensity,
novelty or attractiveness of something other than the object of attention. Distractions come from both
external sources, and internal sources. External distractions include factors such as visual triggers,
social interactions, music, text messages, and phone calls. There are also internal distractions such
as hunger, fatigue, illness, worrying, and daydreaming. Both external and internal distractions
contribute to the interference of focus.[1]
In the classroom[edit]

Many psychological studies show that switching between tasks, use of technology, and
overstimulation has increased levels of distraction in the school setting. At school, distraction is often
viewed as a source of poor performance and misbehavior. Distraction makes focusing on singular,
assigned tasks more difficult. Digital components of learning are an emerging component to
classroom distraction. Parents, teachers, students, and scholars all have opinions about how
technology either benefits or harms a students focus in an academic setting. Research studies show
that neuron circuits indicate a decrease in ability to be attentive to goal relative stimulus with the
addition of distracting stimuli interference. School-aged students, with developing brains, are more
apt to conflicting stimuli while trying to focus. Large classroom sizes, technology use in and outside
the classroom, and less natural stimuli have been seen as contributing factors to deflating test scores
and classroom participation.[3]
One day near the end of the spring semester last year, I was standing at the front of the room in my British
literature survey course, as students completed a writing exercise. One of the best students in the class, "Kate,"
finished early and sat back to await our discussion.
This talented senior represented something of a puzzle to me. On the one hand, she wrote well, contributed to
discussions, sat in the front row every class period, and was always pleasant. On the other hand, she sometimes
seemed distracted in class, as if she were secretly on her phone or using social media on a laptop. But no laptop
or phone was ever in sight. I chalked up her occasional inattention to senioritis.

Once the class discussion began that day, I had drifted toward the row of desks where Kate sat when something
on the floor caught my eye it was a flash of light, as if from a cellphone. Kate was staring down at it as well,
in one of her distracted states. I realized that she was gazing inside her purse, where her phone had been
carefully positioned to allow her to see any texts that arrived during class. She couldnt respond to them, but she
could read them. New ones lit up her black screen, and she just had to turn her head ever so slightly to keep up
with her group chats throughout the class session.

I was so taken aback by this discovery that I had to pause and compose myself in order to keep the discussion
on track. I didnt say anything to Kate then or later. She was a second-semester senior, and it was the last week
of class. The prospect of haranguing one of my favorite students about phone use in class during her last week
of college just depressed me.

But the experience brought into clear focus the deep nature of the problem of distraction in college classrooms
in the 21st century.

Distraction actually arises from a conflict between two fundamental features of our brain: our
ability to create and plan high-level goals versus our ability to control our minds.

Like every faculty member these days and like most high-school and even middle-school teachers I am in
a constant battle with cellphones and laptops for the attention of my students in the classroom.

I know from both personal experience and scads of published research that when students have phones or
laptops out in class and are texting, surfing the web, or posting on social media they are only half-present
(if that). I try to make my classes as interactive as possible, with students engaged in discussions, group work,
or other tasks. So a roomful of half-present students seriously detracts from what we can accomplish on any
given day.

The answer is not banning all devices from the classroom. As I have argued before, such a ban can single out
students with accommodations who need those devices to participate in class. And given the direction of the
world and the omnipresence of technology in our lives, a ban seems to me a quixotic gesture at best.
For a long time now, I have felt stuck at an impasse on the challenge of how to handle these digital distractions.
But a new book on the more general nature of distraction and attention has helped me see some pathways
forward. The Distracted Mind: Ancient Brains in a High-Tech World (MIT, 2016) represents a collaboration
between neuroscientist Adam Gazzaleyand psychologist Larry D. Rosen, and it should be required reading for
every teacher today and probably all humans. In a series of columns, I plan to explore their ideas and how
their research can help us reshape our teaching practices.

Almost every book or article I read about this issue begins with a run-down of all of the waysin which
distraction can interfere with learning. But The Distracted Mind provides a broader context: Distraction occurs,
the authors argue, when we are pursuing a goal that really matters and something blocks our efforts to achieve
it.

After all, we dont consider ourselves distracted when we are scrolling through Facebook on a Friday night with
nothing else to do we are only distracted when we are scrolling through Facebook while trying to grade
papers.

Distraction from any particular goal putting aside the digital angle for the moment can come from
multiple sources, Gazzaley and Rosen write. Those sources can be generated externally (the bird at my window
feeder, a child clamoring for my attention, a colleague knocking on my office door) or internally (making a cup
of tea, switching from one task to another, or, yes, checking Facebook).

The Distracted Classroom

Every day in class, faculty members wage a constant battle with cellphones and laptops for the attention of
students. In this series, James M. Lang explores the impasse over how to cope with those unwanted digital
distractions.

