Does Ethical Climate Influence Unethical

Practices and Work Behaviour?

DAMODAR SUAR
ROOPLEKHA KHUNTIA

This study examines whether ethical climate influences managersunethical practices and work behaviour.
The sample comprised of 340 middle-level executives from twa private and two public sector companies.
Irrespective of the nature of the organization and the age of the managers, while a caring and professional
climate reduced only the manipulative behaviour of managers, an individual-centred climate consistently
fostered unethical practices of manipulation, cheating and violation of organizational norms. On work
behaviour, a caring and professional climate was conducive for increasing managers performance,
involvement, affective commitment, predominant intrinsic job satisfaction, extrinsic job satisfaction and
taking initiative; while an individual-centred climate was unfavourable for continuance commitment to
the organization.

Introduction climate has been defined as perceptions that are

Few attempts have been made to identify a variety
of individual and organizational factors that might
influence ethical decision making. Comparison
of different models of ethical decision making
recognizes the influence of the socio-moral cli-
mate of the organization on employees behav-
iour. An important factor that may influence the
employees ethical behaviour is argued to be the
ethical climate of an organization. While work
psychologically meaningful molar descriptions
that people can agree to characterize a systems
practices and procedures,2 the ethical climate of
an organization is the shared understanding about
what is correct behaviour.3 The ethical content of
prevailing organizational practices and procedures
constitutes ethical climate. This climate sets the
tone for decision making at managerial levels and
provides the criteria within which ethical issues
are identified, evaluated and resolved.

Damodar Suar is Associated Professor and Rooplekha Khuntia is Research Scholar, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721 302.

Downloaded from jhv.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 17, 2016

12
Although there is no consensus on a particular
typology of ethical climate, Victor and Cullen
introduced the concept of ethical climate to ex-
plain and predict ethical conduct in organiza-
tions. They used a two-dimensional theoretical
typology of ethical climate. The first dimension
represented the ethical criteria-egoism, benevo-
lence and principles-on which organizational
decision making was based. An egoistic criterion
implied that a consideration of what was in the
individuals best interest would dominate the
ethical reasoning process; a benevolent criterion
suggested that ethical decision making was based
on the consequences of the decision on others;
and in principled reasoning decisions were guided
by universal standards of right and wrong. The
second dimension represented the locus of
analysis used in ethical decisions-individual,
group (or local) and societal (or cosmopolitan)
level. At the individual level, the ethical climate
of an organization supported an individual source
for normative standards regarding ethical reason-
ing. The local level was supported by group
norms favouring ethical reasoning within an
organization. The cosmopolitan level was sup-
ported by norms favouring external sources for
ethical reasoning.
Cross-tabulation of the three ethical criteria
with the three loci of analysis resulted in nine the-
oretical dimensions. By factor analysing the
scores on nine ethical climate types, five climate
dimensions emerged: (a) caring; (b) law and code;
(c) rules; (d) instrumental; and (e) independence.
A caring climate put emphasis on the interests
and welfare of others. Organizations guided by
law and codes accommodated external standards
and principles in decision making, and a rule-
oriented climate referred to internal principles in
decision making. In an instrumental climate, self-
interest was the norm, and in an independent
climate individual standard of moral judgement
provided the criteria for decision making.
Downloaded from jhv.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 17, 2016
Studies have found a relationship between the
ethical climate and the ethical behaviour of em-
ployees.5 Because individuals often search out-
side themselves for guidance in ethical dilemmas,
organizations can moderate individual cognition
by institutionalizing ethics. Through institu-
tionalized norms, policies and procedures, an
organization signals its employees in deciding
what is just, right and fair behaviour. Thus, the
context perceived by organizational members is
likely to influence their response to ethical issues.
Ethical climate is likely to influence em-
ployees work bahaviour. The more marketers
perceived their companies as showing concern
for ethics, acting ethically and rewarding ethical
behaviour, the more positive was the resulting
influence on their commitment to organizations.
Victor and Cullen also speculated that incongru-
ence between dominant ethical climate and
employees ethics might lead to a greater likeli-
hood of turnover, job dissatisfaction and decreased
organizational co~rnmitment.8 It has also been
found that in a caring climate employees were
more satisfied, more committed and less likely
to quif.9 While a caring climate increased commit-
ment and supervisory satisfaction, an instrumental
climate decreased overall satisfaction.10 Thus,
varied dimensions of ethical climate are likely to
influence work behaviour differently.
This study focuses on middle-level managers.
Top management policies and strategies are
concretized for action at the middle level, and
corresponding actions are realized through
bottom-line managers and workmen. Middle-
level managers deal with breakdown in normal
flow of work and ensure smooth functioning of
the organization. Their perception and behaviour
are crucial for the effective functioning of the
organization.
The type of the organization (private vs public)
and age of employees are found to have a positive
influence on unethical practices and work

