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Advances in Engineering Software 34 (2003) 657662

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Non-linear finite element analysis of flexible pavements


Muhammad N.S. Hadi*, B.C. Bodhinayake
Faculty of Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia

Abstract
A research study is being undertaken to incorporate the realistic material properties of the pavement layers and the moving traffic load, in
the analysis of flexible pavements, using the finite element theory. As a preliminary step taken herein in this direction, a pavement structure
where field measurements have been carried out when subjected to a cyclic loading, is selected and modelled as a finite element model.
The analysis is being carried out using the finite element computer package ABAQUS/STANDARD, when this pavement model is subjected
to static and cyclic loading while considering the linear and non-linear material properties of the pavement layers. The results indicate that
displacements under cyclic loading when non-linear materials are present, are the closest to field measured deflections.
q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Pavement analysis; Flexible pavement; Finite element; Cyclic loading; Non-linear; ABAQUS

1. Introduction characteristics of pavement materials, in the analysis of


flexible pavements. A pavement section where Accelerated
In mechanistic methods used in the analysis of layered Loading Facility (ALF) trial has been carried out at
pavement systems under traffic load, the pavement layers Callington, South Australia (Site No. 5 of ALF trial at
are considered as homogenous, linear elastic and isotropic Callington), is selected for this study [6]. The reason for
and the loading is considered as static [1]. These mechan- selecting Australian Road Research Board (ARRBs)
istic methods work reasonably well, if the pavement accelerated loading facility is its capability of applying a
subgrade system behaves as a linear elastic system [2]. cyclic loading on pavement structure. At this site the
The use of multi-layer elastic theory together with static existing cracked asphalt surface course and granular base
loading is a rational approach compared with older course have been removed and replaced with two new
empirical pavement design methods. However, in the real asphalt layers before the ALF trial, so that the behaviour of
situation, these heterogeneous pavement layers behave far the new asphalt layers can be considered as linear and the
from these ideal conditions and are subjected to dynamic granular layers below the new asphalt layers can be
and cyclic loading. Researchers diverted their research to considered as non-linear.
the finite element method, which provides a better solution
in the dynamic analysis of pavements while considering the
heterogeneity, non-linearity and orthotropy condition of 2. Background
the pavement structure at the same time [3,4]. With the
availability of high-speed computers, finite element Design methods for flexible pavements have evolved
methods are gaining acceptance as the finite element since the turn of the last century. Empirical methods with or
analysis programs can handle complex geometry, boundary without a strength test were the early methods employed in
conditions and material properties with ease [5]. But still the design of flexible pavements. The method without
these research efforts are in their early stages. strength test refers to the soil classification system provided
Research is being undertaken to model the flexible by Hogentogler and Terzaghi [7]. In the method with
pavement as a finite element model, with defined boundary strength test the thickness of pavement was related to CBR
conditions and to investigate the effects of static and cyclic [8]. By 1950, two methods based on limited deflections and
loading when combined with linear and non-linear limited shear failure were presented. The method based on
limited deflection was presented by Kansas State Highway
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 61-2-4221-4762; fax: 61-2-4221-3238. Commission [9]. The method based on limited shear failure
E-mail address: mhadi@uow.edu.au (M.N.S. Hadi). was first presented by Barber [10] and later by McLeod [11].
0965-9978/$ - see front matter q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0965-9978(03)00109-1
658 M.N.S. Hadi, B.C. Bodhinayake / Advances in Engineering Software 34 (2003) 657662

