Haines Book PDF

Physical and chemical behaviour and
management of Intermittently Closed and

Open Lakes and Lagoons (ICOLLs) in
NSW
Philip Edward Haines

BE (Hons) MEngSc
Griffith Centre for Coastal Management

School of Environmental and Applied Sciences
Griffith University
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
April, 2006
Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW
Philip Haines, PhD candidate
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Live as if you were to die tomorrow, Learn as if you were to live forever
Mahatma Gandhi
This thesis is dedicated to the memory of my father, from whom I have truly learnt the meaning of
the passage above.

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ABSTRACT I
ABSTRACT
The term Intermittently Closed and Open Lake or Lagoon (ICOLL) has been adopted in NSW
to described wave dominated barrier estuaries with an intermittent connection to the ocean.
ICOLLs can also be found in south east Queensland, south-west Western Australia, and some
parts of Victoria and Tasmania, although they are not the dominant estuary type as in NSW. From
an international perspective, ICOLLs are also found in South Africa, New Zealand, Mexico and
the Atlantic coast of Brazil and Uruguay.
Within NSW, ICOLLs are mostly located south of Sydney, due to the high wave activity and close
proximity of the Great Dividing Range to the coast, which results in small coastal catchments and
thus small fluvial and sediment runoff. The distinguishing difference between ICOLLs and other
estuary types is the variable condition of their entrances, which also makes them the most
sensitive type of estuary to human interference (HRC, 2002; Boyd et al., 1992). The sensitivity of
ICOLLs to external inputs has been described in this thesis based on their morphometric
characteristics, which includes their size, shape and predominant entrance condition.
NSW ICOLLs exhibit a wide range of physical conditions. Some ICOLLs are rarely open to the
ocean, while others are rarely closed. Also, some ICOLLs have experienced extensive
development within their catchments, while some are located mostly or wholly within National
Parks and other protected reserves. When closed, ICOLLs behave like terminal lakes, retaining
and assimilating 100% of the external inputs delivered to the system. When open, tidal flushing
assists with advection and dispersion of inputs, however, significant tidal attenuation across the
entrance still limits opportunities for effective removal of pollutants.
The majority of NSW ICOLLs are considered to be mostly closed (i.e., have a closed entrance for
more than 60% of the time), while remaining ICOLLs tend to be mostly open (i.e., have a closed
entrance for less than 20% of the time). Few ICOLLs have entrances that are open and closed for
roughly equal proportions of time, thus resulting in a distinctive bimodal behaviour of entrance
condition (i.e., mostly open or mostly closed). NSW ICOLLs tend to be mostly closed unless (i)
the catchment is larger than 100km2, and/or (ii) the exposure of the entrance to ocean swell waves
is less than 60 degrees and/or (iii) the entrance channel contains geomorphic controls (e.g. shallow
bedrock outcrops).
Unless opened artificially, ICOLLs will generally remain closed until a sufficient volume of
catchment runoff accumulates within the waterway to increase water levels to a level that overtops
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ABSTRACT II
(breaches) the entrance sand berm. Once breached, high velocity flows over the berm cause scour
and the development of a formalised entrance channel, which increases exponentially until an
optimum width and depth has been reached (determined by the hydrostatic head, geomorphic
controls and tidal conditions at the time). Following entrance breakout and lowering of the lagoon
level, sand is reworked back into the entrance under the influence of flood tides and wave
processes.
The environmental condition of ICOLLs has generally been assumed as being dependent on the
state of the catchment and the associated input of nutrients (form and magnitude) to the system.
Biogeochemical processes also are reported to influence the condition of ICOLLs, particularly
denitrification, which is controlled by the organic load on the bed and the extent of benthic algae
and macrophytic productivity. In addition to this, however, it is demonstrated that the
predominant and prevailing entrance conditions (i.e. open or closed) also influence the physical,
chemical and biological environments.
ICOLLs are particularly susceptible to the impacts of future climate change. This thesis provides
a description of expected impacts on NSW ICOLLs environments associated in response to future
climate changes, based on a detailed appreciation of physical processes and their follow-on
consequences. Impacts on ICOLLs are expected as a result of increasing sea level, altered rainfall
patterns, and modified offshore wave climate.
A survey of relevant government officials has revealed that more than 50% of NSW ICOLLs are
artificially opened before water levels reach the height of the natural entrance sand berm.
Artificial entrance opening is mostly carried out to mitigate inundation of public and/or private
assets around ICOLL foreshores, such as roads, backyards, farming lands and on-site sewage
(septic) systems. Truncation of the hydraulic regime of ICOLLs can modify other physical,
chemical and biological processes, and can result in deleterious impacts such as the
terrestrialisation of estuarine wetlands and foreshores.
Few statutory environmental planning mechanisms protect ICOLLs from future degradation. This
thesis has identified the key issues that potentially compromise ICOLL integrity and
sustainability, which include the expected future population growth in coastal NSW (thus
increasing pressure for intensification of development within ICOLL catchments), future climate
change (particularly increases in sea level), and the increased demand for amenity, particularly
during summer holiday periods (i.e. summer impacts).

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ABSTRACT III
A series of management models have been developed to address key issues. The models comprise
a suite of strategies that target future development and existing management practices, through a
range of new or modified planning instruments. Models for the future management of ICOLL
entrances aim to prevent artificial openings in the long-term. This requires, however, the
systematic relocation, raising or flood-proofing of public and private assets that have been
established on land that is potentially subject to inundation. Increasing sea levels in the future will
compound the need for improved entrance management. Pro-active, integrated and adaptive
management strategies need to be implemented today to minimise the on-going conflict and
potential for continued environmental degradation in the future.

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DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY IV
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY
This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any university. To the
best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written
by another person except where due reference is made in the thesis itself.
Signed: ................................................................
Philip Edward Haines
1884324
Dated: ..........................................

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This thesis presents works that have been published by the author. The works were undertaken as
specific components of this PhD research project, and were published by the author at local and
national conferences and within international journals to promulgate the findings of this project to
the coastal management fraternity.
The following list of references provides details for the previously published works associated
with this PhD project.
Haines P.E. (2003) The Significance of Entrance Behaviour in Coastal Lagoons Proc.
12th Ann. NSW Coastal Conf., Port Macquarie Nov. 2003, pp 87 94
Haines P.E. (2004) Current Entrance Management Practices for NSW ICOLLs Proc.
CZAP04 Coastal Zone Asia Pacific Conf., Brisbane 5 9 Sept. 2004, pp 294 300
Haines P. E. (2004) Application of a morphometric-based classification system on the
natural sensitivity of NSW ICOLLs Proc. 13th Ann. NSW Coastal Conf., Lake
Macquarie Nov. 2004, pp 76 80
Haines P. E. (2005) Determining appropriate setbacks for future development around
ICOLLs Proc. 14th Ann. NSW Coastal Conf., Narooma Nov. 2005
Haines P. E., Tomlinson R. B., and Thom B. G. (2006) Morphometric assessment of
intermittently open/closed coastal lagoons in New South Wales, Australia Estuarine,
Coastal and Shelf Science 67 (1-2) 321-332 (reproduced in Appendix K)
Presentations on a range of project outcomes were also given at the following conferences,
workshops and seminars:
ECSA 37 ERF 2004 conference, Ballina, June 2004 (two presentations)
NSW Far South Coast Estuaries Forum, September 2004
Coastal CRC Presentation Series, Indooroopilly, April 2005
AMSA National conference, Darwin, July 2005
Coastal CRC Mini Coastal Conference, Coolangatta, September 2005
As an associate student of the CRC for Coastal Zone, Estuary and Waterway Management
(Coastal CRC), I would like to thank the CRC for their continuing support throughout this project.
I would also like to thank Luke Kidd (WBM Pty Ltd) for undertaking numerical modelling
utilised in this project, Dr Joanne Wilson (formerly of DNR) for providing pre-draft comments on
various sections of this dissertation, and Kris Downing (WBM Pty Ltd) for proof checking of the