behaviour. Public sector organizations derive
power from state or political bodies and meet the
long-range interests and needs of the public. They
operate in an environment of red-tapism and
bureaucratic nepotism. Contrarily, private sector
companies have a constant drive to meet the
demands of the consumers. They operate in an
intense competitive environment and try to beat
their competitors. Their survival depends on re-
tention of market share along with profit maxim-
ization. They are sensitive and respond quickly
to the changing business environment.&dquo; Studies
on the work culture in private (including a fertil-
izer cooperative) and public sector companies in
India revealed two distinct cultures. 12 In the soft
work culture and pliant management of the public
sector, employees engaged in non-work activities,
social-personal interests, did not work hard, did
not have a positive influence on work and maxim-
ized personal gains. Managerial policies, prac-
tices and philosophy were more liberal. The
opposite existed in the private sector, a synergetic
work culture with assertive and people-oriented
management. Given these findings, the unethical
practices of employees are likely to be less and
work attitudes more favourable in private than
public sector companies.
As age increases, employees become more
ethical.3 Younger employees tend to have a more
liberal view and older ones a more adamant view
on unethical practices. 14 Older employees, by
virtue of their longer tenure are more exposed to
norms in the organization and are aware of the
adverse consequences of unethical practices that
reinforce them to be ethical. Because they have
financial security and are settled in jobs, they are
less likely to engage in unethical practices that
could jeopardize their security. I Older employees
were found to be better performers, more com-
mitted and more satisfied with their jobs than the
younger employees.&dquo; Based on this discussion,
we intend to control the confounding effects of
Downloaded from jhv.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 17, 2016
13
type of organization and age of managers on un-
ethical practices and work behaviour and propose
the following hypothesis:
Different dimensions of ethical climate influ-
ence unethical practices and work behaviour
differently.
Method
Sample
Permission to collect data was sought from the
authorities of two public sector and two private
sector manufacturing industries located in eastern
India. Four hundred middle-level managers from
the rank of assistant/junior managers were select-
ed randomly for the study. They were approached
individually and briefed about the purpose of the
study. They were given the questionnaires, as-
sured complete anonymity of their responses, and
requested to return the filled-in questionnaires
within a fortnight. The questionnaires were col-
lected personally. It resulted in the return of 340
(85 per cent) completed questionnaires. There
were female executives in such organizations, but
they were excluded to avoid contamination of
results by sex differences.
The sample comprised of 152 middle-level
managers from two private sector and 188
middle-level managers from two public sector
companies (Table 1). Almost all had nuclear
families. Barring three widowers and two un-
married persons in the private sector companies,
and 15 unmarried persons in public sector, the
rest were married. The private sector managers
were little older than their counterparts in the
public sector and had higher basic salaries, but
had less years of formal education than the man-
agers in public sector companies. However, man-
agers from both the sectors had similar duration
of service in their present organizations.
14
Measures
The questionnaire included measures of ethical
climate, unethical practices, performance, in-
volvement, commitment, job satisfaction and
initiative, along with the socio-demographic vari-
ables on age, education, length of service, salary,
number of promotions and
family members.
Ethical Climate
The ethical climate measure contained 10 items
from Victor and Cullens ethical climate question-
naire (ECQ).)8 The response categories against
each item were given on a 6-point Likert-type
scale-completely false (1), mostly false (2),
somewhat false (3), somewhat true (4), mostly
true (5) and completely true (6). All the items
were keyed positively. When the scores on the
current sample were factor analysed and rotated
through the varimax procedure, two factors
emerged that explained 50.74 per cent of total
variance (see Appendix). The first factor, named
caring and professional climate (CPC), loaded
significantly on seven items and explained
34.58 per cent of total variance. This factor also
included one item each from law and code, instru-
mental and rules dimensions of ECQ. The second
factor loaded significantly on three items and ex-
plained 16.16 per cent of variance. It was named
Downloaded from jhv.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 17, 2016
individual-centred climate (ICC). It included
two items from independent climate and one item
from instrumental climate of ECQ. The alpha re-
liability for CPC was 0.82 and for ICC was 0.57.
Unethical Practices
Fourteen items were taken from Newstorm and
Ruch, and Jones scales,)9 and three items were
developed to assess unfair and wrong practices.
Response categories against each item were on a
6-point Likert-type scale ranging from not at all
acceptable (1) to always acceptable (6). The
scores on the items were factor analysed using
the principal component method and rotated
through the varimax procedure. Three factors
were extracted that explained 56.85 per cent of
total variance. The first factor loaded significantly
on nine items and was manipulative and expedient
behaviour. Sample items included, giving/accept-
ing gifts in exchange for preferential treatment
and falsifying time/quality reports. The second
factor, containing five items, was cheating in per-
formance and misuse of finance. Sample items
included, taking longer time than necessary to
do a job and padding an expense account. The
third factor, containing three negatively keyed
items, was violation of organizational norms.
Sample items included, being very secretive
about organizations sensitive information and

