A Basic strengths to Erikson, motivating
characteristics and beliefs that derive from
Ability traits traits that describe our
skills and how efficiently we will be able to
work toward our goals
Actualization tendency the basic
human motivation to actualize, maintain,
and enhance the self
Aggressive drive the compulsion to
destroy, conquer, and kill
Aggressive personality behaviors and
attitudes associated with the neurotic trend
of moving against people, such as a
domineering and controlling manner.
Analytical psychology Jungs theory
of personality
Anima archetype; animus archetype
Feminine aspects of the male psyche;
masculine aspects of the female psyche
Anxiety to Freud, a feeling of fear and
dread without an obvious cause: reality
anxiety is a fear of tangible dangers;
neurotic anxiety involves a conflict
between id and ego; moral anxiety
involves a conflict between id and superego.
Archetypes images of universal
experiences contained in the collective
unconscious.
B Catharsis the expression of emotions
Basic anxiety a pervasive feeling of
loneliness and helplessness; the foundation
of neurosis
the satisfactory resolution of the crisis at
each developmental stage
Basic weaknesses motivating
characteristics that derive from the
unsatisfactory resolution of developmental
crises
Behavior modification a form of
therapy that applies the principles of
reinforcement to bring about desired
behavioral changes.
Behavioral genetics the study of the
relationship between genetic or hereditary
factors and personality traits
Behaviorism the school of psychology
founded by John B. Watson that focused on
psychology as the study of overt behavior
rather than of mental processes.
C
Cardinal traits the most pervasive and
powerful human traits
Case study a detailed history of an
individual that contains data from a variety
of sources
Castration anxiety a boys fear during
the Oedipal period that his penis will be cut
off.
that is expected to lead to the reduction of
disturbing symptoms.
Cathexis an investment of psychic
energy in an object or person.
Central traits the handful of outstanding
traits that describe a persons behavior
Cognitive complexity a cognitive style
or way of construing the environment
characterized by the ability to perceive
differences among people
Cognitive needs innate needs to know
and to understand.
Cognitive simplicity a cognitive style
or way of construing the environment
characterized by a relative inability to
perceive differences among people
Collective unconscious the deepest
level of the psyche containing the
accumulation of inherited experiences of
human and pre-human species.
Common traits traits possessed in
some degree by all persons.
Compensation a motivation to
overcome inferiority, to strive for higher
levels of development.
Complex to Jung, a core or pattern of
emotions, memories, perceptions, and
wishes in the personal unconscious
organized around a common theme
Compliant personality behaviors and
attitudes associated with the neurotic trend
of moving toward people
Conditional positive regard approval,
love, or acceptance granted only when a
person expresses desirable behaviors and
attitudes.
Conditions of worth to Rogers, a belief
that we are worthy of approval only when
we express desirable behaviors and
attitudes and refrain from expressing those
that bring disapproval from others; similar to
the Freudian superego.
Conflict to Horney, the basic
incompatibility of the neurotic trends
Conscience a component of the
superego that contains behaviors for which
the child has been punished.
Constitutional traits source traits that
depend on our physiological characteristics
Construct an intellectual hypothesis that
we devise and use to interpret or explain life
events. Constructs are bipolar, or
dichotomous, such as tall versus short or
honest versus dishonest.
Constructive alternativism the idea
that we are free to revise or replace our
constructs with alternatives as needed.
Control group in an experiment, the
group that does not receive the
experimental treatment.
Coping behavior consciously planned
behavior determined by the needs of a
given situation and designed for a specific
purpose, usually to bring about a change in
ones environment.
Correlational method a statistical
technique that measures the degree of the
relationship between two variables,
expressed by the correlation coefficient
Creative power of the self the ability
to create an appropriate style of life
Crisis to Erikson, the turning point faced
at each developmental stage.
D personality, responsible for directing and
Death instincts the unconscious drive
toward decay, destruction, and aggression
Defense mechanisms strategies the ego
uses to defend itself against the anxiety
provoked by conflicts of everyday life.
Denial a defense mechanism that
involves denying the existence of an
external threat or traumatic event.
Dependent variable in an experiment,
the variable the experimenter desires to
measure, typically the subjects behavior or
response to manipulation of the
independent variable.
Detached personality behaviors and
attitudes associated with the neurotic trend
of moving away from people, such as an
intense need for privacy.
Displacement a defense mechanism
that involves shifting id impulses from a
threatening object or from one that is
unavailable to an object that is available
Dream analysis a technique involving
the interpretation of dreams to uncover
unconscious conflicts
E
Early recollections a personality
assessment technique in which our earliest
memories, whether of real events or
fantasies, are assumed to reveal the
primary interest of our life.
Ego to Freud, the rational aspect of the
controlling the instincts according to the
reality principle; to Jung, the conscious
aspect of personality
Ego identity the self-image formed
during adolescence that integrates our
ideas of what we are and what we want to
be.
Ego-ideal a component of the superego
that contains the moral or ideal behaviors
for which a person should strive.
Electra complex during the phallic
stage, the unconscious desire of a girl for
her father, accompanied by a desire to
replace or destroy her mother
Encounter groups a group therapy
technique in which people learn about their
feelings and about how they relate to (or
encounter) one another
Entropy principle a tendency toward
balance or equilibrium within the
personality; the ideal is an equal distribution
of psychic energy over all structures of the
personality.
Environmental-mold traits source
traits that are learned from social and
environmental interactions
Epigenetic principle of maturation
the idea that human development is
governed by a sequence of stages that
depend on genetic or hereditary factors.
Equivalence principle the continuing
redistribution of energy within a personality;
if the energy expended on certain conditions
or activities weakens or disappears, that
energy is transferred elsewhere in the
personality.
Ergs permanent constitutional source
traits that provide energy for goal-directed
behavior. Ergs are the basic innate units of
motivation.
Experimental group in an experiment,
the group that is exposed to the
experimental treatment
Expressive behavior spontaneous and
seemingly purposeless behavior, usually
displayed without our conscious awareness.
Explanatory style is a way of
explaining to ourselves our relative lack of
control over our environment. An
optimistic explanatory style can prevent
learned helplessness; a pessimistic
explanatory style spreads helplessness to
all facets of life.
External locus of control a belief that
reinforcement is under the control of other
people, fate, or luck
Externalization a way to defend against
the conflict caused by the discrepancy
between an idealized and a real self-image
by projecting the conflict onto the outside
world.
Extinction the process of eliminating a
behavior by withholding reinforcement.
Extraversion an attitude of the psyche
characterized by an orientation toward the
external world and other people.
F
Factor analysis a statistical technique
based on correlations between several
measures, which may be explained in terms
of underlying factors.
Feminine psychology to Horney, a
revision of psychoanalysis to encompass
the psychological conflicts inherent in the
traditional ideal of womanhood and
womens roles
Fictional finalism the idea that there is
an imagined or potential goal that guides
our behavior
Fixation a condition in which a portion of
libido remains invested in one of the
psychosexual stages because of excessive
frustration or gratification.
Fixed role therapy a psychotherapeutic