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS VI
document. I would also like to acknowledge the inspiration of my colleagues and fellow
researchers, including Dr Rob Williams and Lachie Whetham, with whom I have developed many
of my concepts and hypotheses relating to ICOLLs and their unique behaviour and management
needs.
I would like to thank all those people who gratefully completed my on-line survey questionnaire
regarding existing ICOLL entrance management practices, and also those who provided data,
figures and images, that was used as part of this project, including NSW DEC, Healthy Rivers
Commission, Bureau of Meteorology, Gosford Council, Warringah Council, Shoalhaven City
Council, Manly Hydraulics Laboratory, NSW DNR, Geoscience Australia, Danny Wiecek
(University of Wollongong), and Daniel Spooner (University of Canberra).
Most of all I would like to thank my supervisors for this project, Prof. Rodger Tomlinson (Griffith
University) and Prof. Bruce Thom (UNSW), to whom I am truly indebted for providing direction,
opportunity and inspiration throughout this part-time PhD.

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ACRONYMS VII
ACRONYMS
AGSO Australian Geological Survey Organisation (now Geoscience Australia)
AHD Australian Height Datum
AWTS Aerated Wastewater Treatment System
BDN Bayesian Decision Network
BMA Benthic Micro Algae
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CCA Comprehensive Coastal Assessment
CCMP Comprehensive Coastal Management Plan (USA)
CHCC Coffs Harbour City Council
CMA Catchment Management Authority
CRC Co-operative Research Centre
CRCCZEWM CRC for Coastal Zone, Estuary and Waterway Management
CSIRO Commonwealth Science and Investigation Research Organisation
CZMM Coastal Zone Management Manual
CZMP Coastal Zone Management Plan
DCP Development Control Plan
DDR Drought Dominated Regime
DEC NSW Department of Environment and Conservation
DIN Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen
DIPNR NSW Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources (now DNR)
DLWC NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation (now DNR)
DNR NSW Department of Natural Resources
DON Dissolved Organic Nitrogen
DPI NSW Department of Primary Industries
ECI Entrance Closure Index
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EMC Estuary Management Committee
EOP Entrance Opening Plan
EPA NSW Environment Protection Authority (now DEC)
EPBC Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation
ESC Eurobodalla Shire Council
ESD Ecologically Sustainable Development
FBL Foreshore Building Line
FDR Flood Dominated Regime
FIL Foreshore Inundation Line
GIS Geographical Information System
HRC Healthy Rivers Commission of NSW (now disbanded)
ICOLL Intermittently Closed and Open Lake or Lagoon
ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management
IGAE Inter-Governmental Agreement on the Environment
IPCC Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change
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ACRONYMS VIII
IRP Independent Review Panel (Lake Illawarra Entrance)

KTP Key Threatening Process
LEP Local Environmental Plan
LES Local Environmental Study
LGA Local Government Area
LOICZ Land Ocean Interface on the Coastal Zone
MBWCP Moreton Bay Waterway and Catchment Program
MHL Manly Hydraulic Laboratory (NSW Department of Commerce)
MHW Mean High Water
NEN National Estuaries Network
NEP National Estuaries Program (USA)
NHT Natural Heritage Trust (Cth)
NLWRA National Land and Water Resource Audit
N:P Ratio of Nitrogen to Phosphorus
NPW National Parks and Wildlife
NPWS NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (now DEC)
NRM Natural Resources Management
NRMMC Natural Resources Management Ministerial Council (Cth)
NSESD National Strategy on Ecologically Sustainable Development
NSW New South Wales
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
PSR Pressure State Response
PWC Personal Water Craft, e.g. jetskis, wave runners
RAC Resource Assessment Commission (Cth)
REF Review of Environmental Factors
RUSLE Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation
RL Reduced Level
SAMP Sustainability Assessment and Management Plan
SCU Southern Cross University
SEE Statement of Environmental Effects
SEPP NSW State Environmental Planning Policy
SEQ South East Queensland
SOI Southern Oscillation Index
SSROC Sydney South Region of Councils
TN Total Nitrogen
TP Total Phosphorus
TPR Tidal Prism Ratio
TSC Threatened Species Conservation
USA United States of America
UWA University of Western Australia
VPSIRR Vulnerability Pressure State Impact Risk Response
WSUD Water Sensitive Urban Design

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TABLE OF CONTENTS IX
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract i
Declaration of Originality iv
Acknowledgements v
Acronyms vii
Table of Contents ix
List of Figures xvii
List of Tables xx
Bibliography 492
1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO RESEARCH TOPIC 1

1.1 What is an ICOLL? 1
1.2 Why are NSW ICOLLs significant? 7
1.3 Problems to be managed at NSW ICOLLs 7
1.3.1 Increasing coastal zone population and associated development
pressures 8
1.3.2 Popularity of ICOLLs for holidays and recreation 11
1.3.3 Anthropogenic impacts on ICOLLs 14
1.3.4 Inadequate existing management practices and policies 18
1.3.5 Future climate change 19
1.4 Previous investigations and recommendations for coastal lagoon /
ICOLL management 20
1.5 Objectives and structure of this dissertation 22
1.5.1 Objectives for this dissertation 22
1.5.2 Physical and chemical behaviour and entrance management focus 22
1.5.3 Structure of this dissertation 23
2 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING ESTUARY MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS 25

2.1 National and international context of estuary management 25
2.1.1 Existing national frameworks and initiatives 25
2.1.2 Relationship with Australian coastal management 26
2.1.3 Overseas examples of estuary management approaches 28
2.1.4 Australian examples of estuary management 30
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2.2 Specific legislative and policy framework for estuary management in

NSW 31
2.2.1 NSW Estuary Management Policy 1992 31
2.2.2 NSW Coastal Policy 1997 and other coastal-related instruments 32
2.2.2.1 Ecologically Sustainable Development 33
2.2.2.2 Coastal Protection Package 2001 35
2.2.2.3 SEPP-71 Coastal Protection and SEPP-State Significant
Development 36
2.2.2.4 Coastal Protection Act 1979 37
2.2.3 Other relevant acts, policies and planning instruments 38
2.2.4 NSW Estuary Management Program 39
2.3 ICOLL management in practice 41
2.3.1 Overview 41
2.3.2 Estuary Management Plans for NSW ICOLLs 41
2.3.3 The Lake Macquarie Estuary Management Framework 42
2.3.4 Other Plans of Management 44
2.3.5 Management of ICOLL entrances 45
2.3.5.1 Formal Entrance Management Policies 45
2.3.5.2 Informal entrance management arrangements 45
2.4 Other planning and management initiatives 46
2.4.1 Healthy Rivers Commission Independent Inquiry 46
2.4.2 ICOLL Management Forum 1998 50
2.4.3 Eurobodalla Coastal Capacity Planning Project 51
2.4.4 Coastal Lakes Sustainability Assessments 52
2.5 Summary and shortcomings of existing management framework 53
3 A CONCEPTUAL SYSTEMS-BASED APPROACH TO ICOLL PROCESSES AND

