Ex.No.

SPECTRUM ANALYZER Date:

AIM
(a) To obtain the spectrum of a given analog and digital modulated signals by using spectrum
analyzer. (a) AM (b)FM/FSK
(b) To obtain the Simulation of modulated signals spectrum.

EQUIPMENTS, DEVICES AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED

S.NO EQUIPEMENTS/COMPONENTS RANGE QUANTITY
1 Spectrum analyzer 1GHz 1
2 AM Circuit 1
3 FM Circuit 1
4 FSK Circuit 1

THEORY
The analysis of electrical signal in time and frequency analysis are available. The analyses in
time domain take place using an oscilloscope. The time domain is used to recover relative timing and
phase information which are needed to characterize electric circuit behavior, but all circuits need are
not uniquely characterized from it. Circuit element like amplifier, oscillator, mixers, modulator,
detectors and filter are the best characterized by their frequency response information.

The frequency information is best obtained by viewing electrical signals in frequency

domain. One instrument which displays the frequency domain is the spectrum analyzer. it
graphically displays voltage or power as a function of frequency on a CRT. Frequency domain is a
geographical representation of signal amplitude as a function of frequency. It consists of information
but not in time domain, hence spectrum analyzer has certain advantage compared with an
oscilloscope. Spectrum analyzer, a device used to examine the spectral composition of some
electrical, acoustic or optical waveform. An instrument for the analysis and measurement of signals
throughout the electromagnetic spectrum. Spectrum analyzers are available for sub audio, audio, and
radio frequency measurements, as well as for microwave and optical signal measurements.

Types of spectrum analyzer

A swept-tuned spectrum analyzer uses a superheterodyne receiver to down-convert a portion

of a input signal spectrum (using a VCO and a mixer) to the center frequency of a BPF. With a
superheterodyne architecture, a VCO is swept through a range of frequencies, enabling the
consideration of the full frequency range of the instrument.

A FFT spectrum analyzer computes the DFT, a mathematical process that transforms a
waveform into the component of its frequency spectrum, of the input signal.
Uses of spectrum analyzer

Spectrum analyzer are widely used to measure the frequency response, noise
and distortion characteristics of all kinds of RF circuitry, by comparing the
input and output spectra.
In telecommunication, spectrum analyzers are used to determine occupied
bandwidth and track interference sources.
Spectrum analysis can be used at AF frequencies to analyze the harmonics of
an AF signal.

Spectrum analyzer advantages and disadvantages

Advantages:

A swept-tuned spectrum analyzer:

Swept spectrum analyzer to operate up to frequencies of many GHz.

Swept spectrum analyzer is only capable of detecting continuous signals.

A FFT spectrum analyzer

FFT spectrum analyzer is able to capture a sample very quickly and

then anayse it. And they are able to capture phase information.

Disadvantages:

Swept spectrum analyzer detecting continuous signals as time is

required to capture a give sweep, and they are not able to capture any
phase information.
FFT spectrum analyzer is that its frequency range is limited by the
sampling rate of the analogue to digital converter. While ADC
technology has improved considerably, this places a major limitation
on the bandwidths available using these analyzers.

Spectrum parameter

Center frequency in spectrum analyzer: The frequency halfway between the stop and
start a frequency on a spectrum analyzer display is known as the spectrum analyzer.

Span in spectrum analyzer: Span specifies the range between the start and stop
frequencies.
PROCEDURE
1. Ring-up the modulator circuit as show in the figure.
2. Set the message signal of amplitude and frequency.

3. Set the carrier signal of amplitude and frequency.

4. Observe the modulated waveform (AM, FM and FSK)

5. The modulated signal output given as the input of the spectrum analyzer.

6. Finally we observe the spectrum of various modulated signals.

RESULT
Thus the spectrum analysis of various (analog/digital) modulated signals was done by
spectrum analyzer and also simulations were done.
 Ex.No. MOBILE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM Date:

AIM
To execute various commands in the mobile communication trainer kit (to utilize various
services in the mobile communication system).

EQUIPMENTS, DEVICES AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED

S.NO EQUIPMENTS QUANTITY
1 mobile communication 1
trainer kit

2 PC 1

THEORY:
AT commands

AT commands are instructions used to control a modem. AT is the abbreviation of

ATtention. Every command line starts with "AT" or "at". That's why modem commands are called
AT commands. Many of the commands that are used to control wired dial-up modems, such as ATD
(Dial), ATA (Answer), ATH (Hook control) and ATO (Return to online data state), are also
supported by GSM/GPRS modems and mobile phones. Besides this common AT command set,
GSM/GPRS modems and mobile phones support an AT command set that is specific to the GSM
technology, which includes SMS-related commands like AT+CMGS (Send SMS message),
AT+CMSS (Send SMS message from storage), AT+CMGL (List SMS messages) and AT+CMGR
(Read SMS messages).

Note that the starting "AT" is the prefix that informs the modem about the start of a command line. It
is not part of the AT command name. For example, D is the actual AT command name in ATD and
+CMGS is the actual AT command name in AT+CMGS. However, some books and web sites use
them interchangeably as the name of an AT command.

Various AT commands with a GSM/GPRS modem or mobile phone.

Here are some of the tasks that can be done using AT commands with a GSM/GPRS modem
or mobile phone:

Get basic information about the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For example, name of
manufacturer (AT+CGMI), model number (AT+CGMM), IMEI number (International
Mobile Equipment Identity) (AT+CGSN) and software version (AT+CGMR).
Get basic information about the subscriber. For example, MSISDN (AT+CNUM) and IMSI
number (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) (AT+CIMI).
 Get the current status of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For example, mobile
phone activity status (AT+CPAS), mobile network registration status (AT+CREG), radio
signal strength (AT+CSQ), battery charge level and battery charging status (AT+CBC).
Establish a data connection or voice connection to a remote modem (ATD, ATA, etc).
Send and receive fax (ATD, ATA, AT+F*).
Send (AT+CMGS, AT+CMSS), read (AT+CMGR, AT+CMGL), write (AT+CMGW) or
delete (AT+CMGD) SMS messages and obtain notifications of newly received SMS
messages (AT+CNMI).
Read (AT+CPBR), write (AT+CPBW) or search (AT+CPBF) phonebook entries.
Perform security-related tasks, such as opening or closing facility locks (AT+CLCK),
checking whether a facility is locked (AT+CLCK) and changing passwords (AT+CPWD).
(Facility lock examples: SIM lock [a password must be given to the SIM card every time the
mobile phone is switched on] and PH-SIM lock [a certain SIM card is associated with the
mobile phone. To use other SIM cards with the mobile phone, a password must be entered.])
Control the presentation of result codes / error messages of AT commands. For example, you
can control whether to enable certain error messages (AT+CMEE) and whether error
messages should be displayed in numeric format or verbose format (AT+CMEE=1 or
AT+CMEE=2).
Get or change the configurations of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For example,
change the GSM network (AT+COPS), bearer service type (AT+CBST), radio link protocol
parameters (AT+CRLP), SMS center address (AT+CSCA) and storage of SMS messages
(AT+CPMS).
Save and restore configurations of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For example,
save (AT+CSAS) and restore (AT+CRES) settings related to SMS messaging such as the
SMS center address.

