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CHAPTER 5

SHEAR STRENGTH

SYNOPSIS

This topic discusses the shear strength of soil and its usage, Mohr-Coulomb criteria of
failure, shear strength parameter (c & ) and Unconfined Compression Test, Shear Box Test
and Tri-Axial Test in various situations.

5.1 Introduction to Shear Strength of Soil

All failures in soils are shear failures due to compression soil is known as a material that
cannot sustain tension. Shear strength is the maximum resistance to shear, generally
expressed as shear stress (). The shear strength of soil is the maximum resistant force on a
soil area that can be produced by the soil to retaining any failures or slide along any plane.
The shear resistance of soil is a result of friction and interlocking of particles, and possibly
cementation or bonding at particle contacts.

If soil expands its volume, the density of particles will decrease and the strength will
decrease; in this case, the peak strength would be followed by a reduction of shear stress.
The stress-strain relationship levels off when the material stops expanding or contracting,
and when interparticle bonds are broken. The theoretical state at which the shear stress
and density remain constant while the shear strain increases may be called the critical state,
steady state, or residual strength.

5.1.1 Parameter of shear strength of soil

There are two parameters of shear strength known as:

(a) Friction angle of soil,
(b) Cohesion of soil, c

Friction angle of soil,

When a load is applied onto a soil, friction between the soil particles will occur. This friction
produces an angle known as the friction angle. Consider a cube with W weight placed on a
horizontal plane as shown in the figure below:

Figure 5.1(a) : A cube on a horizontal plane Figure 5.1(b) : Resultant force

If the verticle responding force is equivilent to W, the cube does not move. If a horizontal
force, P is gradually applied onto the cube, a resistance force, F will gradually occur until it
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reaches a maximum value. When P exceeds F, it will cause the cube to move a little to the
right. The polygon for these forces is shown in figure 5.1 (b) and it is known that:
F(maximum) = W tan , where is known as friction angle of the soil.

Cohesion of soil, c
The cohesion of soil refers to the bond between soil particles that is adhesive to one
another without any contributing factors. Clay has a high value of cohesion as it is in
saturated condition at most times.

A vertical cut may be applied onto a clay sample and it will remain vertical for a while
without any support. The same activity cannot be applied onto a sand sample as it will
collapse immediately. A slope with the same value as internal friction angle will form. In this
case, another factor must be produced in a cohesive soil (i.e clay and silt), that can improve
its shear strength. This factor is known as cohesion and is produced by the adhesion
between its fine particles created by natural bonding without any effects from external
forces.

5.1.2 Definition of shear strength of soil and its usage.

As shear strength is important in resisting angled external forces that causes many types of
soil failures, the knowledge and parameters of shear strength are important in construction
and design of embankments, retaining walls, foundation, piling, slope stabilization etc.

From the values of these shear strength parameters, a civil engineer can predict the soils
capability to support any building construction.

5.2 Mohr-Coulomb criteria for failure of soil

5.2.1 Coulomb Model

The Coulomb model explains friction resistance as a variable instead of a constant and
changes with the value of normal stress applied to the shear plane of the soil. The cohesive
friction is assumed as a constant that is not affected by the applied stress. Coulomb
introduces the shear strength of soil (f ) on a specific plane as a linear equation of a normal
stress (f ) on the same point of the plane.

The figure below shows a soil shear stress. When F reaches a maximum value, F (max) the soil
will fail along the S-S plane and the top section of the soil will move to the right as the
bottom part moves to the left or does not move at all. This is when soil failure occurs.

Figure 5.2 : A sample soil friction test

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F(max) = N tan ........................(1)

Where is the soils friction angle. If the area of failure is A, the normal stress is:
n = N/A ...................... (2)
And the shear stress is:
f = F(max) / A .......................(3)
From equations 1, 2 and 3,
f = n tan

If the test in figure 5.2 is repeated using different values of N, different values for normal
and shear stresses will be obtained. Plotting n against f will produce a relationship
between n and f as shown in figure 5.3 below:

Figure 5.3: shows a graph of n vs f

From the figure above, a conclusion can be made: f = c + n tan

Where c is the cohesion of soil. This equation is known as the Coulomb fail criteria.

5.2.2 Mohr Model

A soil sample is applied with normal stresses as shown in the figure below. 1 is the major
stress and 3 is the minor stress.