Design curves based on road tests became available in adjusted until the computed responses are lower than the
1960s. Road Note 29 was published in 1960 to provide a failure criterion.
guide to the structural design of roads under British
condition of climate, materials, and traffic loading [12]. 3.2. Finite element analysis of pavement subgrade systems
Similarly, design curves were developed from AASHO road
test during that period [13]. In the finite element method the pavement layers are
In 1943, Burmister [14] presented a method for considered as a solid continuum. The solid continuum
determining stresses and displacements in a two-layer domain of the problem is then divided into sub domains.
elastic system. Since then a large number of computer These sub domains are then discretised into a number of
programs have been developed for calculating stresses, finite size elements. Assembly of all these elements will
strains and deflections of layered elastic system. Details of then represent the problem in the analysis. Finite elements
few such programs can be found in Refs. [15 19]. are interconnected by nodes at their common edges.
The stresses and strains calculated in these programs are This analysis provides an approximate solution for an
checked against the defined failure criteria. In all these engineering structure with various types of boundary
programs pavement layers are considered as homogeneous, conditions and under various types of loading using a
linear elastic. stiffness or energy formulation [25]. In the derivation of the
In real situations, the assumption of homogeneous, linear stiffness matrix for elements, three factors such as the
elastic pavement materials becomes invalid. Almost all geometry of elements, the degrees of freedom allowed for
pavement materials are not homogeneous. Especially the nodes to displace and the material properties of elements
granular materials are particulate in nature. Even though, are considered. This solution yields displacements at the
bituminous materials are mixed in hot mix plants, they are not nodal periods and stresses and strains at integration points.
homogeneous. Pavement materials are not linear elastic.
When exposed to stress, pavement materials will exhibit
elastic deformation as well as a number of different 4. Pavement subgrade model considered for the analysis
deformations, such as viscous, plastic and visco-elastic
deformations. Since all these deformations are stress The pavement structure selected for this study (site No. 5
dependent, the materials behave in a non-linear manner [20]. of ALF trial at Callington, South Australia) consists of a
The finite element method for the analysis of 45 mm thick asphalt layer (AC14) and a 55 mm thick
flexible pavements was first applied by Duncan [21]. asphalt layer (AC20) as the surfacing course, a 85 mm thick
Many computer programs based on this finite element granular (limestone crushed rock) layer as the base course, a
method were later developed. Details of two well-known 230 mm thick granular (limestone quarry rubble) layer,
programs developed in 1980s can be found in Refs. [22,23]. a 175 mm thick soil (calcareous clay sand) layer and a
The use of finite element method in determining the stresses, 370 mm thick soil (clayey sand) layer as the subbase course,
strains and deflections is becoming popular, with the and a subgrade (siltstone rubble) at the bottom.
availability of high-speed computers. Furthermore, this The pavement configuration is shown in Fig. 1. The material
method can handle structures with non-linear materials. properties of pavement layers are given in Table 1.
In all these programs, the traffic loading is considered as This pavement is subjected to a cyclic loading equal to
static loading. The incorporation of traffic loading as a 80 kN, applied through a dual wheel assembly, which
dynamic loading is still in its early stages of research. simulates the loading pattern of the ALF machine.
The interval at which the cyclic loading is applied, is
considered as 5 s, to simulate the unidirectional trafficking
3. Flexible pavement analysis speed of 20 km/h of the ALF machine.
A pavement structure having the layer configuration as
3.1. Static analysis of multi-layered pavement subgrade shown in Fig. 1 and having layer thicknesses and Elastic
systems Material properties as given in Table 1, is modelled as a
finite element model, using the finite element computer
In these methods each layer of the multi-layered linear package ABAQUS/STANDARD [26].
elastic pavement structure is characterised by its Youngs The results of laboratory and field tests carried out during
Modulus and its Poissons ratio [24]. In some programs the ALF trial at Callington, South Australia, are given in
resilient modulus based on the recoverable strain under Ref. [27]. In estimating the linear properties of pavement
repeated loading is used instead of Youngs Modulus. materials those test results are used together with
The stresses, strains and deflections at specified distances the AASHO Road Guide [28]. In estimating the non-linear
from the load are then theoretically calculated, assuming a properties of granular materials, results published in the
semi-infinite subgrade and infinite lateral boundaries. research report Stabilisation of Pavement Soils from South
These calculated responses are matched with defined failure Australia, are used [29]. This report presents the results of
criteria. Layer thicknesses and material properties are repeated load triaxial tests carried out on soils collected
M.N.S. Hadi, B.C. Bodhinayake / Advances in Engineering Software 34 (2003) 657662 659

Table 2
k-Values used for non-linear modelling M k1 u k2

Layer k1 k2

Base 6000 0.62


Sub-base 5800 0.56
Fill 5000 0.53
Rockfill 4600 0.52
Subgrade 4500 0.5

Due to symmetry, the pavement under a half wheel load


is considered in the analysis. A pavement block under half
wheel load, having a length of 1.3 m, a width of 1.5 m and a
depth of 3.16 m, is considered for the analysis.
This pavement structure is loaded in an area of
0.144 m 0.198 m which represents the half wheel load
Fig. 1. Pavement configuration.
as shown in Fig. 4.
In ABAQUS [26] this pavement block is modelled with
C3D27R (Continuum 3-Dimensional 27 node elements with
from two South Australian borrow pits. Nataatmadja [30], reduced integration) brick elements. C3D27R element type
has suggested a method of modelling non-linear is quadratic. Quadratic elements yield better solution than
characteristics of granular materials to suit Australian linear interpolation elements [33].
conditions. However, due to unavailability of exact Since the cracked asphalt surface has been removed and
parameters required for such modelling, the k theta replaced with a new asphalt layer of 100 mm thick (45 mm
model, is used in this study with assumed k-values (k1 thick layer and 55 mm thick layer) at the ALF site,
and k2 ) as given in Table 2 [31]. In estimating k1 ; k2 and u the stress strain relationships of the two asphalt layers are
values, Refs [28,29] are used. assumed to be in the elastic region. The stress strain
The 40 kN wheel load is assumed to be uniformly relationships of granular layers are assumed to be in the
distributed over the contact area between tyre and plastic region. Therefore two asphalt layers in the pavement
pavement. The size of contact area depends on the contact structure are considered as homogeneous, linear elastic and
pressure. The contact pressure is assumed as equal to the isotropic, while granular layers and the subgrade are
tyre pressure. Tyre pressure is equal to 700 kPa, as given in considered as linear initially and later as non-linear.
ARR198 [6]. In this study the top surface is considered as free
The contact area can be represented by two semicircles from any discontinuities (no cracks) or unevenness.
and a rectangle as shown in Fig. 2.
Further, this shape of two semicircles and a rectangle is
converted to a rectangle as suggested by Huang, having
an area of 0.5227 L2 and a width of 0.6 L; as shown in Fig.
3(a)
p
[32]. Since L 0:330 m; L {40=700=0:5227} the
contact area has the dimensions of 0.288 m 0.198 m as
shown in Fig. 3(b).