Note that mobile phone manufacturers usually do not implement all AT commands, command
parameters and parameter values in their mobile phones. Also, the behavior of the implemented AT
commands may be different from that defined in the standard. In general, GSM/GPRS modems
designed for wireless applications have better support of AT commands than ordinary mobile
phones.

In addition, some AT commands require the support of mobile network operators. For example, SMS
over GPRS can be enabled on some GPRS mobile phones and GPRS modems with the +CGSMS
command (command name in text: Select Service for MO SMS Messages). But if the mobile
network operator does not support the transmission of SMS over GPRS, you cannot use this feature.

Types of AT commands.

There are two types of AT commands: basic commands and extended commands.

Basic commands are AT commands that do not start with "+". For example, D (Dial), A (Answer), H
(Hook control) and O (Return to online data state) are basic commands.

Extended commands are AT commands that start with "+". All GSM AT commands are extended
commands. For example, +CMGS (Send SMS message), +CMSS (Send SMS message from
storage), +CMGL (List SMS messages) and +CMGR (Read SMS messages) are extended
commands.
PROCEDURE
How to set up hyper terminal window: Window 2000/xp setup:

1. Start hyper terminal by clicking on start programs accessories

communication hyper terminal.
2. The first screen that appears in the new connection dialog box. Here you can enter the
name for this configuration of hyper terminal. In this you can lets call it Term9600
because the setup will be for communication at 9600 baud rate. Select an icon the press
OK.
3. The connect to dialog box appears. Ignore the first three boxes-these are used with dial
up modem services. In the last box connect using select the COM port that you will be
using and press OK.
4. In the following COM properties dialog box you can set up the communication
parameter for the COM port. Set for 57600 bits per sec, 8 data bits, 1 stop bit and no
flow control.
5. Press OK when done. You will get the hyper terminal window.
COMMANDS
1. Manufacture identification + CGMI
Eg: AT+CGMI waveform modem OK

2. Request mobile identification+ CGMM

Eg: AT+CGMM OK

3. Product serial number + CGSN

Eg: AT+CGSN 012345678901234
AT+CGSN+CME ERROR: 22

4. Request IMIS+CIMI
Eg: AT+CIMI208200120320598

5. Dial command D
Eg: ATD<np>;
ATD 17637853600

6. Answer a call A
Eg: ATA (Answer to the incoming call) call accept D

7. Select phone tool memory storage + CPBS

Eg: AT+CPBS=SM AND phone tool is selected
AT+CPBF=? CPBS= (SM, LD, MC, ON,
ME,RC,MT,SN)

8. Find phone book entries + CPBF

Eg: AT+CPBR=? CPBR: 20, 10
AT+CPBF=E (read entries with E) display location with text field
starting with E.

9. Read message + CMGR

Eg: AT+CMGR=SM, 1 (new message received
 AT+CMGR=1 Read the message

10. Send message +CMGS

Eg: AT+CMGS=number<CR>
Please call me, <control z (sending message)>

11. Delete message + CMGD

Eg: AT+CMGR=1 message received

AT + CMGD=1 message deleted
12. Signal quality

Eg: AT+CSQ +CSQ :<rssi>,<ber>

<rssi>(received signal strength indication)
<ber>(channel bit error rate)

RESULT
Thus the execution of various commands in the mobile communication trainer kit was done.
 Ex.No. VECTOR NETWORK ANALYSER Date:

AIM
(a) To design and test the various filters response for FM range by using vector analyzer.
(b) To obtain the Simulation of a same filters by using mat lab.

EQUIPMENTS, DEVICES AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED

S.NO EQUIPMENTS QUANTITY

1 VNA kit(with 1
2 calibration) 1
3 RS232 1
PC

THEORY
The LA 19-13-02 is a personal computer driven vector network analyzer capable of operation
over the range of 3MHz to 3GHz.It incorporates an S-parameter test set allowing the measurements
of forward and reverse parameters over 80 db dynamic range. The test frequency can be set with
action of 100 Hz.

The architecture is based on a single conversion receiver arrangement using a receiver

bandwidth of 6 KHz. Two identical channels are used reference and measurement. The
measurements are ratio measurements on these channels thereby minimizing drift with temperature
and time.

The vector network analyzer is used to measure the performance of circuits or networks
such as amplifier, filters, attenuators, cables, and antennas. It does this by applying a test signal to the
network to be tested, measuring the reflected and transmitted signals and comparing them to the
reference signal. The vector network analyzer measures both the magnitude and the phase of the
signals.

The VNA consists of a tunable RF source the output of which is split into two paths. One
signal is as reference and is measured by the R (reference) receiver, and other is used for the test
stimulus for the DUT (device under test).

The basic measurements made by the vector network analyzer are S parameters. Other
parameters such as h, y and z parameters may all be deduced from the S parameters if required. The
reason for measuring S parameter that they are made under conditions that are easy to produce at RF.
Other parameters require the measurement of current and voltages, which is difficult at high
frequencies. They may also require open circuits or short circuits that can be difficult to achieve at
high frequencies, and may also be damaging to the devices under test or may cause oscillation.
Forward S parameters are determined by measuring magnitude and phase of the incident, reflected
and transmitted signals with the output terminated with a load that is equal to the characteristic
impedance of the test system. The LA 19-13-02 can generate full set of port parameters but the user can
chose to export either port 1 or port 2 S parameter files to suit most RF/microwave circuit stimulators.

A network analyzer is an instrument that measures the network parameters of electrical

networks. Today, network analyzers commonly measure sparameters because reflection and
transmission of electrical networks are easy to measure at high frequencies, but there are other
network parameter sets such as y-parameters, z-parameters, and h-parameters. Network analyzers are
often used to characterize two-port networks such as amplifiers and filters, but they can be used on
networks with an arbitrary number of ports.

