BUDDHIST VIEW OF MAN

Man must do good, avoid evil and purify the heart. For Buddha, the hearts of ordinary
men are not pure. They are filled with greed, ill will and delusion. To purify the heart man must:
practice self-control and self-restraint, meditating upon ones self and following eightfold path.
Throughout his life, the Buddha constantly reminded his disciples of the transitoriness of
all phenomena. He stressed that all conditioned things or phenomenal processes, mental as well
as material are impermanent or transient and subject to arising and passing away. That all things
rise, decay and fall, is an objectively evident everyday experience. What important is for man to
realize that man is also subject to the same law that governs external beings. The paradigm of
reality for the Buddha is action which is instantaneous and followed immediately by its
consequence, not substance as it is in Upanishads. So, fundamental concept running through
Buddhism is that whatever exits changes. Existence here means the capacity of producing
everything.
Two Categories of Man and Everything in the World: Name (nama), the term nama is
literally means the name but is usually translated into English as mind, but in Buddhist
psychology it is used as collective name refer to the psychological and mental aspect of human
being. The next category is Form (rupa), the term rupa literally, form, is translated into English by
the word matter or body corporeality. This is also collective name to describe the physical
aspects of human being.
Thus, nama-rupa taken together, comprise the psycho-physical organism which
constitutes a person or a separate or distinct individual. Buddhism consider nama and rupa
as interdependent and belong to each other in an integral manner. This nama cannot exist
without rupa and rupa goes on supported by nama and nama when supported by rupa.
This division of man and other beings in the world into two categories is only the first step in the
analysis of self. The next step is the analysis of mann and the things existing in the world as a
stream of five conjoined currents, the five aggregates (skandhas). These are: matter, sensation,
perception, mental constructs, and consciousness. Briefly, it is said that the psychosomatic
organism consists of compound of material stuff (rupa) and emotional, conative, volitional, and
cognitive faculties of mind (nama). None of these elements is permanent, hence, man has no
abiding support underlying this stream. There is no soul. When the five aggregates come
together, they take a certain form or shape and what is thus formed is given a name. Thus, we
have name and form but when the elements disintegrate, there is no nama-rupa, no person,
and no ego. These physical forms are like foam; sensations, like bubbles; perceptions, like
mirage; mental constructs, like the flimsy trunk of banana plant, and consciousness, like
phantoms (Samyutta Nikaya III).
Buddhism states that when man perceives himself as permanent ego, he is as deluded as
the child who takes a spreading flame for a swift running animal. The end of this illusion is
Nirvana, or the blowing out of the imagined ego. Thus the term person has a validity only in
the relative sense, namely: as popular designation and experiences in conventional language but
not in absolute sense. The only actual realities are the psycho-physical phenomena although they
have only a momentary duration. There is no permanent reality, the only reality is
impermanence. Only the ego belongs to the realm of naming, the true persons cannot be reached
by the modes of speech.
 The concept of no-soul (anatta) is tied up with the concept of impermanence (anicca) and
have a direct bearing on the concept of suffering (dukkha). The three go together. The word
suffering is inadequate translation of the term dukkha. It is word that desire to exist, to re-
exist, to continue to exist which arises as a result of the belief in a permanent self or soul which
has thrown man into the predicament in which he is. This is therefore based on ignorance. It is
by ignorance that one desires or thirsts to exist. Therefore, to eliminate dukkha which is in
effect means the elimination of the notion of the self, it is necessary that one comes to a true
understanding of the real nature of the self- that is, that there is no permanent self.
Man is just a name given for the five aggregates that compose the individual but each of
the aggregates separately is not man. Now man has the tendency to look upon things as
permanent and yet they are not permanent. Because of this wrong view, man suffers. He is bound
by ignorance, so the final goal of man is to attain enlightenment; to free himself from the bonds
of ignorance. To do this, man must realize the impermanence of things and that man is not the
five sheaths. Believing this, man is freed from shackles of ignorance. He reaches Nirvana, which
is the extinction of all desires. Yoga or meditation can achieve Nirvana.