THEIR INTERACTIONS 55
3.1 Introduction to systems-based management 55
3.1.1 The CBD Ecosystem Approach to coastal zone management 56
3.1.2 Models to facilitate understanding and management of complex
ecosystems 58
3.2 Introduction to conceptual models 59
3.3 Development of a new systems-based conceptual model for ICOLLs 61
3.3.1 Significance of anthropogenic influences on ICOLL processes 66
3.3.2 Use of conceptual models to determine indicators of ecosystem
condition 68
4 GEOMORPHOLOGY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ICOLLS 70

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TABLE OF CONTENTS XI
4.1 Geomorphic evolution of ICOLLs 70

4.1.1 International perspectives 70
4.1.2 Australian coastal environments 71
4.1.3 The NSW Context 73
4.2 Structure and function of ICOLLs 78
4.3 Characteristics of ICOLLs 81
4.3.1 Waterway area 83
4.3.2 Waterway volume 83
4.3.3 Waterway shape 84
4.3.4 Entrance behaviour 88
4.3.5 Chemical characteristics 90
4.3.5.1 Impacts of catchment conditions 91
4.3.5.2 Impacts of entrance conditions 93
4.3.6 Biological characteristics 97
5 PHYSICAL BEHAVIOUR OF ICOLLS 100

5.1 ICOLL Hydrodynamics 100
5.1.1 Introduction 100
5.1.2 Hydrodynamic states within ICOLLs 101
5.1.2.1 Hydrodynamic State 1: Tidal behaviour 102
5.1.2.2 Hydrodynamic State 2: Minimal inflow 104
5.1.2.3 Hydrodynamic State 3: Significant inflow 106
5.1.2.4 Hydrodynamic State 4: Significant outflow 107
5.2 Entrance dynamics of ICOLLs 108
5.2.1 Entrance opening / breakout processes 109
5.2.1.1 Stage 1: Gradual overtopping of beach berm 110
5.2.1.2 Stage 2: Weir / hydraulic jump 111
5.2.1.3 Stage 3: River flow 111
5.2.2 Entrance closing processes 112
5.2.2.1 Stage 1: Tidal exchange and early stages of infill 114
5.2.2.2 Stage 2: Low tide closure and berm crest formation 114
5.2.2.3 Stage 3: Complete entrance closure 115
5.2.3 Dynamic equilibrium of entrance conditions 116
5.3 Entrance Closure Index 117
5.3.1 Reasons for observed differences in Indices 121
5.3.2 Short-term / long-term variations in ECI 129
5.4 Sedimentation within ICOLLs 134

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TABLE OF CONTENTS XII
6 MORPHOMETRIC ASSESSMENT OF ICOLLS 138

6.1 Description of morphometry 138
6.2 Morphometry as an indicator of natural sensitivity 138
6.2.1 Previous sensitivity assessment of ICOLLs 138
6.2.2 Descriptions of morphometric parameters 139
6.2.2.1 Waterway area 140
6.2.2.2 Waterway volume 140
6.2.2.3 Waterway shape 140
6.2.2.4 Tidal prism ratio 143
6.2.2.5 Catchment runoff 143
6.2.2.6 Entrance closure index 145
6.2.3 Definition of morphometric-based sensitivity factors 145
6.2.3.1 Evacuation Factor 145
6.2.3.2 Dilution Factor 146
6.2.3.3 Assimilation (Water Level Variance) Factor 147
6.2.4 Sensitivity classification 149
6.2.5 Consideration of errors in morphometric parameter determination 151
6.2.6 Comparison of morphometric results with previous sensitivity
assessments 152
6.2.6.1 Comparison with results from HRC (2002) 152
6.2.6.2 Comparison with results from DLWC (2000) 154
6.2.6.3 Comparison of results with EPA assessment (Scanes et al., 1997) 154
6.3 Potential for application of morphometry to the future management of
NSW ICOLLs 155
7 CHEMICAL BEHAVIOUR OF NSW ICOLLS 158

7.1 Introduction 158
7.2 Summary of current understanding of water and sediment quality
processes and drivers in NSW estuaries 158
7.2.1 Catchment runoff 159
7.2.2 Sediment - water column interactions and exchanges 162
7.3 Assessment of existing water quality data sources 166
7.3.1 Warringah Council data 166
7.3.1.1 Curl Curl Lagoon 167
7.3.1.2 Dee Why Lagoon 169
7.3.1.3 Narrabeen Lagoon 170
7.3.1.4 Summary of Warringah ICOLLs water quality assessment 171
7.3.2 NSW EPA data 172

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7.3.3 Wollongong University data 173

7.3.4 University of Canberra data 174
7.4 Synthesis and discussion of key water quality drivers 175
7.4.1 Catchment runoff 176
7.4.2 Sediment biogeochemistry 177
7.4.3 Entrance conditions 179
7.4.3.1 Long-term entrance conditions 180
7.4.3.2 Entrance breakout events 181
7.4.4 Waterway morphometry 182
7.5 Anthropogenic influences on water and sediment quality of ICOLLs 183
7.5.1 Impacts of catchment development 184
7.5.2 ICOLL entrance management impacts 185
7.5.3 Other anthropogenic activities 185
8 IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON ICOLLS 187

8.1 Projected changes to climatic variables 187
8.1.1 Sea level rise 188
8.1.1.1 Observed historical change 188
8.1.1.2 Projected future change 190
8.1.2 Wave climate and coastal sediment processes 192
8.1.3 Temperature 194
8.1.3.1 Observed historic change 194
8.1.4 Rainfall 196
8.1.4.1 Observed historic change 196
8.2 Expected impacts on ICOLL processes 197
8.2.1 Coastal processes and entrance interactions 198
8.2.1.1 Longshore sediment processes 198
8.2.1.2 Overall entrance morphodynamics 199
8.2.1.3 Artificial entrance manipulation 201
8.2.2 ICOLL hydrodynamics 203
8.2.3 ICOLL sediment dynamics 204
8.2.3.1 Marine sediment processes 204
8.2.3.2 Fluvial sediment processes 205
8.2.3.3 Foreshore erosion 205
8.2.4 Morphometric characteristics 206
8.2.4.1 Evacuation Factor 206
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8.2.4.2 Dilution Factor 207

8.2.4.3 Assimilation Factor 207
8.2.5 ICOLL water quality 208
8.2.6 ICOLL ecology 209
8.3 Summary of Climate Change Impacts 210
9 EXISTING ENTRANCE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF NSW ICOLLS 215