sticking to organizations rules and policies. The
alpha reliability for manipulative and expedient
behaviour was 0.89, for cheating in performance
and misuse of financial resource 0.82, and for
violation of organizational norms 0.51. High
scores indicated high value for each variable.
Job Performance
Job perfonnance was measured through seven
items-taking decisions, meeting deadlines,
producing satisfactory quality of work, producing
satisfactory quantity of work, planning and organ-
izing work, facing conflict situations and feeling
confident enough to handle the job-from
Abrainis job performance scale .20 The response
categories against each item were given on a 5-
point Likert-type scale-very poor (1), poor (2),
neither poor nor well (3), well (4), very well (5).
When scores on the items were factor analysed
using the principal component method, one factor
emerged that explained 49.77 per cent of total
variance. The alpha reliability of the scale was
0.82. High scores indicated high performance.
Job Involvement
Six items were taken from Lodhal and Kejners
job involvement scale.2 Response descriptions
against each item were given on a 4-point Likert-
type scale ranging from strongly disagree (1)
to strongly agree (4). All the items were posi-
tively keyed. Sample items included, most of my
interests are centred around my job and I like
to be absorbed in my job most of the time. When
scores on the items were factor analysed using
the principal component method, one factor
emerged that explained 46.16 per cent of total
variance. The alpha reliability of the scale was
0.76. High scores indicated more involvement.
Organizational Commitment
Eight items were taken from the Mowday
scale to measure organizational commitment.22
Downloaded from jhv.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 17, 2016
15
Response categories against each item were on a
5-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly
disagree (1 ) to strongly agree (5). When scores
on the items were factor analysed using the
principal component method and rotated through
the varimax procedure, two extracted factors
explained 48.60 per cent of total variance. The
first factor, affective commitment, contained
five items and its alpha reliability was 0.66.
Sample items were, I am proud to say that I am
a part of this organization and I really care about
the fate of this organization. The second factor
containing three negatively keyed items was
continuance commitment with alpha reliability
0.53. Sample items included, there is not too
much to be gained by sticking with this organ-
ization indefinitely and deciding to work for this
organization was a definite mistake on my part.
High scores indicated more affective and con-
tinued commitment.
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction measured using a 14-item
was
questionnaire Kanungo, Misra and Dayal. 21
of
The responses against each item were given on a
5-point scale ranging from highly dissatisfied
(1) to highly satisfied (5). When the scores on
these items were factor analysed using the prin-
cipal component method and rotated through the
varimax procedure, two factors were extracted
that explained 49.87 per cent of total variance.
The first factor that loaded significantly on eight
items was predominant intrinsic satisfaction.
Sample items included, to what extent are you
satisfied or dissatisfied with ... responsibility and
advancement. The second factor loaded signifi-
cantly on six items was extrinsic satisfaction.
Sample items were, to what extent are you satis-
fied or dissatisfied with ... basic salary and
working hours. The alpha reliability of pre-
dominant intrinsic satisfaction was 0.86 and of
et al. extrinsic satisfaction 0.74. High scores indicated
more intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction.
16