THE CONFUCIANIST VIEW OF MAN

The ideal goal of Chinese Philosophy is to form men who carry the twin characteristics of
sageliness within kingliness without. This is to say that in his sageliness within, man accomplishes
spiritual cultivation: in his kingliness without, he function in society. In other words, the ideal should know
what is right and correct, and apply this in society. True to the Chinese ideal, Confucianism is essentially
ethical; and this system, ethics cannot be separated from politics. Thus, man is regarded as a moral being
and a social being. For Confucius, a true man is noble man, (chun-tzu), as a superior man and such a man
is said to be man of jen (human heartedness); a man of all around virtue. Man is expected to possess
four virtues. These four virtues of Confucianism are Human heartedness (jen) which consists in
consideration for others, loving others, doing to other what you wish others to do to you; Righteousness
(yi) which is doing what one ought to do, and doing acts that are obligatory without a personal utilitarian
end in view, to do the right and proper thing in relation to circumstances without regard with personal
profit; Ritual or propriety (li) which is humbling oneself to pay respect to others. It also means putting
others first and oneself understanding of the others three virtues, namely, Human heartedness (jen);
Righteousness (yi) and Ritual and Propriety (li).

Mencius theory of the human nature is intimately tied up with this. According to Mencius, human
nature is originally good. To support his theory, Mencius speaks of the four beginnings that belonged to
mans original nature. The first of these is the feeling of commiseration, which is the beginning of the
virtue of human heartedness (jen). Man tends to sympathize with his fellow men. Next is the feeling of
shame and dislike. Man tends to be ashamed of evil and dislike evil. This is the beginning of Righteousness
(yi). Then, there is the feeling of modesty and yielding towards the good. This is the beginning of Ritual or
Propriety (li). Finally the sense of right and wrong (chin). Man is naturally endowed with the knowledge
of what is right and what is wrong; what is good and what is bad. According to Mencius, all men in their
original nature possess these four beginnings. This four beginnings differentiate man from the beast. It is
expected that man should develop these four beginnings because it is only through their development
that Man is truly a man. Through the full development of his nature man cannot only know Heaven
(universe) but can also become one with Heaven.

Neo-Confucianism develops the concept that all men and all things are brought into existence by
Heaven and Earth. Nevertheless, man and things are different, namely, that man, apart from his human
body, possesses in addition, the nature Heaven and Earth.

In regard to what fills the area which is Heaven and Earth, man is part of its body; in regard to
what directs the movements of Heaven and Earth, man is part of its nature.

Chang Tsai, a Neo-Confucianist, regard chi (vital gas, etc.,) as the basic element of all things.
The entire body of chi is called the Supreme Harmony or the tao. Within the chI is included the
yin and yang. The chI which has the yin quality tends to be seen, to be submerged, and to fall:
while the chi which has the yang quality tends to move, to float on the surface and to rise. Therefore,
along with Heaven and Earth and all things, man is basically one body. But the nature of Heaven and Earth
signifies the directive force there. Since, mans nature is what he derived from the nature of Heaven and
Earth, man is part of his nature.

The nature of man reveals a power to have conscious knowledge and the combination of this
nature and conscious knowledge has a name- the mind. Men have minds and thereby are able to have
self-consciousness and understanding. Since nature along with chI makes the source from which things
come, the sage man is conscious of this and understand it. Chang Tsai says- if a man enlarges his mind,
then he is able to identify himself with all things in the world. The man who enlarges his mind unites it
with Heaven. To Heaven belongs the power of transforming and when a man studies and comprehends
this, this is a following up of the work which Heaven has not completed. The mind whose mind is united
with Heaven thus his duty in Society. He gives due respect to elders; tenderly kind to orphans and the
weak- thus, he treats Heavens seniors as they should be treated and Heavens young as they should be
treated.

Thus, to the man whose mind is united with Heaven, the study of Nature and the making use of
Nature in science are understanding of the transforming work of Heaven and Earth, a plumbing of the
depths of their divinity.