9.2 Responsibilities for entrance management 216
9.3 Survey of entrance managers 216
9.3.1 Description of survey 216
9.3.2 Survey respondents 217
9.3.3 Results of survey 217
9.4 Potential impacts of entrance management practices on ecosystem
behaviour 228
9.4.1 Comparison of entrance management and catchment development
impacts 233
9.5 Shortcomings of existing entrance management practices 234
9.5.1 Management mechanisms 234
9.5.2 Management impacts 235
10 MODELS FOR THE FUTURE MANAGEMENT OF NSW ICOLLS 237

10.2 Defining management issues 237
10.2.1 Consideration of existing ICOLL function 237
10.2.2 Consideration of existing ICOLL values and uses 239
10.2.2.1 Recreational 240
10.2.2.2 Economic 240
10.2.2.3 Aesthetic 241
10.2.3 Consideration of shortcomings of existing management frameworks 241
10.2.3.1 Shortcomings of entrance management 243
10.2.4 Consideration of past management experiences 244
10.2.4.1 Manly Lagoon 245
10.2.4.2 Lake Wollumboola 248
10.2.4.3 Coila Lake 250
10.2.4.4 Lake Illawarra 253
10.2.4.5 Prcis of Case Studies 255
10.2.5 Consideration of anticipated future coastal population growth 255

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10.2.6 Consideration of anticipated future climate change 256

10.2.7 Key issues for future management 256
10.2.7.1 Issue 1: ICOLLs are uniquely sensitive environments 256
10.2.7.2 Issue 2: Some ICOLLs have undergone physical modification 257
10.2.7.3 Issue 3: Most ICOLLs have experienced catchment development
and associated changes to inputs 257
10.2.7.4 Issue 4: Existing human uses conflict with natural ICOLL function 258
10.2.7.5 Issue 5: Truncation of ICOLL water level regime by artificial
entrance manipulation 258
10.2.7.6 Issue 6: Some ICOLLs experience summer impacts due to their
high recreational amenity 259
10.2.7.7 Issue 7: Significant future coastal population growth is expected
around many ICOLLs within the next 30 years 260
10.2.7.8 Issue 8: ICOLL processes will be modified as a result of climate
change 260
10.2.7.9 Issue 9: Existing non-statutory management frameworks and
funding arrangements are inadequate 261
10.3 Theoretical Models for Management 262
10.3.1 Integrated, systems-based management 262
10.3.2 Adaptive management 264
10.3.3 Sustainability management 266
10.3.4 Pressure state response management 268
10.4 Models to address key management issues 270
10.4.1 Introduction 270
10.4.2 Management strategy descriptions 274
10.4.2.1 Strategy 1: Discourage future intensification of development
around healthy and sensitive ICOLLs, while allowing appropriate
development around more robust or currently degraded ICOLLs 274
10.4.2.2 Strategy 2: Encourage appropriate future development in sections
of the catchment that are already degraded and have limited ecological value,
to achieve a net reduction in pollutant generation. 279
10.4.2.3 Strategy 3: Establish appropriate buffers between ICOLLs and new
development that take into consideration the full range of ICOLL processes,
now and in the future 283
10.4.2.4 Strategy 4: Prevent the temporary or permanent artificial
modification of ICOLL entrances, unless for human health reasons, and unless
works are part of a formally approved plan or policy 289
10.4.2.5 Strategy 5: Remove or modify private and public assets and
infrastructure that currently dictate the need to modify the hydraulic regimes of
ICOLLs 292
10.4.2.6 Strategy 6: Establish appropriate planning mechanisms and
guidelines for entrance management 300
10.4.2.7 Strategy 7: Rehabilitate foreshores to restore riparian ecosystem
function, and establish vegetated corridors across catchment landscapes to
reconnect ICOLLs with other environments and habitats 304

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10.4.2.8 Strategy 8: Prohibit dredging within ICOLLs 306

10.4.2.9 Strategy 9: Replace older-style septic systems around ICOLLs with
modern eco-friendly on-site systems, or pump-out tanks where development is
low-lying 309
10.4.2.10 Strategy 10: Formally protect ICOLLs (including development
buffers) from future degradation through appropriate statutory policies 311
10.4.3 Application to other types of estuarine environments 315
10.5 Summary of recommended key management actions for NSW ICOLLs 316
10.5.1 Actions for State Government 316
10.5.2 Actions for Local Government 320
10.6 Further ICOLL investigations 322
11 CONCLUDING REMARKS 324
APPENDIX A: SATELLITE IMAGERY OF ICOLLS WATERWAYS (RED LINE) AND

CATCHMENTS (GREEN LINE) 325
APPENDIX B: REVIEW OF OTHER RELEVANT ACTS, POLICIES AND PLANNING

INSTRUMENTS 336
APPENDIX C: ESTUARY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM STATUS FOR NSW

ICOLLS (AS OF MARCH 2005) 348
APPENDIX D: REVIEW OF EXISTING CONCEPTUAL MODELS OF ICOLLS AND

SIMILAR ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENTS 352
APPENDIX E: FUNCTIONALITY OF ICOLLS VS PERMANENTLY OPEN

ESTUARIES 367
APPENDIX F: WATERWAY AND CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS FOR NSW

ICOLLS 370
APPENDIX G: MORPHOMETRIC ASSESSMENT RESULTS 375
APPENDIX H: REVIEW OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS OF CHEMICAL AND

GEOCHEMICAL ESTUARINE PROCESSES 377
APPENDIX I: WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT RESULTS 390

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LIST OF FIGURES XVII
APPENDIX J: ENTRANCE MANAGEMENT QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS 398
APPENDIX K: JOURNAL MANUSCRIPT: HAINES ET AL., ECSS 67(1-2) 321-

332 479
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1 Location of ICOLLs in NSW 5