Taking Initiative Results

Initiative taking was measured drawing eleven Control Variable

items from the checklist provided by Kelly and
Caplan.24 The response descriptions against each
item were given on a 5-point Likert-type scale
ranging from never (1) to almost always (5).
When the scores of the items on the current
sample were factor analysed using the principal
component method, one factor was extracted that
explained 43.86 per cent of total variance. Sample
items included, I do more than I am asked to do
and I look for other interesting projects to work
on when my present work gets closer to the finish
line. The alpha reliability was 0.87. Higher
scores indicated taking more initiative.
Middle-level managers in the public sector vio-
lated the organizations norms more than man-
agers in the private sector. Managers in both
sectors endorsed manipulation and cheating in
performance and misuse of finance to the same
extent. Managers in the private sector had higher
performance, job involvement, affective commit-
ment, predominant intrinsic job satisfaction and
initiative than managers in the public sector. By
and large, middle-level managers in the private
sector were less unethical and had more favour-
able work behaviour than managers in the public
sector (Table 2).

Table 2
Unethical Practices and Work Behaviour Against Sector and Age

Downloaded from jhv.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 17, 2016


Middle-level managers belonging to different
age groups differed on dimensions of unethical
practices except violation of organizational
norms. Post-hoc analysis using Tukeys test
further confirmed that cheating in performance
and misuse of finance were more acceptable to
middle-level managers in the age group of
46-60 years than the same cadre in the age group
of 24-35 years and 36-45 years. On work behav-
iour, middle-level managers in the age group of
46-60 years had significantly higher involvement,
affective commitment, predominant intrinsic
satisfaction, extrinsic satisfaction and initiative
than the age group 24-35 years. In all the vari-
ables of work behaviour except extrinsic satis-
faction, the managers in the age group of 36-45
years had significantly more positive attitudes
towards work than managers in the age group of
24-35 years (Table 2). In Indian culture, with
permanent jobs and corruption 21 older managers
were more unethical towards the fag end of their
career to amass wealth, false reputation and
happiness, but had more positive work behaviour
than younger managers. These findings con-
finned our assertion that the nature of the organ-
ization and age of the managers influenced
unethical practices and work behaviour.
Ethical Climate, Unethical
Practices and Work Behaviour
CPC was more prevalent in the private (M
31.74, SD 5.14) than public sector (M = 27.29,
=
SD 5.85; t (338) 7.45, p < 0.001). However,
= =
ICC was equally prevalent in private (M= 10.51,
SD 2.80) and public (M = 10.12, SD = 2.74)
=
sector companies. To control the confounding
effects of sector and age on unethical practices
and work behaviour, sector as a dummy variable
(private 1, public 0) and age of managers
= =
were entered in the first step of regression ana-
lysis. CPC and ICC did not correlate significantly,
Downloaded from jhv.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 17, 2016
17
r =
0.04, The correlation was low and we did not
suspect multi-collinearity of the two climate
dimensions. The two climate dimensions were
entered simultaneously in the second step of
regression analysis. When the effects of sector
and age were partialled out, the perceived CPC
deterred only manipulative bahaviour, whereas
the perceived ICC reinforced manipulation,
cheating and violation of organizational norms.
Indeed, perceived ICC increased unethical prac-
tices of middle-level executives.
CPC boosts performance, job involvement,
affective commitment, predominant intrinsic job
satisfaction, extrinsic job satisfaction and taking
initiative. ICC decreased the commitment of
middle-level managers in continuing their service
in the same organization. Supporting the hypo-
thesis, CPC enhanced work behaviour and ICC
reinforced unethical practices of middle-level
managers (Table 3).
Discussion
Ethical climate dimensions have significantly
predicted unethical practices and work behaviour.
Irrespective of the nature of the organization and
age of managers, a caring and professional cli-
mate was favourable for increasing managers
performance, involvement, affective commit-
ment, predominant intrinsic job satisfaction,
extrinsic job satisfaction and taking initiative. On
=
the other hand, an individual centred climate
reinforced unethical practices and decreased the
commitment of middle-level managers.
Empirical studies had shown that the dimen-
sions of ethical climate varied in different organ-
izations.26 Victor and Cullen contended that
different types of ethical climate could exist even
in different departments of an organization. 21
Climate perception was influenced by organiza-
tional values and culture. In Indian organizations,
employees prefer to maintain a personal rather
18