The two basic types of network analyzers are

scalar network analyzer (SNA) measures amplitude properties only

vector network analyzer (VNA) measures both amplitude and phase properties

Filters

Passive implementations of linear filters are based on combinations of resistors (R), inductors
(L) and capacitors (C). These types are collectively known as passive filters, because they do
not depend upon an external power supply and/or they do not contain active components such
as transistors.
Active filters are implemented using a combination of passive and active (amplifying)
components, and require an outside power source. Operational amplifiers are frequently used
in active filter designs. These can have high Q factor, and can achieve resonance without the
use of inductors. However, their upper frequency limit is limited by the bandwidth of the
amplifiers.

PROCEDURE
Calibration kit window

1. The calibration kit parameters can be inspected using the window found under the Tools
menu.
2. In calibration kit parameters port 1 and port 2 with non-insertable DUT calibration
3. Click to load existing kits.
4. After kits are loaded click to apply.
5. Use editor to create or edit calibration kits.

Calibration kit Editor

In order to add matched load or through adaptor data to a calibration kit, follow the steps
below:
 1. Load kit using the kit editor
2. Check the load date available box on the kit editor parameters window.
3. If existing kit already has load or through data, then un-check and re-check the appropriate box.
If this is not done the existing data will be kept and copied to the new kit.
4. If needed, manually enter the rest of the kit parameters. Ensure the correct offset is entered.
5. Click the save kit button
6. When prompted, select the data file containing the matched load and or the through adaptor data
in the format.
7. Save the kit for future use by clicking the save kit button in figure below.

RESULT
Thus the response of various filters was obtained by using vector network analyzer and also
simulations were done.
 Ex.No. SYSTEM LINK DESIGN Date:

AIM
To design the links for the following

1. Microwave communication system

2. Fibre optic communication system
3. Satellite communication system

SOFTWARE USED
MATLAB

FORMULA USED
Microwave communication system

Gs=Pt-Cmin (dB)
Where,
Gs= system gain
Pt=transmitted output power (dbm)
Cmin=minimum receiver input power for a given quality objective (dbm)
Gs Fm+Lp+Lf+Lb-At-Ar
At= transmitted antenna gain (db) relative to isotropic radiation
Ar = receiver antenna gain (db) relative to isotropic radiation
Lp= free space path loss between antenna (db)
Lf= wave guide feeder loss (db) between the distributed network and its
respective antenna
Lb= total coupling or branching loss (db)
Fm =fade margin for given reliability
Lp= (4d/) 2= (4d f/c) 2
D=distance in meters
F=frequency
=wavelength
c=3*108 m/s
Lp (db)=20 log 4 /c+20 log f+20 log d
Fm= 30 log d+10 log (6AB f)-10 log (1-R)-70
D=distance in km
F=frequency (Ghz)
R=reliability expressed as a decimal (i.e 99.99%=0.999 reliability)
 A=roughness factor
A=4 (water or a very smooth terrain)
A=1(average terrain)
A=0.25(over a very rough, mountainous terrain)
B= factor to convert a worst month probability to annual probability
B=1 (annual availability to a worst month basic)
B=0.5 (hot humid area
B=0.25 (average inland areas)
B=0.125 (very dry or mountainous areas)

Fibre optic communication system

Loss=10 log (Pout/Pin)

PT=PS-PR
PT=2lc+f L+ system margin
PT=total optical power loss between the light source and photo detector
PS= optical power emerging from the fly load
PR=receiver sensitivity
lc= connector loss
f= attenuation loss (db/km)
L=transmission distance
System margin= 6 db

Satellite communication system

(C/N)u=EIRPsat-20 log (4fudu/c)+(G/T)u-10 log K-10 log B-Boi-loss (db)

(C/N)d=EIRPsat-20 log (4fddd/c)+(G/T)d-10 log K-10 log B-Boo-loss (db)
(C/N)= carrier to noise ratio
K=1.38*10-23-boltzman constant
Boi, Boo=TWTA input and output back off
EIRPsat=satellite saturation EIRP

THEORY
Microwave communication system

System gain is the difference between the nominal output power of a transmitter
and the minimum input power to a receiver (Cmin) necessary to achieve satisfactory performance.
System gain must be greater than or equal to the sum of all gains and losses in carried by a signal as
it propagates from a transmitter to a receiver. In essence, system gain represents the net loss of a
radio system, which is used to predict the reliability of a system for a given set of system parameter.
The system gain is actually a loss, as the losses signal experiences as it propagates from the
transmitter to a receiver are much higher the gains. Mathematically system gain in its simplest form
is ,

Gs=Pt-Cmin (dB)
Where,
Gs= system gain
Pt=transmitted output power (dbm)
Cmin=minimum receiver input power for a given quality objective (dbm)
Gs Fm+Lp+Lf+Lb-At-Ar
At= transmitted antenna gain (db) relative to isotropic radiation
Ar = receiver antenna gain (db) relative to isotropic radiation
Lp= free space path loss between antenna (db)
Lf= wave guide feeder loss (db) between the distributed network and its
respective antenna
Lb= total coupling or branching loss (db)
Fm =fade margin for given reliability
Lp= (4d/) 2= (4d f/c) 2
D=distance in meters
F=frequency
=wavelength
c=3*108 m/s
Lp (db)=20 log 4 /c+20 log f+20 log d
Fm= 30 log d+10 log (6AB f)-10 log (1-R)-70
D=distance in km
F=frequency (Ghz)
R=reliability expressed as a decimal (i.e 99.99%=0.999 reliability)
A=roughness factor
A=4 (water or a very smooth terrain)
A=1(average terrain)
A=0.25(over a very rough, mountainous terrain)
B= factor to convert a worst month probability to annual probability
B=1 (annual availability to a worst month basic)
B=0.5 (hot humid area)
B=0.25 (average inland areas)
B=0.125 (very dry or mountainous areas)
Fibre optic communication system

Link budgets are generally calculated between a light source and a light detector,
therefore we look at a link budget for a repeater less system, such as an LED or ILD and a light
detector such as an APD connected by optical fibre and connectors. Therefore the link budget consist
of light power source a light detector and various cable and connector losses. The various losses are,

1. Cable losses: depend on cable length, material and material purity.

2. Connector losses: if the connection between two sections of cable is not perfect light
energy can escape resulting in reduction in optical power.
 3. Splicing loss: if more than one continuous section of cable is required cable section can
be fused together resulting in imperfections and thereby losses.