Figure 5.4 : Normal stresses applied on a soil sample

A Mohr circle is plotted as shown below. During the early level, the stresses are represented by
the ABC circle. Then, the major stress 1 is gradually increased while 3 is sustained until the
sample fails. As 1 increases, the diameter of the circle increases until it produces ABC.
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That is when the sample fails.

Figure 5.5 The Mohr Circle

Figure 5.6 shows the condition of the sample when it fails and the Mohr circle is shown in
figure 5.7. Assuming the sample fails at EF and the stress applied onto are normal stress, f
and shear stress, f. f and f are plotted on a Mohr circle at point T. The angle TQC is 2 and
is the angle between failure plane and the major stress plane is the angle between the
failure plane anf the major stress plane. From the Mohr circle in the figure 5.6, it is
determined that:

If a tangent line is drawn through T, a straight line RTS, crosses the axis at R. The slope of
this tangent line is tan with , the angle between tangent line and normal major stress.
With that, the equation for RTS is:
f = c + f tan

And the relationship between and

= + 45o
2

By replacing with and f

1 3 = 1 3 sin 2c kos
Or

1 = 3 tan 45 / 2 2c tan(45o / 2)
2 o

The equations above is known as the Mohr failure criteria. The combination between Mohr
and Coulomb failures is known as Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria.
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Figure 5. 5 shows the condition of a soil sample during failure

Figure 5,6 shows the Mohr failure Criteria

5.2.3 Criteria for failure of granular soil, cohesion soil and granular-cohesion
soil.

The criteria of failure for soil can be divided into three types according to its strength
properties.

Granular soil
Also known as cohesionless soil or fully dry soil, this type of soil has its own strength
properties. The value of cohesion, c is 0 and the strength of forces is produces by friction
between the soil particles which produces an angle friction, . The figure below shows a
mohr circle for granular soil.

Figure 5.7 Mohr circle for granular soil

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Cohesive soil

Cohesive soil is saturated clay that has a friction angle value of 0 and the shear strength is
strictly produced only from the cohesion between soil particles, c. The failure line is
horizontal, paralel to normal stress as shown in the figure below.

Figure 5.8 Mohr circle for cohesive soil

Granular-cohesive soil

Most soil are combination of sand and clay or silt and have both friction and cohesion. This
is known as cohesion-frriction (c-) soil. The figure below shows the mohr-coulomb failure
criteria for these type of soil.

Figure 5.9 : Mohr-coulomb critera for cohesion-friction soils

The strength of soil depends on a few factors. For sand, the factors of shear strength are
particle sizes, shape, size (grades) and arrangement of particles. A compacted sand has a
higher value of shear strength compared to loose sand. For clay, the shear strength depends
of the shape and size of soil particles, mineralogy, water content and chemical reactions of
the particles.

Shear Strength Laboratory Tests

The shear strength of a soil is the internal resistance per unit area that the soil mass can
offer to resist failure and sliding along any plane inside it. One must understand the nature
of shearing resistance in order to analyze soil stability problems, such as bearing capacity,
slope stability, and lateral pressure on earth retaining structures (Braja M Das, 2007).

Determination of Shear Strength Parameters

The shear strength parameter of a soil can be determined in the laboratory primarily by two
types of tests
1. Direct Shear test
2. Unconfined compression test
3. Triaxial test
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Direct Shear Test

The procedures are explained in detail as follows:
- The direct shear test is the simplest method of shear test for determining the shear
strength of soil.
- In this test soil sample, undisturbed or remoulded, is placed in a metal box having square
or circular in section.
- The shear box can be split in two half horizontally. The size of the box normally used for
clays and sand is 6cm square and the sample is 2cm thick. The large size shear box is
30cm square with sample thickness of 15cm, used for gravelly soil.
- After placing the soil specimen in the box and making other necessary adjustment, a
known normal load is applied.
- The normal load is maintained throughout the test and shear stress is gradually applied
causing the two halves of the box to slide relative to each other.
- The shaering displacement is recorded by a dial gauge.
- Shear stress is applied in such a way that we get a shear displacement of 1.25 mm/min.
If the soil does not fail then 12mm strain is taken as failure point.