Figure 2-1 South African Estuary Management Planning Process (source: Breen &
McKenzie, 2001) 30
Figure 2-2 NSW Governments Estuary Management Process (adapted from NSW
Government, 1992) 40
Figure 3-1 Net one-way flow of influences of ICOLL processes 61
Figure 3-2 Simple hydrodynamics conceptual sub-model of ICOLLs 62
Figure 3-3 Simple sedimentological conceptual sub-model of ICOLLs 62
Figure 3-4 Simple water quality conceptual sub-model of ICOLLs 63
Figure 3-5 Simple sediment quality conceptual sub-model of ICOLLs 63
Figure 3-6 Simple biological conceptual sub-model of ICOLLs 64
Figure 3-7 Simple system-based conceptual model of holistic estuarine processes in
ICOLLs (shaded cells represent anthropogenic activities) 67
Figure 4-1 Schematic representation of a typical coastal lagoon and associated
energies showing septation of the waterbody into separate basins (Source:
Woodroffe, 2002) 71
Figure 4-2 Estuary types based on relative river, wave and tide forces (source:
Dalrymple et al. 1992; Boyd et al., 1992) 73
Figure 4-3 Estuary type occurrence around the Australian coastline (source: Ryan et
al., 2003) 74
Figure 4-4 NSW Estuary Types (Source: Roy, 1984) 75
Figure 4-5 Stages of Evolution of Saline Coastal Lakes (ICOLLs) (source: Roy, 1984) 76
Figure 4-6 Seagrass productivity in NSW ICOLLs versus waterway depth (as a
surrogate for ICOLL geomorphic maturity) 81
Figure 4-7 Relationship between catchment size and waterway size 84
Figure 4-8 Correlation between waterway volume and catchment size 85
Figure 4-9 Comparison of ICOLL perimeters and waterway areas 86
Figure 4-10 Conceptual waterway shapes of ICOLLs 87
Figure 4-11 Results of advection / dispersion modelling for different waterway shapes
(note, scales of figures differ total waterway areas are the same) 88
Figure 4-12 Typical water quality (Total Phosphorus and Chlorophyll-a) characteristics
measured over approximately 10 years for two ICOLLs with different
waterway shapes 89
Figure 4-13 Typical entrance conditions for most NSW ICOLLs 90
Figure 4-14 Correlation between typical Total Nitrogen and ICOLL catchment condition
(measured by degree of disturbance) 92
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LIST OF FIGURES XVIII
Figure 4-15 Correlation between typical Total Phosphorus and ICOLL catchment
condition (measured by degree of disturbance) 92
Figure 4-16 Correlation between typical Chlorophyll-a and ICOLL catchment condition
(measured by degree of disturbance) 93
Figure 4-17 Correlations between typical Total Nitrogen and ICOLL catchment condition
when factoring typical entrance condition 94
Figure 4-18 Relationship between entrance condition and chemical characteristics for
mostly (> 70%) forested ICOLL catchments 96
Figure 5-1 Typical water level temporal profile for Avoca Lake (July 1997 to June 1998) 102
Figure 5-2 Hydrodynamic State 1: Tidal behaviour, open entrance 103
Figure 5-3 Hydrodynamic State 2: Minimal inflow, closed entrance 105
Figure 5-4 Hydrodynamic State 3: Significant inflow, closed entrance 106
Figure 5-5 Hydrodynamic State 4: Significant outflow, open entrance 107
Figure 5-6 Morphodynamic cycle of ICOLL entrance processes 109
Figure 5-7 Stratigraphy of ICOLL entrance berm (Source: MHL, 1989) 116
Figure 5-8 Relationship between berm height and beach orientation, beach grain size,
and beach slope (Source: Hanslow et al., 2000) 119
Figure 5-9 Distribution plot of Entrance Closure Indices for most NSW ICOLLs
highlighting the bimodal nature of lagoon entrances 121
Figure 5-10 Escoffier Diagram of estuary inlet stability (source: Nielsen, undated,
adapted from Keulegan, 1951) 122
Figure 5-11 Relationship between typical entrance behaviour, catchment size and
waterway size for intermittently open NSW estuaries (source: Hurrell and
Webb, 1993) 123
Figure 5-12 Variability in typical entrance behaviour for NSW ICOLLs relative to
catchment size 124
Figure 5-13 Relationship between ocean exposure of ICOLL entrance (as a surrogate
for wave climate and associated littoral transport potential) and typical
entrance behaviour for NSW south coast ICOLLs 126
Figure 5-14 Relationship between catchment to waterway size ratio and typical entrance
behaviour 127
Figure 5-15 Relationship between adjacent beach length and typical entrance behaviour 128
Figure 5-16 Flood- and Drought-Dominated regimes since 1947, based on a cumulative
Southern Oscillation Index, as derived from Bureau of Meteorology data 131
Figure 5-17 Hypothesised variability in ECI values due to long-term variations in
meteorological conditions, as implied by FDR and DDR periods 132
Figure 5-18 Relationship between annual ECI and annual rainfall at Dee Why Lagoon for
period 1996 to 2003 133
Figure 6-1 Stepped linear approximation of the curve of best fit shown in Figure 4.9.
The vertices represent a change in the equation defining the relationship
that is used to calculate shape function (Sf) 142
Figure 6-2 Definition of Shape Function Values for NSW ICOLLs 143
Figure 6-3 Relationship between the Assimilation Factor (AF) and seagrass coverage
for most NSW ICOLLs 148
Figure 6-4 Comparison between DLWC (draft 2000) classification and the
morphometric-based classification results for natural sensitivity of NSW
ICOLLs 154
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LIST OF FIGURES XIX
Figure 6-5 Comparison between EPA (Scanes et al, 1997) classification of existing
degradation and the morphometric-based classification results for natural
sensitivity 155
Figure 7-1 Measured typical Total Nitrogen and Total Phosphorus concentrations for
NSW ICOLLs 160
Figure 7-2 Relationship between TN:TP and effective residence time for NSW ICOLLs 160
Figure 7-3 Nitrogen loads per unit surface area for NSW ICOLLs 162
Figure 7-4 Schematisation of CSIRO model of coastal lagoons (Source: Webster &
Harris, 2004) 164
Figure 7-5 Total nitrogen concentrations in Curl Curl Lagoon (entrance channel)
showing a distinct seasonal trend for both open and closed entrance
conditions 169
Figure 7-6 Total nitrogen concentrations in Dee Why Lagoon (entrance channel)
showing a distinct seasonal trend for open entrance conditions, but not for
closed entrance conditions 170
Figure 7-7 Dissolved oxygen concentrations at the bed of the entrance channel of
Narrabeen Lagoon (site NL2) 171
Figure 7-8 Denitrification efficiency in Corunna Lake (Source: Spooner, 2005) 175
Figure 8-1 Annual averaged tidal levels at Fort Denison, Sydney, 1915 2000 (Source:
MHL) 189
Figure 8-2 Sea Level Rise 1993 2004 from satellite data (Source: Leuliette et al., 2004,
cited in Lord et al., 2005) 189
Figure 8-3 Projections for global future sea level rise based on up to 35 different
climate model scenarios (Source: IPCC, 2001a) 191
Figure 8-4 Wave Direction Data for Locations offshore of NSW (adapted from Kulmar
et al., 2005) 193
Figure 8-5 Global average temperature variation, compared to 1961-1990 average
(Source: WMO, 2003, cited in Hennessy et al., 2004a) 194
Figure 8-6 Australian average temperature variation, 1910 2005 compared to 1961-
1990 average (Source: BoM, 2006) 195
Figure 8-7 Landward and upward shift in beach profile due to sea level rise (Source:
Hanslow et al., 2000) 199
Figure 8-8 Predicted response of mangroves to sea level rise (Source: Gilman, 2004) 212
Figure 9-1 Breakout trigger levels for gauged ICOLLs 220
Figure 9-2 Frequency of ICOLL entrance manipulation 220
Figure 9-3 Longevity of artificial openings of ICOLLs 221
Figure 9-4 Maximum scoured channel widths and depths following manipulation 222
Figure 9-5 Environmental conditions in the ICOLL before and after entrance
manipulation 223
Figure 9-6 Natural breakout frequencies for ICOLLs with manipulated (modified) and
natural (unmodified) entrance conditions 225
Figure 9-7 Longevity of natural breakouts for ICOLLs with manipulated (modified) and
natural (unmodified) entrance conditions 225
Figure 9-8 Natural and artificial breakout levels for selected ICOLLs 226
Figure 9-9 Breakout level vs opening duration for Coila Lake (Source: ESC, 2001a) 227
Figure 9-10 Idealised water level profile simulating natural entrance behaviour 229
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LIST OF TABLES XX
Figure 9-11 Idealised water level profile simulating manipulated entrance behaviour 229
Figure 9-12 Idealised water level profile simulating catchment development 234
Figure 10-1 Water level profile for Manly Lagoon, March - May, 1998 (source: MHL) 246
Figure 10-2 Water level profile for Manly Lagoon, Apr 92 to Sept 95 (source: MHL) 246
Figure 10-3 Adaptive management framework (Source: Bennett & Lawrence, 2002) 264
Figure 10-4 Venn diagram of Sustainability Interests / Considerations for ICOLLs 267
Figure 10-5 Pressure-State-Response Framework (Source: OECD, 1993) 269
Figure 10-6 Profile of an ICOLL foreshore illustrating the concept of vertical and
horizontal buffers 285
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1 Listing of ICOLLs within NSW and their respective LGAs 6
Table 1-2 Population Projections for NSW coastal areas (source: DIPNR, 2004) 9
Table 1-3 Preliminary list of the NSW ICOLLs that are considered to be most
susceptible to impacts associated with future population growth and the
HRC classification of these ICOLLs 10
Table 2-1 Healthy Rivers Commission Classification of NSW ICOLLs (adapted from
HRC, 2002) 48
Table 2-2 Sustainability Assessment Process (source: Rissik et al., 2004) 52
Table 4-1 Statistical summary of NSW ICOLL data 82
Table 5-1 Factors defining typical ICOLL entrance conditions 129
Table 5-2 Temporal variability in ECI values of Dee Why Lagoon, equivalent monthly
SOI values and monthly rainfall 133
Table 6-1 Average Annual Volumetric and Pollutant Catchment Runoff Parameters
(adapted from Duncan, 1999) 144
Table 6-2 Definition of sensitivity classifications for NSW ICOLL sensitivity 149
Table 6-3 Results of overall sensitivity classification for most NSW ICOLLs 150
Table 6-4 Comparison between HRC (2002) classification and the morphometric-
based classification results for natural sensitivity of NSW ICOLLs 153
Table 7-1 Summary statistics for water quality of mostly closed and mostly open
ICOLLs 180
Table 7-2 Pre and post breakout water quality summary 181
Table 7-3 Median marine water quality data before and after entrance breakout events
(values in brackets are standard deviation) 182
Table 8-1 Summary of climate change impacts on ICOLL entrance morphodynamics 202
Table 8-2 Summary of likely climate change impacts on ICOLL processes and
characteristics 213
Table 9-1 ICOLLs and respondents of the survey questionnaire 218
Table 9-2 Detrimental and beneficial impacts of artificial entrance manipulation on
physical, chemical and biological processes of mostly closed ICOLLs 236
Table 10-1 Matrix of management models and corresponding management strategies 273
Table 10-2 Scoring for priority listing of development around NSW ICOLLs 276
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LIST OF TABLES XXI
Table 10-3 Priority ranking of ICOLLs based on suitability for future development
intensification 276
Table 10-4 Prioritised ranking of ICOLLs for redressing needs for on-going entrance
management 294