Loss=10 log (Pout/Pin)

PT=PS-PR

PT=2lc+f L+ system margin

PT=total optical power loss between the light source and photo detector
PS= optical power emerging from the fly load
PR=receiver sensitivity
lc= connector loss
f= attenuation loss (db/km)
L=transmission distance
System margin= 6 db
Satellite communication system

The power radiated from an antenna

EIRP=PtGt

The received power Pr= PtGtGr/ (4 R/)2

The term (4 R/) 2 is known as path loss. It accounts for the way energy spread out as an
electromagnetic wave.

The total received power

Pr=EIRP+Gr-Lp-La-Lta-Lra (dbw)

La= attenuation in atmosphere

Lta= losses associated with transmitting antenna
Lra= losses associated with receiving antenna
(C/N)u=EIRPsat-20 log (4fudu/c)+(G/T)u-10 log K-10 log B-Boi-loss (db)

(C/N)d=EIRPsat-20 log (4fddd/c)+(G/T)d-10 log K-10 log B-Boo-loss (db)

(C/N)= carrier to noise ratio

K=1.38*10-23-boltzman constant
Boi, Boo=TWTA input and output back off loss
EIRPsat=satellite saturation EIRP
Gu=gain at uplink
B= noise bandwidth
Tu= equivalent system temperature
du= up link distance
The overall C/N is

(C/N)= {(C/N)u-1 +(C/N)d-1}-1

PROCEDURE
Microwave link design

1. The carrier frequency, the distance between stations and reliability are taken as
input.
2. The roughness factor, transmission factor losses, receiver feedback losses,
branching losses are obtained.
3. Fade margin, free space loss, system gain are computed using appropriate formula.

Fibre optic link design

1. The transmitted powers, receiver sensitivity, coupling loss, attenuation loss, system
margin are given as input.
2. The output power loss, received power are calculated.
3. Output power, system margin are displayed.

Satellite communication system

1. The KU band satellite parameters such as receiver system noise temperature,

transponder BW, total output power, antenna gain are given as input.
2. Transmitting KU band, earth station parameters such as antenna diameter, aperture
diameter, uplink frequencies, and losses are given as input.
3. Receiving earth station parameter such as down link, frequency carrier if BW, noise
temperature are inputs.
4. Now KU band downlink is done and the respective downlink power budget is
calculated.

RESULT
Thus a link designed for the following system

1. Microwave communication system

2. Fibre optic communication system
3. Satellite communication system and different parameters are
calculated using MATLAB.
 Ex.No. FREE SPACE OPTICAL COMMUNICATION Date:

AIM
To setup free space optical communication linking with user setup,

(a) characteristic of laser diode(V-I/P-I)

(b) characteristic of photo diode (V-I/P-I)

EQUIPMENTS, DEVICES AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED

1. Fiber optic FSO setup
2. Latch fiber optic power source
3. Step index multi mode plastic fiber
4. Volt meter (0-5v) or multi meter (in v)
5. Ammeter (0-20mA) or multi meter (in mA)
6. Optical power meter (660 nm)
7. Ammeter (0-5A) or multi meter (in A)
8. Optical PD module (880 nm)

THEORY
Laser diode: A semiconductor device that converts energy into light. Laser diodes have
less attenuation than LEDs and use less power.

Laser Diodes

Laser action (with the resultant monochromatic and coherent

light output) can be achieved in a p-n junction formed by two
doped gallium arsenide layers. The two ends of the structure
need to be optically flat and parallel with one end mirrored and
one partially reflective. The length of the junction must be
precisely related to the wavelength of the light to be emitted.
The junction is forward biased and the recombination process
produces light as in the LED (incoherent). Above a certain
current threshold the photons moving parallel to the junction
can stimulate emission and initiate laser action.

Type Peak Power Wavelength Application

GaAs 5 mW 840 nm CD Players

 AlGaAs 50 mW 760 nm Laser printers

GaInAsP 20 mW 1300 nm Fiber communications

Laser diode theory basics

There are three main processes in semiconductors that are associated with light:

Light absorption: Absorption occurs when light enters a semiconductor and its energy is
transferred to the semiconductor to generate additional free electrons and holes. This effect is
widely used and enables devices like to photo-detectors and solar cells to operate.
Spontaneous emission: The second effect known as spontaneous emission occurs in LEDs.
The light produced in this manner is what is termed incoherent. In other words the frequency
and phase are random, although the light is situated in a given part of the spectrum.
Stimulated emission: Stimulated emission is different. A light photon entering the
semiconductor lattice will strike an electron and release energy in the form of another light
photon. The way in which this occurs releases this new photon of identical wavelength and
phase. In this way the light that is generated is said to be coherent.

Photo diode:

A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either current or voltage,
depending upon the mode of operation. Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes
except that they may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window
or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes
designed for use specifically as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p-n junction, to
increase the speed of response. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.

Principle of operation

A photodiode is a p-n junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the
diode, it creates an electron, hole pair. This mechanism is also known as the inner photoelectric
effect. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away from
it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in electric field of the depletion region.
Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is
produced. The total current through the photodiode is the sum of the dark current (current that flows
with or without light) and the photocurrent, so the dark current must be minimized to maximize the
sensitivity of the device.

Photovoltaic mode

When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent out of the device is restricted
and a voltage builds up. This mode exploits the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis for solar cells
a traditional solar cell is just a large area photodiode.
Photoconductive mode

In this mode the diode is often reverse biased (with the cathode driven positive with respect to the
anode). This reduces the response time because the additional reverse bias increases the width of the
depletion layer, which decreases the junction's capacitance. The reverse bias also increases the Dark
current (physics) without much change in the photocurrent. For a given spectral distribution, the
photocurrent is linearly proportional to the illuminance (and to the irradiance).

Although this mode is faster, the photoconductive mode tends to exhibit more electronic noise. The
leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low (<1 nA) that the JohnsonNyquist noise of the load
resistance in a typical circuit often dominates.

Other modes of operation

Avalanche photodiodes have a similar structure to regular photodiodes, but they are operated with
much higher reverse bias. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be multiplied by avalanche
breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which increases the effective
responsivity of the device.