The Distracted Classroom: Transparency, Autonomy, and Pedagogy

The Distracted Classroom: Do Tech Fasts Work?
The Distracted Classroom: Is It Getting Worse?
They argue that distraction actually arises from a conflict between two fundamental features of our brain: our
ability to create and plan high-level goals versus our ability to control our minds and our environment as we
take steps to complete those goals.
"The reason why goal interference in particular is so prominent in our lives," they write in The Distracted
Mind, "is the inherent complexity of our goals and the limitations we have in fulfilling them. Our ability to
establish high-level goals is arguably the pinnacle of human brain evolution. Complex, interwoven, time-
delayed, and often shared goals are what allow us humans to exert an unprecedented influence over how we
interact with the world around us, navigating its multifaceted environments based on our decisions rather than
reflexive responses to our surroundings."

But our admirable goal-setting ability runs up against the fundamental limitations of our "cognitive control
abilities." Those abilities "have not evolved to the same degree as the executive functions required for goal
setting," Gazzaley and Rosen write. "Our cognitive control is really quite limited: We have a restricted ability to
distribute, divide, and sustain attention; actively hold detailed information in mind; and concurrently manage or
even rapidly switch between competing goals."

Put simply, they say, distraction can be visualized as "a mighty force" (i.e., our goals) colliding "head on with a
powerful barrier, represented by the limitations to our cognitive control."

Drawing on research from Gazzaleys neuroscience lab at the University of California at San Francisco, The
Distracted Mind presents some intriguing findings on those cognitive-control limitations. They diminish our
ability to direct and sustain our attention, to remember things, and to switch back and forth between tasks. An
especially fascinating thread in the book considers how those limitations shift over the course of our lifetimes:
The challenges to our attention and working memory are different for children and adults, and become more
intense in certain key areas for older adults.

For example, our ability to stay focused on a task depends upon two separate neural processes: (1) directing our
attention to goal-related activities, and (2) blocking out irrelevant distractions. Experiments from Gazzaleys lab
have documented that, while older adults can fully retain their ability to focus their attention, their capacity to
block out irrelevant distractions diminishes with age. Thats one reason why older adults may have more trouble
concentrating on a conversation in a crowded restaurant than younger people.

The conflict between our complex goals and our cognitive-control limitations occupies the first part of The
Distracted Mind and sets the stage for the second part which I will take up in next column in this series
about how our digital devices are reshaping our experiences with attention and distraction.

But even before we get there, I hope readers can begin to see how The Distracted Mind has the potential to shift
the nature of our conversation about digital distractions in the classroom.

When I walked out of class after discovering Kates surreptitious phone scanning, the questions I asked myself
were about her, or about my ability to control her behavior: Why cant she focus in class? How can I keep
students away from their distracting devices in class?

But when I reconsidered the experience through the lens provided by Gazzaley and Rosen, a new set of
questions began to emerge: What goal had I established for Kates learning that day? How had I created an
environment that supported her ability to achieve that goal? And perhaps most important assuming that the
class had a learning goal that mattered for her did she know about it?

The more powerful the goals we establish for ourselves, and the more we feel ownership over those goals, the
more we are able to pursue them in the face of both internal and external distractions.

We all know this from experience. Most of us can shut out distractions when we are pursuing something that
really matters to us. So if we want to deal with distractions in teaching, an obvious place to turn would be
toward our goals for the classroom: Who creates them? How much do they matter? And how well do students
understand them?
Of course, even if I had established a clear goal for Kates learning that day, and helped her understand and take
ownership of it, she would still face challenges to her achieving it from the fundamental limitations of her
cognitive control the same limitations that plague us all, and have done so for all of human history.

But that phone in her purse, as The Distracted Mind explains and as I will consider in more detail in the
columns to come exacerbates the nature of those challenges. Even while it presents Kate with a host of new
ways to enhance and support her learning (Ill consider some of those, too, in this series), it also offers her
increasingly slick road ramps to distraction. For faculty members, it sets up increasingly more complex barriers
to the student learning we hope to foster in our courses.

James M. Lang is a professor of English and director of the Center for Teaching Excellence at Assumption
College in Worcester, Mass. His latest book, Small Teaching: Everyday Lessons From the Science of
Learning, was published in the spring of 2016. Follow him on Twitter at @LangOnCourse.

This article is part of:

The Distracted Classroom
At the University of Montana, we teach theories in both large lecture sections and in smaller
graduate seminars. Regardless of class size and venue, we find the following teaching strategies
useful.