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INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO RESEARCH TOPIC 1
1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO RESEARCH TOPIC
1.1 What is an ICOLL?
The term Intermittently Closed and Open Lake or Lagoon (ICOLL) was first used by Professor
Bruce Thom, former Chair of the New South Wales Coastal Council in 1998 to describe saline
coastal waterbodies with an intermittent connection to the ocean. These coastal waterbodies
mostly comprise lakes or lagoons, although in rare cases, small riverine systems can also be
intermittently closed to the ocean (e.g. the Bega River; Coastal & Marine Geosciences, 2000). As
the term ICOLL is a relatively recent expression, past literature refers to these systems as saline
coastal lakes (e.g. Roy, 1984), saline coastal lagoons (e.g. Middleton et al., 1985), blind estuaries
(e.g. Fairbridge, 1980), seasonally open tidal inlets (e.g. Ranasinghe & Pattiaratchi, 2003), pocket
lagoons (Phleger, 1981 cited in Pollard 1994a,b) or simply coastal lagoons (e.g. Woodroffe, 2002;
Kjerfve, 1994; Barnes, 1980; Bell & Edwards, 1980). It is worth noting, however, that these
previous terms have also been used by the authors to describe lagoons that are permanently open.
Woodroffe (2002) defines coastal lagoons as an extreme form of barrier estuary, where entrance
hydrodynamics are defined by the balance of tide, river and wave energies. This opinion is similar
to Boyd et al. (1992) who describe coastal lagoons as the end member of the spectrum of wave-
dominated coastal waterways, based on their negligible fluvial input and lack of significant
infilling by terrigenous material. Barnes (1980) warns that coastal lagoons should not be rigidly
compartmentalised from other coastal habitat types, as they tend to grade between semi-enclosed
bays, freshwater lakes, and estuaries, with the some of the intergradations representing stages in an
overall geological evolutionary sequence.
The principal difference between ICOLLs and other estuary types is their intermittent connection
to the ocean, being terminated periodically by an accumulation of marine sediment in the form of
an entrance berm. Kjerfve (1994) defined a coastal lagoon as a shallow coastal water body
separated from the ocean by a barrier, connected at least intermittently to the ocean by one or
more restricted inlets, and usually oriented shore-parallel. In providing this definition, Kjerfve
(1994) was considering the global perspective of coastal lagoons, which occupy some 32,000 km
of coastline, or 13% of coastal areas worldwide (comprising 17.6% for North America, 12.2% for
South America, 5.3% for Europe, 17.9% for Africa, 13.8% for Asia and 11.4% for Australia
(Barnes, 1980)). Despite the apparent plethora of coastal lagoons around the world, there is still a
dearth of studies that have investigated their structure and inter-related environmental processes,
especially in the context of long-term system management (Bird, 1994; Smith, 2002; Kjerfve,
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1994; HRC, 2001b; Smith, 2002; Thom, 2004a). Reassuringly, Thom (2004a) indicates that there
has been a growing interest in coastal lakes over the past 10 years, particularly given their
attractiveness for human settlement (refer Sections 1.3.1 and 1.3.2).
On an international scale, coastal lagoons can take many forms, ranging between highly restricted
waterbodies behind extensive coastal sand barriers, to leaky lagoons that contain many wide
tidal passages and unimpaired water exchange with the ocean (Kjerfve, 1994). The commonality
between all coastal lagoons is the presence of a barrier separating the lagoon from the adjacent
ocean. Barnes (1980) states that most coastal lagoons worldwide have been created either from
i) enclosure by offshore barriers, or ii) enclosure from longshore barriers. In the first case,
offshore shore-parallel transgressive sand barriers have moved onshore in response to sea level
rise over the past 18,000 years (although there has been little rise in the last 6,000 years) trapping
coastal waters between the barrier islands and the mainland. In the second case, waves striking
the coastline obliquely create a longshore drift of sand (or shingle), which forms a spit (or barrier)
across coastal inlets and embayments (Barnes, 1980; Bird, 1994). In rare cases, coastal lagoons
can also be formed by massive sediment redistribution (Barnes, 1980) or land subsidence, as
occurred at Sissano on the north coast of New Guinea following an earthquake in the Torricelli
Ranges in 1907 (Bird, 1994).
Overseas examples of ICOLLs similar in nature to those in NSW can be found in parts of New
Zealand (Kirk & Lauder, 2000), South Africa (Hill, 1975; Breen & McKenzie, 2001), Mexico
(Lankford, 1976), the Atlantic coast of Brazil and Uruguay, and the south-western coasts of India
and Sri Lanka (Ranasinghe & Pattiaratchi, 2003). It is stated that some 70% of South African
estuaries are temporarily open / closed estuaries, with mouth opening usually occurring after
periods of high rainfall (Breen & McKenzie, 2001; Whitfield, 2000 cited in Smakhtin, 2004).
Australian ICOLLs are most common along the south-east coastline, stretching from the southern
end of Queensland to the eastern coast of Victoria (Ranasinghe & Pattiaratchi, 2003), although
isolated ICOLLs are also present along the southern coastlines of Western Australia (Hodgkin,
1976; Hodgkin & Clark, 1987; Thom, 2004a, Ranasinghe & Pattiaratchi, 2003), Western Victoria
(Barton & Sherwood, 2004), and the east coast of Tasmania. The Coorong, at the mouth of the
Murray River in South Australia, can also be considered a coastal lagoon given its intermittent
connection to the ocean (although entrance closure is rare). Coastal lagoons on the NSW coastline
have mostly developed due to the formation of longshore coastal barriers. Although common in
south-east Australia, this type of lagoon is considered to be relatively rare, as they require low-