A phototransistor is in essence a bipolar transistor encased in a transparent case so that light can
reach the base-collector junction. It was invented by Dr. John N. Shive (more famous for his wave
machine) at Bell Labs in 1948,but it wasn't announced until 1950. The electrons that are generated by
photons in the base-collector junction are injected into the base, and this photodiode current is
amplified by the transistor's current gain (or hfe). If the emitter is left unconnected, the
phototransistor becomes a photodiode. While phototransistors have a higher responsivity for light
they are not able to detect low levels of light any better than photodiodes. Phototransistors also have
significantly longer response times.

Applications

P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photo detectors, such as photoconductors,
charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes. They may be used to generate an output which is
dependent upon the illumination (analog; for measurement and the like), or to change the state of
circuitry (digital; either for control and switching, or digital signal processing).

Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke detectors,
and the receivers for infrared remote control devices used to control equipment from televisions to
air conditioners. For many applications either photodiodes or photoconductors may be used. Either
type of photo sensor may be used for light measurement, as in camera light meters, or to respond to
light levels, as in switching on street lighting after dark.

Photo sensors of all types may be used to respond to incident light, or to a source of light which is
part of the same circuit or system. A photodiode is often combined into a single component with an
emitter of light, usually a light-emitting diode (LED), either to detect the presence of a mechanical
obstruction to the beam (slotted optical switch), or to couple two digital or analog circuits while
maintaining extremely high electrical isolation between them, often for safety (optocoupler).

Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and industry. They
generally have a more linear response than photoconductors.
They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for computed
tomography (coupled with scintillators), instruments to analyze samples (immunoassay), and pulse
oximeters.

PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than p-n junction diodes, and hence are often used for
optical communications and in lighting regulation.

P-N photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if high sensitivity
is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are
used for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser range
finding.

PROCEDURE:
Laser setup:

1. Switch on the fiber optic source. Vary the pot meter till the laser diode light intensity is
visible.
2. Fix the laser source from fiber optic power source in LD source holder by using LD holding
knob.
3. Adjust the receiver holder to focus the light beam to center of the receiver holder by using
receiver holding knob.
4. Connect the multimode fiber optic cable to the receiver holder.
5. Vary the pot meter in the clockwise direction and observe the intensity variation through
another and of fiber optic cable.
6.

V-I /P-I characteristic of laser diode

1. Follow the setup for laser diode.

2. Connect the multi meter (in v) in the voltage terminals provided in fiber optic power source.
3. Connect the ammeter (0-20mA) in the current terminals provided in fiber optic power source.
4. Keep the pot meter from optical power source in fully anticlockwise direction.
5. Switch on the trainer, vary the pot meter in clockwise direction slowly and note down the
readings of power (Po) and current (If).
6. Tabulate the readings and plot the graph.

Characteristic of laser diode

1. Connect another end of fiber optic cable (0-5m) to photo diode.
2. Select the bias switch in PD module to reverse bias.
3. Connect the ammeter (IPD) across the terminal in the series of photo diode.
4. Connect and keep bias control pot in PD module on fully anticlockwise direction.
5. Switch on the PD module trainer and reverse bias voltage (VR) in PD to 10v.
 6. Switch on the optical power source trainer.
7. Vary the input power by slowly changing the pot VRL in optical power source module and
take the readings of reverse bias current in PD module (IR) and optical input power (PD) in
LD module.

RESULT
Thus the FSO communication linking with user setup, the following has been done.

(a) V-I characteristic of laser diode

(b) P-I characteristic of laser diode
(c) characteristic of photo diode(V-I/P-I)
Model Graph (Laser diode-v-I characteristics)

Tabular column

SL
VF(V) IF(mA)
No
Model Graph (Laser diode-p-I characteristics)

Tabular column

SL
IF(mA) PO(dB)
No
Model Graph (Photo diode-v-i-characteristics)

Tabular column

SL
Vd(V) Id(mA)
No
Model Graph (Photo diode-p-I characteristics)

Tabular column

SL
IF(mA) PO(dB)
No
 FREE SPACE OPTICAL
Ex.No. COMMUNICATION(EMI CALCULATION) Date:

AIM
To study the electromagnetic interference [EMI] of optical cable in free space fiber optic
communication.

EQUIPEMENT REQIRED
1. Fiber optic FSO setup
2. Latch fiber optic power source
3. Setup index multi mode plastic fiber
4. Ammeter (0-20mA) or multi meter (in mA)
5. Optical power meter
6. Ammeter (0-5uA) or multi meter (in uA)
7. Optical PD module (880)
8. EMI setup
9. Function Generator

THEORY
While optical fiber has established itself as the medium for long-haul wide bandwidth
communications, it has also made a significant impact in many other applications where neither the
link length nor the bandwidth requirement is large. This is because optical fiber is a dielectric
medium, i.e totally non-metallic. The signal propagation is optical and does not have any associated
voltage or current. In many environments today, EMI and RFI (Radio frequency interference) have
become a serious problem affecting even low bit rate data communication over short distance.
Optical fiber, being totally dielectric, has immunity to EMI\RFI and is finding widespread
application in such situations.

PROCUDERE:
1. Arrange the free space communication.
2. Keep the power source pot meter fully anti clockwise direction.
3. Connect the ammeter [Ipd] across the terminal in the series of photodiode.
4. Connect another end of fiber cable (1m) to photodiode.
5. Select the bias switch in PD mode on fully anticlockwise direction.
7. Switch ON the PD mode trainer and set the reverse bias voltage (VR) in PD to 10V
8. Switch ON the optical power source trainer. Set the pot meter in fully clockwise direction and
note the PD current [Ipd].
 9. Without disturbing the setup remove the fiber cable from the receiver holder and insert the cable
throught the center hole of the resistor
provided in EMI setup and connect it to receiver holder.
10. Switch ON the function generator. Set sine wave 1KHz 5Vpp in the function generator.
11. Connect CRO probes + and terminals to corresponding terminals in EMI setup.
12. Observe the PD current. It will be same as the previous noted reading. This indicates that giber
optic communication will not be affected by EMI.

TABULAR COLUMN

V(v) I (mA) V(v) I(mA)

With EMI Without EMI

RESULT

Thus the EMI of optical cable in free space fiber optic communication was studied.
 Ex.No. FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION Date:

AIM
To setup the given fiber optics analog and digital link using a 660nm OFC and to measure
the band width.