technique in which the client acts out
constructs appropriate for a fictitious
person.
Free association a technique in which
the patient says whatever comes to mind. In
other words, it is a kind of daydreaming out
loud.
Fully functioning person Rogerss
term for self-actualization, for developing all
facets of the self
Functional analysis an approach to the
study of behavior that involves assessing
the frequency of a behavior, the situation in
which it occurs, and the reinforcers
associated with it
Functional autonomy of motives the
idea that motives in the normal, mature
adult are independent of the childhood
experiences in which they originally
appeared.
G condition the experimenter manipulates to
Growth (being) needs the higher
needs; although growth needs are less
necessary than deficit needs for survival,
they involve the realization and fulfillment of
human potential.
H facets of the personality.
Hierarchy of needs an arrangement of
innate needs, from strongest to weakest,
that activates and directs behavior.
Historical determinism the view that
personality is basically fixed in the early
years of life and subject to little change
thereafter
I been reinforced
Id to Freud, the aspect of personality
allied with the instincts; the source of
psychic energy, the id operates according to
the pleasure principle.
Idealized self-image for normal people,
the self-image is an idealized picture of
oneself built on a flexible, realistic
assessment of ones abilities.
Identity crisis the failure to achieve ego
identity during adolescence
Incongruence a discrepancy between a
persons self-concept and aspects of his or
her experience.
Independent variable in an
experiment, the stimulus variable or
learn its effect on the dependent variable.
Individual psychology Adlers theory
of personality
Individuation a condition of
psychological health resulting from the
integration of all conscious and unconscious
Inferiority complex a condition that
develops when a person is unable to
compensate for normal inferiority feelings
Inferiority feelings the normal condition
of all people; the source of all human
striving
Instinctive drift the substitution of
instinctive behaviors for behaviors that had
Instinctoid needs Maslows term for the
innate needs in his needs-hierarchy theory.
Instincts in Freuds system, mental
representations of internal stimuli, such as
hunger, that drive a person to take certain
actions.
Internal locus of control a belief that
reinforcement is brought about by our own
behavior.
Introversion an attitude of the psyche
characterized by an orientation toward ones
own thoughts and feelings.
J M
Jonah complex the fear that
maximizing our potential will lead to a
situation with which we will be unable to
cope
L actualizers, which involves maximizing
Latency period to Freud, the period
during which the sex instinct is dormant,
sublimated in school activities, sports, and
hobbies, and in developing friendships with
members of the same sex.
L-data life-record ratings of behaviors
observed in real-life situations, such as the
classroom or office.
Learned helplessness a condition
resulting from the perception that we have
no control over our environment
Libido to Freud, the form of psychic
energy, manifested by the life instincts, that
drives a person toward pleasurable
behaviors and thoughts. To Jung, a broader
and more generalized form of psychic
energy.
Life instincts the drive for ensuring
survival of the individual and the species by
satisfying the needs for food, water, air, and
sex
Life-history reconstruction Jungs
type of case study that involves examining a
persons past experiences to identify
developmental patterns that may explain
present neuroses.
Maldevelopment a condition that
occurs when the ego consists solely of a
single way of coping with conflict.
Metamotivation the motivation of self-
personal potential rather than striving for a
particular goal object.
Metaneeds states of growth or being
toward which self-actualizers evolve.
Metapathology a thwarting of self-
development related to failure to satisfy the
metaneeds.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
an assessment test based on Jungs
psychological types and the attitudes of
introversion and extraversion.
N
Negative reinforcement the
strengthening of a response by the removal
of an aversive stimulus
Neurotic competitiveness an
indiscriminate need to win at all costs
Neurotic needs ten irrational defenses
against anxiety that become a permanent
part of personality and that affect behavior.
Neurotic trends three categories of
behaviors and attitudes toward oneself and
others that express a persons needs;
Horneys revision of the concept of neurotic
needs
O possesses a penis; this is accompanied by
Object relations theories outgrowths
of psychoanalytic theory that focus more on
relationships with the objects (such as the
mother) that satisfy instinctual needs, rather
than on the needs themselves.
Oedipus complex during the phallic
stage, the unconscious desire of a boy for
his mother, accompanied by a desire to
replace or destroy his father
Operant behavior behavior emitted
spontaneously or voluntarily that operates
on the environment to change it.
Operant conditioning the procedure
by which a change in the consequences of
a response will affect the rate at which the
response occurs
Opposition principle Jungs idea that
conflict between opposing processes or
tendencies is necessary to generate psychic
energy.
Organismic valuing process the
process by which we judge experiences in
terms of their value for fostering or hindering
our actualization and growth
P
Peak experience a moment of intense
ecstasy, similar to a religious or mystical
experience, during which the self is
transcended
Penis envy the envy the female feels
toward the male because the male
a sense of loss because the female does
not have a penis.
Permeability the idea that constructs
can be revised and extended in light of new
experiences.
Perseverative functional autonomy
the level of functional autonomy that relates
to low-level and routine behaviors
Persona archetype the public face or
role a person presents to others.
Personal construct theory Kellys
description of personality in terms of
cognitive processes: We are capable of
interpreting behaviors and events and of
using this understanding to guide our
behavior and to predict the behavior of other
people.
Personal dispositions traits that are
peculiar to an individual, as opposed to
traits shared by a number of people
Personal unconscious the reservoir of
material that was once conscious but has
been forgotten or suppressed
Personal-document technique a
method of personality assessment that
involves the study of a persons written or
spoken records.
Personality the unique, relatively
enduring internal and external aspects of a
persons character that influence behavior in
different situations.
Person-centered therapy Rogerss
approach to therapy in which the client is
assumed to be responsible for changing his
or her personality.
Play constructions a personality
assessment technique for children in which
structures assembled from dolls, blocks,
and other toys are analyzed.
Pleasure principle the principle by
which the id functions to avoid pain and
maximize pleasure
Positive regard acceptance, love, and
approval from others
Positive self-regard the condition
under which we grant ourselves acceptance
and approval
Primary-process thought childlike
thinking by which the id attempts to satisfy
the instinctual drives
Projection a defense mechanism that
involves attributing a disturbing impulse to
someone else.
Projective test a personality
assessment device in which subjects are
presumed to project personal needs, fears,
and values onto their interpretation or
description of an ambiguous stimulus
Propriate functional autonomy the
level of functional autonomy that relates to
our values, self-image, and lifestyle
Proprium Allports term for the ego or
self.
Psyche Jungs term for personality.
Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freuds theory
of personality and system of therapy for
treating mental disorders.
Psychohistorical analysis the
application of Eriksons lifespan theory,
along with psychoanalytic principles, to the
study of historical figures
Punishment the application of an
aversive stimulus following a response in an
effort to decrease the likelihood that the
response will recur.
Q
Q-data delf-report questionnaire ratings
of our characteristics, attitudes, and
interests.
Q-sort technique a self-report
technique for assessing aspects of the self-
concept