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lying coastlines with high wave energy environments (and thus narrow continental shelves),
combined with relatively dry or strongly seasonal rainfall patterns.
Coltheart (1997) provides the first description of NSW ICOLLs by a European, George Bass, in
1798 during an expedition along the NSW south coast:
after heavy rains they overflow and break through the beaches, the sea enters, and thus
between them are made lagoons of salt or brackish water. Those lagoons into which there is a
constant drain of fresh water, keep their inlets always open, but have not force enough at all
seasons to clear away from their mouths the sand that is constantly accumulating there by the
washing up of the surf. Others again, being situated in the neighbourhood of small hills, and
having at dry times, especially, little or no drain of freshes into them, have their outlets, made
in the wet season, very soon choked up by the surf, and in time banked in even with the rest of
the beach
Within NSW, approximately 70% of ICOLLs are disconnected from the ocean (i.e. closed) for the
majority of the time, while 25% of ICOLLs are open to the ocean for the majority of the time
there are very few ICOLLs (5%) that have an approximately equal timeframe in both the open and
closed states (refer Section 4.3.4 for details). Examples of NSW ICOLLs are presented
throughout this dissertation, and illustrate the variability in size and condition of the waterways
and surrounding landscapes. Further information regarding the geomorphic context of ICOLLs is
presented in Section 4.1.
This dissertation focuses on the ICOLLs of New South Wales (NSW), Australia. NSW contains
approximately 130 estuaries along its coastline (NSW Government, 1992), of which, the majority
are ICOLLs. In 2002, the New South Wales Healthy Rivers Commission (HRC) finalised an
independent inquiry into NSW coastal lakes, wherein 90 separate coastal lakes and lagoons were
identified, assessed and classified. The HRC inquiry is described further in Section 2.4.1. As the
HRC was investigating coastal lakes, as opposed to ICOLLs subset, they included a number of
waterways that have permanent connections to the ocean, either through natural processes, or
artificial means, including formal entrance training works, permanent entrance dredging programs,
and low flow pipes under the entrance beach berm. It is most likely that under natural (pre-
European) conditions, most of the modified lagoons would also have had an intermittent
connection to the ocean, and as such can be considered as former ICOLLs. In fact, it is likely
that almost all estuaries along the NSW coast, including large riverine systems, would have been
naturally intermittently closed and open, depending on prevailing coastal and catchment runoff /
flood conditions.

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This premise is supported by Coltheart (1997) through early reports of the northern NSW
coastline containing no significant rivers or inlets that would make adequate harbours. Even the
entrance of the largest river system in NSW, the Clarence River, was not discovered until 1839,
being hidden from European mariners for nearly 70 years behind the previously un-navigable
Shoal Bay, while in 1889 the entrance of the Richmond River was completely blocked, requiring
produce to be transported overland to the Clarence River (Coltheart, 1997).
Coastal lagoons with an artificial permanent connection to the ocean have also been named
ventilated ICOLLs. Most conclusions and management recommendations presented in this
thesis (refer Section 10) can be extended to these permanently open coastal lakes and lagoons of
NSW, with some qualification.
Only sixty six (66) NSW ICOLLs have been considered specifically as part of this thesis (Figure
1-1), meaning that 24 of the 90 coastal lakes previously assessed by HRC (2002) have not been
included 1. The greatest concentration of NSW ICOLLs occurs on the south coast, between
Wollongong and the Victorian border. Reasons for this geographical bias are likely to relate to a
relatively active coastal (wave) process compared to relatively weak river and tidal processes.
Consequently, the forces acting to close an entrance are greater than the forces to open it. Rainfall
on the south coast of NSW is also generally lower than in other parts of coastal NSW (BoM,
2006), while the catchments are generally smaller. The magnitudes of catchment runoff and
flooding on the south coast are therefore small in comparison to other coastal areas of NSW,
resulting in reduced entrance scouring and channel maintenance (refer Section 5.2.3). The smaller
catchments on the south coast of NSW are due to the relatively close proximity of the Great
Dividing Range to the coast in this region.
The ICOLLs displayed in Figure 1-1 are also listed in Table 1-1, separated into their respective
Local Government Areas (LGAs). The locations of the ICOLLs and their contributing catchments
are also presented on satellite imagery in Appendix A.
1
The following coastal lakes (as defined by HRC, 2002) were not considered to be intermittently open
and closed because of:
An artificially trained ocean entrance: Cudgen, Wallis, Illawarra, Wagonga, Macquarie
A connection to another waterway that is permanently open: Woolaweyah, The Broadwater, Myall,
Queens, Watson-Tyler, St Georges Basin, Cobaki-Terranora
A permanent entrance dredging program: Cathie and Innes (since determined to not contain a permanent
dredging program), Tuggerah
Low flow pipes under the entrance berm: Manly (although the pipes still block and the entrance closes,
but not at a natural frequency)
It is a permanent freshwater lake (no ocean connection): Ainsworth, Bondi, Saltwater Lake, Hiawatha,
Minnie Water, Killalea, Long Swamp, Goolawah

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Figure 1-1 Location of ICOLLs in NSW

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Table 1-1 Listing of ICOLLs within NSW and their respective LGAs
Local Government Area ICOLLs, as defined in Section 1.1

Clarence Valley (incorporating former Arragan Cakora
Pristine Waters and Maclean Shires)
Coffs Harbour Woolgoolga Hearnes
Corindi (Pipe Clay)
Bellingen Dalhousie Oyster
Nambucca Deep
Kempsey Saltwater
Great Lakes Smiths
Gosford Wamberal Avoca
Terrigal Cockrone
Warringah Narrabeen Curl Curl
Dee Why
Wollongong Bellambi
Kiama Werri
Shoalhaven Wollumboola Termeil
Swan Meroo
Conjola Willinga
Narrawallee Brush (Swan)
Burrill Kioloa
Tabourie Durras
Eurobodalla Candlagan Mummuga (Dalmeny)
Congo Kianga
Meringo Little (Narooma)
Mullimburra Bullengella
Bingie (Kellys) Nangudga
Coila Corunna
Tuross Kiah (Nargal)
Brunderee Tilba Tilba
Tarourga Little (Wallaga)
Brou
Bega Valley Wallaga Bournda
Baragoot Wallagoot
Cuttagee Back Lagoon
Murrah Merimbula
Bunga Pambula
Wapengo Curalo
Middle (Tanja) Wonboyn
Nelson Nadgee