Table 1 Fig. 2. Contact area between tyre and pavement surface.


Layer thickness and elastic material properties

Layer Thickness Modulus of elasticity Poissons ratio


(mm) (kPa)

Asphalt (AC14) 45 1,800,000 0.3


Asphalt (AC20) 55 1,725,000 0.3
Base 85 138,000 0.35
Sub-base 230 96,600 0.35
Fill 175 72,450 0.35
Rock fill 370 62,100 0.35
Subgrade Infinite 55,200 0.35
Fig. 3. Equivalent contact area.
660 M.N.S. Hadi, B.C. Bodhinayake / Advances in Engineering Software 34 (2003) 657662

The vertical displacements of the nodes on the bottom


plane (plane ABCD) of the model are fixed.
The plane ADHE is considered as plane of symmetry
between the two wheels, thus the orthogonal
displacements to the plane are prevented.
The plane ABFE is considered as vertical plane passing
through midway of one wheel, thus the orthogonal
displacements to the plane are prevented.

6. Results

Displacements computed in the vertical direction of some


selected nodes, by the finite element package ABAQUS/
STANDARD and the deflections measured by the Multi-
Depth Deflection Gauge (MDDG) at similar locations during
ALF trial are presented graphically in Fig. 6.
The MDDG has measured deflections at depths of 100,
200, 600 and 2030 mm and at distances of 0, 200, 250, 300,
500, 600, 900, 1200 and 1500 mm from the point of load
application, after 28, 52.6, 77.3, 103.1, 135.6, 160.6, 185.9,
211.0, 232.2 and 257.4 kcycles of load application.
Fig. 4. Pavement considered in the analysis. Since, asphalt layers are considered as linear elastic in
this study, the deflections measured at a depth of 100 mm
The interfaces between layers are considered as fully are not considered for comparison. The deflections
bonded (no gaps) and rough, at this stage. measured at a depth of 600 mm are considered for
The three-dimensional view of the finite element model comparison, as they are the closest to the top of subgrade,
considered for the analysis, using computer package which is at a depth of 960 mm. The computer analysis is
ABAQUS/STANDARD is shown in Fig. 5. being limited to five cycles, in this study.
Fig. 6 shows that, if all pavement layers are considered as
linear elastic, the deflections are similar for both static and
5. Boundary conditions cyclic loading. The deflections increase when non-linear
materials are present. The deflections computed when
Since brick elements are considered in the finite element non-linear materials subjected to a cyclic loading are the
modelling, rotation is not allowed for at all nodes. closest to the field measured values.
Therefore, only three degrees of freedom have to be Fig. 6 shows further that, the deflections measured at the
considered in defining the boundary conditions. point of load application increase slightly with the increase
The following conditions are applied with reference to in the number of cycles of load application, while
Fig. 4, when defining the boundary conditions. deflections measured beyond 200 mm from the point of
load application, do not show any significant increase.
If the analysis is carried out with exact material properties
and extended loading cycles, an agreement between
displacements computed by ABAQUS/STANDARD and
deflections measured in the field could be achieved.

7. Summary and conclusion

A pavement structure consisting of two asphalt layers, a


granular base layer and a subbase layer on top of subgrade,
is modelled as a 3D finite element model using the finite
element computer package ABAQUS/STANDARD.
The analysis is carried out considering linear and
non-linear behaviour of pavement materials when they are
Fig. 5. Three-dimensional view of the finite element model. subjected to static and cyclic loading. Quadratic brick
M.N.S. Hadi, B.C. Bodhinayake / Advances in Engineering Software 34 (2003) 657662 661

Fig. 6. Deflections at a depth of 600 mm from the surface.

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