EQUIPMENTS, DEVICES AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED

1. Optical fiber kit
2. Optical fiber kit cable
3. CRO
4. Patch cards
5. Signal generator
6. Connecting probes

THEORY

Fiber-optic communications is the method of transmitting data from one point to another by
sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. Optical fiber is a waveguide made of very thin tubes
of glass whose diameter is of the order of a few micrometers. Here the optical fiber works on the
principle of Total Internal Reflection.

The process of communicating using an optical fiber involves the following -

a) Converting electrical signal to optical signal at the transmitter.

b) Transmission of optical signal to the cable.
c) Relaying the signal through the optical-fiber.
d) Receiving the optical signal at the detector.
e) Converting the optical signal back to the electrical signal at the receiver.
Applications

Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit telephone

signals, Internet communication, and cable television signals. Due to much lower attenuation and
interference, optical fiber has large advantages over existing copper wire in long-distance and high-
demand applications.

A block diagram of a fiber-optic communication system is shown below.

Transmitters

The most commonly used optical transmitters are semiconductor devices such as light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes. The difference between LEDs and laser diodes is that LEDs
produce incoherent light, while laser diodes produce coherent light. For use in optical
communications, semiconductor optical transmitters must be designed to be compact, efficient, and
reliable, while operating in an optimal wavelength range, and directly modulated at high frequencies.

In its simplest form, an LED is a forward-biased p-n junction, emitting light through spontaneous
emission, a phenomenon referred to as electroluminescence. The emitted light is incoherent with a
relatively wide spectral width of 30-60 nm. LED light transmission is also inefficient, with only
about 1% of input power, or about 100 microwatts, eventually converted into launched power which
has been coupled into the optical fiber. However, due to their relatively simple design, LEDs are
very useful for low-cost applications.

Communications LEDs are most commonly made from Indium gallium arsenide phosphide
(InGaAsP) or gallium arsenide (GaAs). Because InGaAsP LEDs operate at a longer wavelength than
GaAs LEDs (1.3 micrometers vs. 0.81-0.87 micrometers), their output spectrum, while equivalent in
energy is wider in wavelength terms by a factor of about 1.7. The large spectrum width of LEDs is
subject to higher fiber dispersion, considerably limiting their bit rate-distance product (a common
measure of usefulness). LEDs are suitable primarily for local-area-network applications with bit rates
of 10-100 Mbit/s and transmission distances of a few kilometers. LEDs have also been developed
that use several quantum wells to emit light at different wavelengths over a broad spectrum, and are
currently in use for local-area WDM networks.

Today, LEDs have been largely superseded by VCSEL (Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser)
devices, which offer improved speed, power and spectral properties, at a similar cost. Common
VCSEL devices couple well to multi mode fiber.

A semiconductor laser emits light through stimulated emission rather than spontaneous emission,
which results in high output power (~100 mW) as well as other benefits related to the nature of
coherent light. The output of a laser is relatively directional, allowing high coupling efficiency
(~50 %) into single-mode fiber. The narrow spectral width also allows for high bit rates since it
reduces the effect of chromatic dispersion. Furthermore, semiconductor lasers can be modulated
directly at high frequencies because of short recombination time.

Commonly used classes of semiconductor laser transmitters used in fiber optics include VCSEL
(Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser), FabryProt and DFB (Distributed Feed Back).

Laser diodes are often directly modulated, that is the light output is controlled by a current applied
directly to the device. For very high data rates or very long distance links, a laser source may be
operated continuous wave, and the light modulated by an external device such as an electro-
absorption modulator or MachZehnder interferometer. External modulation increases the achievable
link distance by eliminating laser chirp, which broadens the line width of directly modulated lasers,
increasing the chromatic dispersion in the fiber.

Receivers

The main component of an optical receiver is a photodetector, which converts light into
electricity using the photoelectric effect. The primary photodetectors for telecommunications are
made from Indium gallium arsenide The photodetector is typically a semiconductor-based
photodiode. Several types of photodiodes include p-n photodiodes, p-i-n photodiodes, and avalanche
photodiodes. Metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodetectors are also used due to their suitability
for circuit integration in regenerators and wavelength-division multiplexers.

Optical-electrical converters are typically coupled with a transimpedance amplifier and a limiting
amplifier to produce a digital signal in the electrical domain from the incoming optical signal, which
may be attenuated and distorted while passing through the channel. Further signal processing such as
clock recovery from data (CDR) performed by a phase-locked loop may also be applied before the
data is passed on.

Fiber cable types

An optical fiber consists of a core, cladding, and a buffer (a protective outer coating), in
which the cladding guides the light along the core by using the method of total internal reflection.
The core and the cladding (which has a lower-refractive-index) are usually made of high-quality
silica glass, although they can both be made of plastic as well. Connecting two optical fibers is done
by fusion splicing or mechanical splicing and requires special skills and interconnection technology
due to the microscopic precision required to align the fiber cores.

Two main types of optical fiber used in optic communications include multi-mode optical fibers and
single-mode optical fibers. A multi-mode optical fiber has a larger core ( 50 micrometers), allowing
less precise, cheaper transmitters and receivers to connect to it as well as cheaper connectors.
However, a multi-mode fiber introduces multimode distortion, which often limits the bandwidth and
length of the link. Furthermore, because of its higher dopant content, multi-mode fibers are usually
expensive and exhibit higher attenuation. The core of a single-mode fiber is smaller (<10
micrometers) and requires more expensive components and interconnection methods, but allows
much longer, higher-performance links.

PROCEDURE

1. Connections are made as per the setup shown in the block diagram.
2. For analog link, knobs the selection switch SW8 towards analog position.
3. The analog input signal is given at P11 from the function generator.
4. The optical transmitter and receiver sections are connected through the 1m or 3m step index
fiber optic cable.
5. The output signal is obtained from the P31 terminal
6. For digital link, knobs the selection switch SW8 towards digital position.
7. TTL output from the function generator is given to the S6 and coded data terminals.
8. The digital link output is obtained at the terminal P31.
9. For various input signal frequencies gain is calculated.
10. The frequency responses for both analog and digital links are plotted.

RESULT
Thus the nm fiber optic analog and digital link connection setup was done and bandwidth
was measured.

a. Analog link (BW) =

b. Digital link (BW) =

TABULAR COLUMN
Analog link

OUTPUT
FREQUENCY VOLTAGE GAIN=20 log Vout/Vin

Digital link

OUTPUT
FREQUENCY VOLTAGE GAIN=20 log Vout/Vin

MODEL GRAPH
 Ex.No. DESIGN OF DIPOLE ANTENNA Date:

AIM
To design and test the response of given dipole using spectrum analyzer.