Downloaded from jhv.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 17, 2016


than a professional relationship with their
superiors, and, hence, readily surrender to their
authority and demands. They depend on their
superiors for support, advice, guidance and help.
They are used to a lifestyle filled with ample rest
and relaxation, and tend to portray themselves
as superior to others.&dquo; In such a set-up, CPC
emerged to be the dominant climate in private
sector companies. CPC was characterized by
efficiency, concern for others good, fairness to
the customer and public, cost control, compliance
with organizational norms, and obedience to law
and professional standards. Such a climate called
for managerial accountability and created an
atmosphere that was conducive for better perfor-
mance, involvement, affective commitment, job
satisfaction and taking initiative, and aversive to
manipulative practices.
An ICC was perceived as the absence of re-
strictions, rules and regulations. Such a climate
fostered a focus on self-interest and nurtured
unethical practices. Indians favour a hierarchical
system of administration. They exercise little
discretion and are conditioned to depend on their
superiors.&dquo; Breaking away from such traditions,
ICC encourages the employees to follow their
own judgements- and standards in deciding what
is right or wrong. Discussion during data col-
lection revealed that the studied organizations
were undergoing restructuring. Job insecurities
Downloaded from jhv.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 17, 2016
19
loomed large among managers. Individual goals
took precedence over organizational goals. Man-
agers adopted unscrupulous means to serve their
interests.
This study focuses on unethical practices and
work behaviour. Unethical behaviour may some-
times pay off, but ethical behaviour is the best
long-term business strategy.3 Work behaviour
of managers can ensure current performance
and organizational effectiveness. The gist that
emerges is that the two dimensions of ethical
climate are determinants of unethical practices
and work behaviour. Organizations can dis-
courage unethical practices by dismantling an
individual-centred approach held by its members
and promote work behaviour by encouraging a
caring and professional climate.
The study has certain limitations that must be
acknowledged. First, data has been procured
through self-reported inventories that are likely
to be tainted with a social desirability effect.
Qualitative research needs to be carried out to
ascertain the external validity of the results.
Second, the findings were obtained after studying
four manufacturing units only. Caution must be
exercised in generalizing the findings to other
organizations. Notwithstanding the limitations,
we generated empirical evidence on the import-
ance of an ICC that reinforced unethical practices
and a CPC that facilitated work behaviour.
20
Appendix
Unrotated and Rotated Factor
NOTES AND REFERENCES
1. A. Sinclair, Approaches to Organizational Culture and
Ethics, Journal of Business Ethics, 1993, 12(1),
63-73.
2. B. Schneider, Organizational Climates: An Essay,
Personnel Psychology, 1975, 28(4), 447-79.
3. B. Victor and J.B. Cullen, A Theory and Measure of
Ethical Climate in Organizations, in W.C. Fredric and
L.E. Preston, eds, Research in Social Performance and
Policy (Vol. 9) (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1987),
51-71.
4. Ibid.; B. Victor and J.B. Cullen, The Organizational
Basis of Ethical Work Climates, Administrative
Science Quarterly, 1988, 33(1), 101-25.
5. S.P. Deshpande, The Impact of Ethical Climate Types
on Facets of Job Satisfaction, Journal of Business
Downloaded from jhv.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 17, 2016
Loadings on Ethical Climate
Ethics, 1996, 15(6), 655-60; D.J. Fritzsche, Ethical
Climates and the Ethical Dimensions in Decision-
making, Journal of Business Ethics, 2000, 24(2),
125-40.
6. L.K. Trevino, Ethical Decision Making in Organiza-
tions : A Person-Situation Interactionist Model,
Academy of Management Review, 1986, 11(3), 601-17.
7. S.D. Hunt, V.R. Wood and L.B. Chonko, Corporate
Ethical Values and Organizational Commitment
in Marketing, Journal of Marketing, 1989, 53(1),
79-90.
8. Victor and Cullen, The Organizational Basis of Ethical
Work Climates (n. 4 above).
9. L. Rhoades, R. Eisenberger and S. Armeli, Affective
Commitment to the Organization: The Contribution of