1. Open the class with an engaging story about whichever theory, theorist, or approach youll be covering.
2. Alternatively, open class with a quick reflection on what students recall from the previous class period.
3. Then transition to a brief description or outline of what you intend to cover (generally we follow the outline
of the chapter, but regularly make planned or spontaneous detours).
4. Focus on historical context and biographical information linked to the theory/theorist. We use some of the
powerful quotations available in the text and elsewhere for this and have the quotations on the powerpoint
slides.
5. Transition to theoretical principles.
6. Approximately every 15-20 minutes we weave in one of the following teaching strategies
1. A personal or professional anecdote about the theory or theorist (e.g., When I met William Glasser in the
ACA Exhibition Hall)
2. A short turn to your table or neighbor discussion question; we generally allow 3-5 minutes for these
activities
3. A short answer question posed to the entire class
4. A video clip (this may include a youtube video or a more professional video clip demonstrating a therapy
technique)
5. A short interactive activity where students turn to each other and try out specific counseling or
psychotherapy techniques (e.g., we have students do a 90 second free association with each other see
Section Two of the Instructors Manual for more interactive, in-class activities)
6. A brief in-class demonstration of a technique with a class volunteer, followed by classroom debriefing
and discussion
7. A story about a specific therapy case that illustrates how the theoretical perspective is applied
8. After reviewing the key theoretical principles, its time to focus on specific therapy process and specific
therapy techniques associated with the theory. This is one place where were likely to do an in-class
demonstration or a therapy video clip. However, our policy is to keep things moving by never going over
10 minutes of a demonstration or video without stopping the action and discussing student observations.
9. After reviewing specific therapy process and techniques (including demonstrations), we move to briefly
exploring the evidence-base or empirical support for the approach. We recognize that this is not a class
that emphasizes research, but featuring a particular research study or reviewing meta-analytic data can
help keep students oriented to the value and limits of research.
 10. Although we try to integrate ethics and diversity issues into as many parts of our lecture and class
presentation as possible, at the very least we take time to focus on these issues toward the end of class.
For example, we pose questions to the class like: (a) How do you think you could apply this approach
with an Native American client, or (b) What are some of the common ethical issues that might arise when
doing Gestalt therapy?
11. At the end of each class we make a practice of asking students to do an informal homework assignment.
For example, after the class on psychoanalytic theory and therapy we ask students to pay attention to the
internal thoughts (or voice) in their head and think about whether this inner voice is speaking nicely to
them (e.g., supportive ego type inner speech) or harshly (e.g., more like a negative internalized object or
harsh superego/conscience). The purpose of these informal assignments is to help students not just gain
intellectual knowledge, but to have them experience how the theoretical concepts might play out in their
lives.
Perhaps the most important principle to teaching theories is to never let too much time pass without
student-student or student-instructor interaction. The purpose of these interactions is to not simply
keep the class moving and students engaged (although thats important as well), but to consistently
make counseling and psychotherapy theory and technique something that students are able to talk
about and connect with their daily experiences.

Teachers know that students walk into their classrooms with a wide range of abilities. But teachers try
to find ways to meet the needs of all students, including those with learning and attention issues.
Here are five common teaching methods.

1. Differentiated Instruction

With this approach, teachers change and switch around what students need to learn, how theyll learn
it, and how to get the material across to them. When a student struggles in one area, the teacher
creates a plan that includes extra practice, step-by-step directions, and special homework. Find out
more about differentiated instruction.

2. Scaffolding

This is a method that breaks learning into chunks. The chunks follow a logical order and move toward
a clear goal. Teachers form a bridge between what students already know and what they cannot do
on their own. These bridges are referred to as scaffolds. They can include charts, pictures and cue
cards.

Teachers often use this method by presenting a model of high-quality work before asking students to
work on their own. Just as theyre used when constructing buildings, scaffolds are removed when
theyre no longer needed.

3. Graphic Organization

Using this method, a teacher draws a picture to map out thoughts and ideas. Graphic organization
can help younger students with activities like identifying the characters in a story theyve read. This
can also help them plan and organize a story theyll write. Older students can map out history, like
the events leading up to World War II, or compare and contrast people or topics.
 4. Mnemonics

Students use special phrases to help them remember information. Heres an

example: Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally is often used to remember the order of operations in
math: Parentheses, Exponents, Multiply, Divide, Add and Subtract.

This strategy can also help with learning vocabulary. For example, a child can learn the scientific
name for the common frog, Ranidae, by using rain as the keyword along with a picture of a frog sitting
in the rain.

5. Multisensory Instruction

This method links what students see, what they hear, how they move, and what they feel. When
students learn using all of their senses, they remember the material better. Math teachers might use
base ten blocks and two-sided counters so that students learn through touch. Drawing might help
students learn new vocabulary by capturing the meaning of a word and sketching it.

Each child learns differently. Teachers will use many creative methods to teach your childand the
students around himso they all learn.

Key Takeaways

Mapping out ideas using pictures and charts is especially effective with struggling students.

Strategies that involve memorizing phrases help students remember concepts longer.
When students use all their senses, they remember the material better.