EQUIPMENTS, DEVICES AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED

1. Dipole
2. Spectrum analyzer

FORMULA USED
= c/f

Where, =wavelength
c=speed of light 3*108
f=frequency

THEORY

An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio
waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a
radio transmitter supplies an oscillating radio frequency electric current to the antenna's terminals,
and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In
reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an electromagnetic wave in order to produce a
tiny voltage at its terminals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplified.

Antennas are essential components of all equipment that uses radio. They are used in systems such as
radio broadcasting, broadcast television, two-way radio, communications receivers, radar, cell
phones, and satellite communications, as well as other devices such as garage door openers, wireless
microphones, Bluetooth enabled devices, wireless computer networks, baby monitors, and RFID tags
on merchandise.

A dipole antenna is the simplest type of radio antenna, consisting of a conductive wire rod that is half
the length of the maximum wavelength the antenna is to generate. This wire rod is split in the
middle, and the two sections are separated by an insulator. Each rod is connected to a coaxial cable at
the end closest to the middle of the antenna.

Radio frequency voltages are applied to dipole antennas at the center, between the two conductors.
They are used alone as antennas, especially in rabbit-ear television antennas and as the driven
elements in other types of antennas.
Dipole means "two poles."

Compared to a simple dipole, a folded dipole antenna has a different radiation pattern with
higher 'gain' in its preferred direction, a balanced feed-point, and four times the feed-point
impedance at resonance. If those happen to be the characteristics you're looking for in your
application, then the folded dipole is exactly what you need.

Folded dipole antennas have a greater bandwidth than a standard dipole, this reason it was
often used as a TV antenna for multichannel use and it mainly used in conjunction with yagi
antennas. The disadvantage is the input impedance is about four times as high, requiring an
impedance matching transformer, or balun coil at the feed point.

PROCEDURE
1. Calculate the frequency for given dipole by using the formula.
2. Dipole connect to the spectrum analyzer
3. To see the response for given dipole
4. Note down the reading
5. Plot the response graph

RESULT
Thus the given dipole was designed and responses were obtained.
TABULAR COLUMN

FREQUENCY(MHz) AMPLITUDE(db)
 Ex.No. CDMA DS-SS Date:

AIM
(a) To study the DS-SS with the design of PN sequence generator.
(b) To study the spectra of data, spreaded and despreaded signals.

EQUIPMENTS, DEVICES AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED

1. Spectrum Analyzer
2. D flip flop IC 7474
3. Ex-OR gate IC 7486
4. Signal generator
5. RPS
6. CRO

THEORY

In telecommunication and radio communication, spread-spectrum techniques are methods

by which a signal (e.g. an electrical, electromagnetic, or acoustic signal) generated with a particular
bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider
bandwidth. These techniques are used for a variety of reasons, including the establishment of secure
communications, increasing resistance to natural interference, noise and jamming, to prevent
detection, and to limit power flux density (e.g. in satellite downlinks).

Spread-spectrum telecommunications This is a technique in which a telecommunication signal is

transmitted on a bandwidth considerably larger than the frequency content of the original
information. Frequency hopping is a basic modulation technique used in spread spectrum signal
transmission.

Spread-spectrum telecommunications is a signal structuring technique that employs direct sequence,

frequency hopping, or a hybrid of these, which can be used for multiple access and/or multiple
functions. This technique decreases the potential interference to other receivers while achieving
privacy. Spread spectrum generally makes use of a sequential noise-like signal structure to spread the
normally narrowband information signal over a relatively wideband (radio) band of frequencies. The
receiver correlates the received signals to retrieve the original information signal. Originally there
were two motivations: either to resist enemy efforts to jam the communications (anti-jam, or AJ), or
to hide the fact that communication was even taking place, sometimes called low probability of
intercept (LPI).

Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), time-

hopping spread spectrum (THSS), chirp spread spectrum (CSS), and combinations of these
techniques are forms of spread spectrum. Each of these techniques employs pseudorandom number
sequences created using pseudorandom number generators to determine and control the
spreading pattern of the signal across the allocated bandwidth. Ultra-wideband (UWB) is another
modulation technique that accomplishes the same purpose, based on transmitting short duration
pulses.

Pseudorandom noise

In cryptography, pseudo random noise (PRN[1][2]) is a signal similar to noise which satisfies one or
more of the standard tests for statistical randomness.

Although it seems to lack any definite pattern, pseudo random noise consists of a deterministic
sequence of pulses that will repeat itself after its period.[3]

In cryptographic devices, the pseudo random noise pattern is determined by a key and the repetition
period can be very long, even millions of digits.

Pseudo random noise is used in some electronic musical instruments, either by itself or as an input to
subtractive synthesis, and in many white noise machines.

In spread-spectrum systems, the receiver correlates a locally generated signal with the received
signal. Such spread-spectrum systems require a set of one or more "codes" or "sequences" such that

Like random noise, the local sequence has a very low correlation with any other sequence in
the set, or with the same sequence at a significantly different time offset, or with narrow band
interference, or with thermal noise.
Unlike random noise, it must be easy to generate exactly the same sequence at both the
transmitter and the receiver, so the receiver's locally generated sequence has a very high
correlation with the transmitted sequence.

In a direct-sequence spread spectrum system, each bit in the pseudorandom binary sequence is
known as a chip and the inverse of its period as chip rate. Compare bit rate and baud.

In a frequency-hopping spread spectrum sequence, each value in the pseudo random sequence is
known as a channel number and the inverse of its period as the hop rate.

They are bit sequences generated using maximal linear feedback shift registers and are so called
because they are periodic and reproduce every binary sequence that can be represented by the shift
registers (i.e., for length-m registers they produce a sequence of length 2m 1). An MLS is also
sometimes called an n-sequence or an m-sequence. MLSs are spectrally flat, with the exception of a
near-zero DC term.
Balance property

The occurrence of 0 and 1 in the sequence should be approximately the same

Run property

Of all the "runs" in the sequence of each type (i.e. runs consisting of "1"s and runs consisting of
"0"s):

One half of the runs are of length 1.

One quarter of the runs are of length 2.
One eighth of the runs are of length 3.
... etc. ...

A "run" is a sub-sequence of "1"s or "0"s within the MLS concerned. The number of runs is the
number of such sub-sequences.

Correlation property

The autocorrelation function of an MLS is a very close approximation to a train of Kronecker delta
function.