Jen represents oneness of Heaven and Earth, an emotional oneness. The man who has become
really and truly Jen man is the sage and the sage is one body with Heaven and Earth in all things. The
contrast between himself in others for him no longer exists. The tendencies in life in all things are the
jen of Heaven and Earth. Any and every sort of things is actually part of the life of Heaven and Earth and
everything comes within the scope of Jen of Heaven and Earth; but it does not follow that any kind of
every sort of thing is conscious being so. The sage man not only comes within the scope of the life of
Heaven and Earth, he is also conscious that really and truly he is so. Thus, by means of reflection there
comes the genuine of everything, being in ones I. As such, there is no longer distinction between the
I and the not-I.

Essential Philosophy
 Human kindness. In one way, Confucius was closed to Daoism: he felt that humans were born in
harmony with the natural order but allowed themselves to indulge in selfish behavior that led them away
from natural harmony with their fellows and with society. He expressed this natural impulse towards
harmony as human kindness or human-heartedness: the feeling for love, kindness, and respect a person
feels towards other. Expressing this in proper and compassionate behavior allow the individual to develop
themselves as a morally correct person.
Social Duties. In a principle he called the Rectification of name, Confucius believed that every
social position carried a natural responsibility to fulfill the duties of that role, particularly in relation to
other positions. A superior position carried duties of firm but kind control, and people in inferior positions
were responsible for immediate obedience.
Society. If everyone behaved in the morally appropriate manner their position required, either
obedient or with strong but loving rule, society would function smoothly and in accordance with natural
moral principles. A strong legal framework was seen as a failure, since morally correct individuals were
self-regulating.
The ruler. A particular responsibility lay with the ruler, who had to set a correct ethical example
for other levels of society to follow.
Education. Confucius believed that through education and the example of proper standards, the
virtuous qualities which lead man and society back into the natural order could be cultivated so that any
individual could become morally correct. Education in the proper customs of life had to be available to
everyone.
The Sage. A person who behaved correctly could become what Confucius called a superior man
or sage. A sage showed his superiority in every area of life, from artistic tastes to respecting the
ancestors, and spread virtue to others because of his example.
The family. Crucial to Confucius, and to all Chinese before and after, was the ideal of the family
as the most important social unit and the basis of all moral behavior. For example, a son might love a
particular woman, but would be expected to marry whomever his father chose as being most likely to
advance the family. Confucius held that if children were taught human kindness within the family circle,
they would be able to spread that feeling to wider human relationships.
Role of women. Like most schools of thought, women were relegated to the position of second-
class citizen, with no individual rights. They could win respect only by behaving with proper obedience
towards their father/husband/master.
The golden rule. Confucius taught a version of the near-universal golden rule: Do unto others
as you would have them do unto you.
Neo-Confucianism. Although Confucius views were based on compassion and equal opportunity,
the impulse towards venerating the past and respecting ones superiors later hardened into a rigid culture
actually suppressing new thought in art, science, or philosophy. The Confucian Classics, or book which
represented orthodox Confucian thought, became the sole basis of knowledge and education.

THE TAOIST VIEW OF MAN

Taoism is essentially a philosophy that advocates what is natural and spontaneous, simple and
necessary. Base on its philosophy that by which anything and everything comes to be, is the Tao in the
Lao-Tsu Book, it is said: From Tao there comes one. From one there comes two; from two there comes
three; from three there comes all things. The tao is generally understood as the Power or the Principle
behind all things. It is oftentimes called the Non- Being. The one here spoken of refers to Being; the
two are yin and yang- the cosmic principles or forces yin signifies femininity, passivity, cold,
darkness, softness, etc.. and where yang signifies masculinity, activity, warmth, brightness, hardness,
etc.. The three refers to the tao, the yin and the yang. Through the interaction of the yin and
the yang, all phenomena in the universe are produced.

Everything that exist in the universe needs the universe as a whole as necessary condition for
existence. When a man is born, he has the properties that he necessary has. All things in the universe, all
that exist, cannot cease to exist without some effect on him. Man has in him yin and yang, and mental
faculties which make him superior to beasts and birds. Man should strive to be a man of tao- a sage, a
perfect man. A sage is one who has a complete understanding on the nature of things. To understand
nature, one has to know the Invariable (abiding) Law of nature. To know the invariable Law of Nature is
to be enlightened.