R memories
Range of convenience the spectrum of
events to which a construct can be applied
Rationalization a defense mechanism
that involves reinterpreting our behavior to
make it more acceptable and less
threatening to us.
Reaction formation a defense
mechanism that involves expressing an id
impulse that is the opposite of the one that
is truly driving the person
Reality principle the principle by which
the ego functions to provide appropriate
constraints on the expression of the id
instincts
Regression a defense mechanism that
involves retreating to an earlier, less
frustrating period of life and displaying the
usually childish behaviors characteristic of
that more secure time.
Reinforcement the act of strengthening
a response by adding a reward thus
increases the likelihood that the response
will be repeated.
Reinforcement schedules patterns or
rates of providing or withholding reinforcers.
Reliability the consistency of response
to a psychological assessment device.
Repression a defense mechanism that
involves unconscious denial of the
existence of something that causes anxiety.
Resistance in free association, a
blockage or refusal to disclose painful
Respondent behavior responses
made to or elicited by specific
environmental stimuli.
S
Safety need a higher-level need for
security and freedom from fear.
Secondary traits the least important
traits, which a person may display
inconspicuously and inconsistently
Secondary-process thought mature
thought processes needed to deal rationally
with the external world.
Self-archetype to Jung, the archetype
that represents the unity, integration, and
harmony of the total personality
Self-actualization the fullest
development of the self.
Self-characterization sketch a
technique designed to assess a persons
construct system; that is, how a person
perceives himself or herself in relation to
other people.
Self-control the ability to exert control
over the variables that determine our
behavior.
Self-report inventory a personality
assessment technique in which subjects
answer questions about their behaviors and
feelings.