PROCEDURE
1. The PN sequence is constructed using D flip flop.
2. The clock input is given and the data input is also given to obtain the sequence.
3. The PN sequence and data are fed to an XOR gate and spreaded output is
obtained.
4. The spreaded output and PN sequence are fed to an XOR gate and despreaded
output is obtained.
5. The data input spreaded and despreaded signals are viewed using a spectrum
analyzer and spectrum is plotted.

RESULT

Thus the PN sequence generator was constructed and the DS-SS modulation was
performed. The spectra of the data input, spreaded and despreaded signals have been observed using
the spectrum analyzer.
 Ex.No. MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS Date:

AIM

To study the modes of a reflex klystron and also record the values at different point.

EQUIPMENTS, DEVICES AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED

1. Modulator
2. Reflex klystron
3. Isolator
4. Attenuator
5. Frequency meter
6. Detector mount
7. VSWR meter
8. Power supply

FORMULA USED
1. Mode number
=N2/N1=V2/V1
=[(n+1)3/4]/(n3/4)
2. Transit time
=[((n+3)/4)/fo] n is integer

3. 3db electronic bandwidth =f2-f1

4. Electronic tuning range

ETR=fmax-fmin

5. Electronic timing sensitivity

EFS= f2-f1/V2-V1 MHz/volt

THEORY
Microwave transmission refers to the technology of transmitting information or energy by
the use of radio waves whose wavelengths are conveniently measured in small numbers of
centimeter; these are called microwaves. This part of the radio spectrum ranges across frequencies of
roughly 1.0 gigahertz (GHz) to 30 GHz. These correspond to wavelengths from 30 centimeters down
to 1.0 cm.
Uses

Microwaves are widely used for point-to-point communications because their small wavelength
allows conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in narrow beams, which can be pointed directly at
the receiving antenna. This allows nearby microwave equipment to use the same frequencies without
interfering with each other, as lower frequency radio waves do. Another advantage is that the high
frequency of microwaves gives the microwave band a very large information-carrying capacity; the
microwave band has a bandwidth 30 times that of all the rest of the radio spectrum below it. A
disadvantage is that microwaves are limited to line of sight propagation; they cannot pass around
hills or mountains as lower frequency radio waves can.

Microwave radio transmission is commonly used in point-to-point communication systems on the

surface of the Earth, in satellite communications, and in deep space radio communications. Other
parts of the microwave radio band are used for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems, and
radio astronomy.

The next higher part of the radio electromagnetic spectrum, where the frequencies are above 30 GHz
and below 100 GHz, are called "millimeter waves" because their wavelengths are conveniently
measured in millimeters, and their wavelengths range from 10 mm down to 3.0 mm. Radio waves in
this band are usually strongly attenuated by the Earthly atmosphere and particles contained in it,
especially during wet weather. Also, in wide band of frequencies around 60 GHz, the radio waves
are strongly attenuated by molecular oxygen in the atmosphere. The electronic technologies needed
in the millimeter wave band are also much more difficult to utilize than those of the microwave band.

A klystron is a specialized linear-beam vacuum tube, invented in 1937 by American electrical

engineers Russel and Sigurd Varian, which is used as an amplifier for high frequencies, from UHF
radio frequencies up into the microwave range. Low-power klystrons are used as local oscillators in
super heterodyne radar receivers, while high-power klystrons are used as output tubes in UHF
television transmitters, microwave relay, satellite communication, and radar transmitters, and to
generate the drive power for modern particle accelerators.

Many klystrons use waveguides for coupling microwave energy into and out of the device, although
it is also quite common for lower power and lower frequency klystrons to use coaxial cable
couplings instead. In some cases a coupling probe is used to couple the microwave energy from a
klystron into a separate external waveguide. The output waveguide of a klystron can be coupled back
into its input to make an electronic oscillator.
In the two-chamber klystron, the electron beam is injected by a resonant cavity. The electron beam,
accelerated by a positive potential, is constrained to travel through a cylindrical drift tube in a
straight path by an axial magnetic field. While passing through the first cavity, the electron beam is
velocity modulated by the weak RF signal. In the moving frame of the electron beam, the velocity
modulation is equivalent to a plasma oscillation. Plasma oscillations are rapid oscillations of the
electron density in conducting media such as plasmas or metals.(The frequency only depends weakly
on the wavelength). So in a quarter of one period of the plasma frequency, the velocity modulation is
converted to density modulation, i.e. bunches of electrons. As the bunched electrons enter the second
chamber they induce standing waves at the same frequency as the input signal. The signal induced in
the second chamber is much stronger than that in the first. When the tube is energized, the cathode
emits electrons which are focused into a beam by a low positive voltage on the control grid. The
beam is then accelerated by a very high positive dc potential that is applied in equal amplitude to
both the accelerator grid and the buncher grids. The buncher grids are connected to a cavity resonator
that superimposes an ac potential on the dc voltage. Ac potentials are produced by oscillations within
the cavity that begin spontaneously when the tube is energized. The initial oscillations are caused by
random fields and circuit imbalances that are present when the circuit is energized. The oscillations
within the cavity produce an oscillating electrostatic field between the buncher grids that is at the
same frequency as the natural frequency of the cavity. The direction of the field changes with the
frequency of the cavity. These changes alternately accelerate and decelerate the electrons of the
beam passing through the grids. The area beyond the buncher grids is called the drift space. The
electrons form bunches in this area when the accelerated electrons overtake the decelerated electrons.

The function of the catcher grids is to absorb energy from the electron beam. The catcher grids are
placed along the beam at a point where the bunches are fully formed. The location is determined by
the transit time of the bunches at the natural resonant frequency of the cavities (the resonant
frequency of the catcher cavity is the same as the buncher cavity). The location is chosen because
maximum energy transfer to the output (catcher) cavity occurs when the electrostatic field is of the
correct polarity to slow down the electron bunches. The feedback path provides energy of the proper
delay and phase relationship to sustain oscillations. A signal applied at the buncher grids will be
amplified if the feedback path is removed.

PROCEDURE
1. Connect the equipments as per the circuit diagram.
2. The repeler is kept at its maximum value.
3. The beam voltage is slightly increased and repeats a particular voltage value so that
beam current doest exceeds its maximum.
4. The repeller voltage was decreased slowly and power level is noted along with
corresponding voltage.
5. The frequency is measured by tuning frequency meter and the mode characteristic of
klystron was obtained with the help of above readings.

RESULT
Thus the modes of reflex klystron were done and values also recorded.