The first thing that man must know is the things are ever changeable and changing but the lost
that govern things change of things are not themselves changeable. One of these laws is The Way of
Heaven has no favorites; it is necessarily on the side of the good. Among the lost that govern the changes
of things, the most fundamental is that When a thing reaches its extreme, it reverts from it. This is
expressed in the Lao-Tzu Book as Reversal is the movement of Tao.

Taoism maintains that the sage who has a complete understanding of the nature of things thereby
has no emotion. This is to say that he is not disturb by emotions but enjoys peace and soul.

The sage is no longer affected by the changes of the world. In this way, he is not dependent upon
external things and hence his happiness is not limited by them. As such, he is said to have achieved
absolute happiness. He is absolutely happy because he transcends the ordinary distinction of things. He
transcends the distinction between the self and the world, the me and the non-me. There is now an
identification of man with the universe. To achieve this identification, man needs knowledge and
understanding of still a higher level.

Taoism speaks two levels of knowledge: the Lower level, which is the finite point of view when
man sees distinction like those between right and wrong; and the Higher level, which is the higher point
of view, when man sees things in the light of Heaven, that is from the point of view of the Tao. From
the view point of Tao, things though different are united and become one. For instance, the distinction
between me and non-me are united and become one. Thus, although all the things differ, they are
alike in that day all constitutes something and are good for something. They equally come from Tao.
Therefore, from the view point of the Tao, things though different are united and become one. In order
to be one with the Great One (Universe) the sage has to transcend and forget the distinctions between
things. The way to do discard knowledge and is the method use by Taoist for achieving sageliness within.

One distinction are forgotten, there remains only the Undifferentiated One, which is the great
while. By achieving this condition, the sage is said to have knowledge of a higher level which for Taoist
is knowledge which is not-knowledge. This is to say that at first stage had knowledge, they knew
distinction but later transcended this knowledge to go beyond distinctions. This knowledge beyond
distinction is what Taoist called No-Knowledge or knowledge which is not knowledge.
 Taoism states every man can be a sage. Therefore, each man, as man, should strive to be one with
Tao, for such a man is the sage, the perfect man, the happy man. The concept of man is the same, that
is, become a perfect man. The four system differ only in the approach towards the attainment of their
goal.

Essential Philosophy

Definition. Partly in deliberate contrast to the other main Chinese School of thought at the time,
the highly analytical Confucianism, and partly because concept of the Dao is in itself intangible and cannot
be easily broken down, Laozi avoided drawing up any clear-cut, logical outline of his philosophy. He wrote
in metaphor and poetic imagery, inviting readers to contemplate for themselves, rather than instructing
them: Look at but cannot be seen- it is beneath form These depthless things evade definition
Harmony. One of the main observation in Dao de Jing is Cultivate harmony within yourself, and
harmony becomes real. Laozi believed that if people aligned themselves with the Dao, they were aligning
with natural order, so would feel the positive benefits of harmony in their lives. He wrote: The best of
man is like water which benefits all things, and does not contend with them, which flows in places that
others disdain, where it is in harmony with the Way
Non-action. Nature does not try to control, it simply acts spontaneously. Therefore, human
should not try to force events or nature to conform to their desires, but should simply go with the flow
and let events take their course without agonizing over mundane desires. Laozis views on politics
particularly reflected non-action; his advice to rulers was to conquer to people with inaction, to make no
laws or taboos, but to allow people to harmonize with each other naturally. Manage a great nation as
you would cook a delicate fish, i.e. with as little disturbance as possible.
The best rulers are hardly known by their subjects, he wrote, and he advised against being greedy
or tyrannical by pointing out, When people have nothing more to lose, then revolution will result. He
highlighted very practical reason for people to follow the Dao.
Non-violence. Laozi pointed out that if powerful men results to violence, it has a habit of returning
to them. He also said that a wise man will not join an army, for the purpose of a sage is creation, not
destruction.
Yin/Yang. Although Laozi did not go into details, his writings hint the concept of yin and yang.
These are two opposite yet complementary forces whose constant movement as they flow around each
other, seeking balance and harmony, is one of the ways in which the Dao functions. Yin is the passive,
accepting force in the universe, while yang is the dynamic, active force, and as they move in constant
counter-balance, they give rise to movement in the universe: life and death, the seasonal cycle, growth
and withdrawal.