PerceivedOrganizational Support, Journal of Applied
Psychology, 2001, 86(5), 825-36.
10. L.K. Trevino, K.D. Butterfield and D.L. McCabe, The
Ethical Context in Organizations: Influences on
Employee Attitudes and Behaviors, Business Ethics
Quarterly, 1998, 8(3), 447-76.
11. J.A. Petrick and J.F. Quinn, Management Ethics:
Integrity at Work (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1997).
12. J.B.P. Sinha, Work Culture in the Indian Context (New
Delhi: Sage Publications, 1990), 199-200.
13. S.P. Deshpande, Managers Perception of Proper
Ethical Conduct: The Effects of Sex, Age, and Level of
Education, Journal ofBusiness Ethics, 1997, 16(1),
79-85; P.E. Mudrack, Age-related Differences in
Machiavellianism in Adult Sample, Psychological
Report, 1989, 64(3), 1047-50.
14. O.C. Brenner, Relations of Age and Education to
Managers Work Values, Psychological Reports, 1988,
63(2), 639-42.
15. M. Lerner, The Belief in a Just World (New York:
Plenum, 1980).
16. P.J. Serwinek, Demographic and Related Differences
in Ethical Views Among Small Business, Journal of
Business Ethics, 1992, 11 (7), 555-66.
17. D.A. Waldman and B.J. Avolio, A Meta-analysis of
Age Difference in Job Performance, Journal of Applied
Psychology, 1986, 71(1), 33-38; B.M. Meglino, E.C.
Ravlin and C. Adkins, A Work Value Approach to
Corporate Culture: A Field Test of the Value Congruence
Process and Its Relationship to Individual Outcomes,
Journal of Applied Psychology, 1989, 74(3), 424-32;
A.T. White and P.E. Spector, An Investigation of Age-
related Factors in the Age/Job Satisfaction Relation-
ship, Psychology and Aging, 1987, 2(3), 261-65.
18. Victor and Cullen, The Organizational Basis of Ethical
Work Climates (n. 4 above).
19. J.W. Newstorm and W.A. Ruch, The Ethics of Manage-
ment and the Management of Ethics, MSU Business
Topics, 1975, 23(2), 29-37; W.A. Jones, Jr. Student
Views of "Ethical" Issues: A Situational Analysis,
Journal ofBusiness Ethics, 1990, 9(3), 201-5.
Downloaded from jhv.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on September 17, 2016
21
20. D.J. Abrainis, Job Stressors, Strain, Job Performance,
Social Support and Social Conflict: Casual Relationship
in a Four-wave Longitudinal Panel Study, Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1985.
21. T.M. Lodhal and M. Kejner, The Definition and
Measurement of Job Involvement, Journal of Applied
Psychology, 1965, 49(1), 24-33.
22. R.T. Mowday, R.M. Steers and L.W. Porter, The
Measure of Organizational Commitment, Journal of
Vocational Behaviour, 1979, 14(2), 224-47.
23. R.N. Kanungo, S. Misra and I. Dayal, Relationship of
Job Involvement to Perceived Importance of Satis-
faction of Employee Needs, International Review of
Applied Psychology, 1975, 24(1), 49-59.
24. R. Kelly and J. Caplan, How Bell Labs Creates Star
Performers, Harvard Business Review, 1991, 69(4),
128-39.
25. See http://www.transparency.org.
26. J. Agarwal and D.C. Malloy, Ethical Work Climate
Dimensions in a Not-for-Profit Organization: An
Empirical Study, Journal of Business Ethics, 1999,
20(1), 1-14; T. Barnett and V. Cheryl, The Moderating
Effect of Individuals Perceptions of Ethical Work
Climates on Ethical Judgements and Behavioral
Intentions, Journal of Business Ethics, 2000, 27(4),
351-62; S.P. Deshpande, E. George and J. Joseph,
Ethical Climates and Managerial Success in Russian
Organizations, Journal of Business Ethics, 2000, 23(2),
211-17; J.C. Wimbush, J.M. Shepard and S.J.
Markham, An Examination of the Relationship
Between Ethical Climate and Ethical Behaviour from
Multiple Levels of Analysis, Journal of Business
Ethics, 1997, 16(12), 1705-16.
27. Victor and Cullen, The Organizational Basis of Ethical
Work Climates (n. 4 above).
28. J.B.P. Sinha and M. Sinha, Middle Class Values in
Oranizational Perspectives, Journal of Social and
Economic Studies, 1974,1(1),95-114.
29. Ibid.
30. M.G. Velasquez, Business Ethics: Concepts and Cases
(New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India, 2002), 5.