Figure 5.10: Direct Shear Test Apparatus (L) and Diagram Of direct shear test set up(R)

Advantages and disadvantages of shear box test

Advantages
- The test is simple and fast for
granular soils
- Due to less thickness of soil sample,
quick drainage of pore water is easy
to achieve
- As the basic principle is easy to
understand it can be extended to
gravelly soil, which would be were
expensive to test by other methods.
Disadvantages
- It is difficult to control the drainage
of water from the soil
- Only the total stresses are known as
there is no way to measure the pore
water pressure
- The failure plane is predetermined
which may not necessarily be the
weakest one
- The distribution of shear stress on
the failure plane is non-uniform
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Unconfined Compression Test

The procedures are explained in detail as follows:
- The test is performed on a cylindrical sample having height to diameter ratio of 2:1.
- The usual size is 38mm. The ends of the cylindrical sample are hollowed in the form
of cone.
- The cone seatings reduce the tendency of the specimen to become barrel shaped by
reducing the end restraints. The sample is then placed between the plates of a
mechanical load frame.
- Axial load is applied in such manner as to give a rate of strain between 1% to 2% of
sample height per min.
- The load can be read on the proving ring dial gauge and the corresponding
deformation on the strain gauge.
- Acset of readings of loada and the corresponding deformation is taken. The
deformation is continued till the sample fails. When the load readings start
decreasing instead of increasing, failure point is reached. At failure, deformation is
discontinued.

Figure 5.11: Unconfined compression test set up

Advantages and disadvantages of unconfined compression test

Advantages Disadvantages
- It is widely used, simple and quick - As no covering or lateral support is
test provided to the sample in this test, it
- This is most convenient and suitable is applicable to soil which can stand
for calculating sensitivity of clays unsupported to maintain the
- The cost involved I this test is much undrained condition throughout the
less due to simpler testing test
requirement - The sample must be fully saturated
- The test is suitable for intact
homogeneous clays only
- The test under estimates in-situ
strength because of the sampling
disturbance
Triaxial Test
The procedures are explained in detail as follows:
- The test was first introduced by Casagrande and Karl Terzaghi.
- It is carried out in a cylindrical test specimen having height to diameter ratio of 2:1.
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Usual diameter of the soil specimen used for the test is 38mm and height 76mm.
- The specimen is placed between rigid non-porous ends caps or porous discs
depending upon the drainage condition of the test and covered with a rubber
membrane. It is then placed in perspex cylinder which filled with water.
- The specimen is subjected to a confining pressure, 3 and axial stress (1 3), where
all aroundpressure is applied by water in the cylinder and axial stress is applied
through a ram. The ram is forced down at a constant rate and the load on the
plunger is recorded till the sample fails.
- The test is repeated on different samples with different confining pressure and
results are interpreted by drawing Mohrs circles.
- The confining pressure 3 is the minor principal stress and the total stress (1 3) =
1 is the major principal stress.
- Different Mohrs circles are drawn for different tests and common tangent to them
gives the shear strength parameter, cohesion (c) and friction angle ().

Figure 5.12: Triaxial Test set up

Depending upon the drainage condition the test is divided into three parts:
1. Unconsolidated undrained (UU) test
Initially charged with fixed pressure around the sample and then compressed
confining the water from flowing out of the sample during the two stage tests. This
test is also easy and quick to do. The soil strength parameters obtained are u and
cu.

2. Consolidated undrained (CU) test

In this test, a sample is pre-consolidated of by allowing the water to flow out when
stress is applied around the sample. Then, when the sample is compressed, drainage
is not allowed. By measuring the magnitude of pore water pressure, u, effective soil
strength parameters c and can be calculated.

3. Consolidated drained (CD) test

Water drainage is allowed during consolidation and compression. The strain rate
should be as slow as possible so that there is no increase in pore water pressure.
Generally, this test is time consuming, depending on the permeability of the soil. Soil
parameters obtained are cd and d.

Advantages and disadvantages of triaxial test

Advantages Disadvantages

- The test can be performed, with
complete control, under all the three
drainage conditions
- It is possible to take pore water
pressure measurements during the
test
- The distribution of stress on the
failure plane is uniform
- It is possible to determine the state
of stress within the specimen at any
stage of the test
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- The test set up is more complicated
than any other shear test. It requires
a skilled person to handle the
apparatus precisely
- Test on small diameter samples of
stiff fissured clays give very high
strength. Hence to obtain accurate
result for such type of soils, large
diameter specimens should be tested
- Consolidation of cohesive soil
specimens take more time than in
the shear box test.