Sentiments to Cattell, environmental-
mold source traits that motivate behavior
Shadow archetype the dark side of the
personality; the archetype that contains
primitive animal instincts.
Social interest our innate potential to
cooperate with other people to achieve
personal and societal goals
Source traits stable and permanent
traits that are the basic factors of
personality, derived by the method of factor
analysis
Striving for superiority the urge
toward perfection or completion that
motivates each of us
Style of life a unique character structure
or pattern of personal behaviors and
characteristics by which each of us strives
for perfection
Sublimation a defense mechanism that
involves altering or displacing id impulses
by diverting instinctual energy into socially
acceptable behaviors.
Subliminal perception perception
below the threshold of conscious awareness
Successive approximation an
explanation for the acquisition of complex
behavior
Superego to Freud, the moral aspect of
personality; the internalization of parental
and societal values and standards
Superiority complex a condition that
develops when a person overcompensates
for normal inferiority feelings
Superstitious behavior persistent
behavior that has a coincidental and not a
functional relationship to the reinforcement
received.
Surface traits traits that show a
correlation but do not constitute a factor
because they are not determined by a
single source
Symptom analysis similar to catharsis,
the symptom analysis technique focuses on
the symptoms reported by the patient and
attempts to interpret the patients free
associations to those symptoms.
T
T-data data derived from personality
tests that are resistant to faking.
Temperament traits traits that describe
our general behavioral style in responding
to our environment
Token economy a behavior-
modification technique in which tokens,
which can be exchanged for valued objects
or privileges, are awarded for desirable
behaviors
Traits to Allport, distinguishing
characteristics that guide behavior. Traits
are measured on a continuum and are
subject to social, environmental, and
cultural influences. To Cattell, reaction
tendencies, derived by the method of factor
analysis that are relatively permanent parts
of the personality.

Tyranny of the shoulds an attempt to

realize an unattainable idealized self-image
by denying the true self and behaving in
terms of what we think we should be doing.

U
Unconditional positive regard
approval granted regardless of a persons
behavior. In Rogerss person-centered
therapy, the therapist offers the client
unconditional positive regard.

Unique traits traits possessed by one or

a few persons.

V
Validity the extent to which an
assessment device measures what it is
intended to measure.

W
Womb envy the envy a male feels
toward a female because she can bear
children and he cannot. Womb envy was
Horneys response to Freuds concept of
penis envy in females.

Word association test a projective

technique in which a person responds to a
stimulus word with whatever word comes to
mind.