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1.2 Why are NSW ICOLLs significant?
In addition to their rarity in an international context, the ICOLLs of NSW can be considered
significant for the following reasons:
Coastal lakes and lagoons (incorporating ICOLLs) are the most sensitive estuary type to
human intervention (HRC, 2002; Boyd et al., 1992), and are one of the most complex
management systems on the NSW coast (Thom, 2004a). When closed, all inputs to an
ICOLL are completely retained (i.e. they become terminal lakes). When open, the tidal
exchange is still highly attenuated over the entrance bar and flushing is limited (refer
Section 5.1). Coastal lagoons are also ecotones, operating as transitory environments
between land and the ocean, and provide habitat for many vulnerable species, a space for
microevolution or a space for longitudinal migration (Vadineanu, 2005);
Urban or rural development within many catchments of NSW ICOLLs has led to increased
volumetric and pollutant inputs to the systems, which may have modified their physical,
chemical and biogeochemical behaviour (Webster & Harris, 2004; Jones et al., 2003);
The entrances of more than 50% of NSW ICOLLs are artificially manipulated to minimise
risks associated with inundation of private and public lands and assets (refer Section 9.3.3).
Prematurely opening the entrance at lower water levels can have a number of short-term
and long-term environmental consequences, including modifications to fringing and aquatic
vegetation communities, reduced fish habitat and stocks, and increased entrance shoaling
(Lugg, 1996; Roper, 1998; see also Section 9.4); and
There is information describing the biotic and abiotic processes of few ICOLLs in NSW.
Most ICOLLs are relatively small and removed from major urban centres, and as such,
receive little consideration and future management consideration from state or local
government agencies (refer Sections 2.3.2 and Section 9.3.3).
1.3 Problems to be managed at NSW ICOLLs
NSW ICOLLs are presented with many issues that influence their current and future management,
some of which are highlighted below. Future management issues are investigated and discussed
further in Section 10.2.

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1.3.1 Increasing coastal zone population and associated development
pressures
Coastal NSW is experiencing unprecedented growth, which is likely to continue for many years to
come (Gaudry, 2003; Thom, 2003, Burnley & Murphy, 2004). The increase in coastal population
of non-metropolitan areas of NSW is being fuelled by downshifters, being early-retiring baby-
boomers that are leaving the larger cities for a sea change to the coast (Lipman & Stokes, 2003).
Deregulation of the NSW dairy industry, combined with significant improvements to roads and
highways along the coast (i.e. the Pacific and Princes Highways), has facilitated this pilgrimage to
the coast (Lipman & Stokes, 2003; Thom, 2004a).
The population in the NSW non-metropolitan coastal zone is expected to increase by some
430,000 between 2001 and 2031 (DIPNR, 2004). The NSW south coast, which contains the
majority of the states ICOLLs, is expecting significant population increases in the future, with a
typical rise of about 40% expected between 2001 and 2031 (refer Table 1-2). Diligence and
holistic thinking will be required to accommodate the additional population without compromising
the sustainability of existing resources and values afforded by ICOLLs. In recognition of this, the
Coastal Design Guidelines (Coastal Council, 2003) were prepared, and have been applied to a
number of new urban design projects in NSW, including settlement strategies, housing studies,
masterplans and court cases (Ruker & Morrish, 2004).
Given that many existing towns and villages have been sited near or even immediately adjacent to
ICOLLs, it is conceivable that the future increase of coastal population in NSW will impact on
ICOLLs. Thom (2004a) suggests that sewage and stormwater disposal from new developments
around ICOLLs can threaten public health, as biotic systems are at risk from excessive nutrient
and sediment fluxes. Thom (2004a) makes reference to a Commission of Inquiry at Lake
Wollumboola in 2001, where a 2000+ lot subdivision was refused by the then Minister for
Planning based on the likely environmental consequences of the development on Lake
Wollumboola, despite a landuse zoning that
permitted such a development. Thom (2004a) warns
that property owners with grand plans for
redevelopment near ICOLLs and other coastal
waterways may need to scale back their aspirations,
in order to meet the environmental requirements for
long-term ecological sustainability. This has already
Lake Wollumboola avoided major urban
manifested at Hearns Lake, north of Coffs Harbour, development proposal (Image: DNR)

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whereby original development proposals have been reduced to accommodate extensive buffers
and setbacks from the waterways.
Table 1-2 Population Projections for NSW coastal areas (source: DIPNR, 2004)
Region 2001 population 2031 population Population

increase
(%age increase
in brackets)
Richmond-Tweed (incorporating 216,300 289,300 73,000
(33.7%)
Tweed, Ballina, Byron and Richmond
Valley LGAs)
Mid-North Coast (incorporating 280,600 363,800 83,200
(29.7%)
Bellingen, Coffs Harbour, Clarence
Valley, Greater Taree, Hastings,
Kempsey, and Nambucca LGAs)
Hunter Balance (incorporating Great 96,400 116,400 20,000
(20.7%)
Lakes LGA)
Newcastle (incorporating Lake 492,500 585,900 93,400
(19.0%)
Macquarie, Newcastle and Port
Stephens LGAs)
Sydney (incorporating Wyong, 4,128,300 5,345,300 1,217,000
(29.5%)
Gosford, Pittwater, Warringah, Manly,
Woollahra, Waverley, Randwick,
Botany, and Sutherland LGAs)
Wollongong (incorporating Kiama, 269,600 328,400 58,800
(21.8%)
Shellharbour and Wollongong LGAs)
Illawarra Balance (incorporating 130,400 189,600 59,200
(45.4%)
Shoalhaven LGA)
South Eastern (incorporating 193,100 256,000 62,900
(32.6%)
Eurobodalla and Bega Valley LGAs)
Harvey & Caton (2003) also note the significant impact of recent burgeoning coastal development
in Australia, particularly in south-eastern Queensland. So-called suburbanisation has
fragmented bushland, introduced exotic species, changed runoff and microclimates, increased
sediment loads, and introduced urban pollutants via stormwater (Harvey & Caton, 2003).

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Table 1-3 presents a preliminary list of NSW ICOLLs that are most likely to be affected by
future demographic changes and population increases, and have been identified based on their
proximity to small and medium sized urban communities, which are likely to be targeted for urban
expansion over the next 30 years or so. In identifying these ICOLLs, consideration has also been
given to the projected increase in population for the different sections of the NSW coastline (refer
Table 1-2), as well as existing mechanisms in place for protection of land surrounding individual
ICOLLs, such as National Parks and Nature Reserves.
Table 1-3 also identifies the future management classification for the ICOLL as prescribed by the
Healthy Rivers Commission (HRC, 2002) (see Section 2.4.1). Of the 12 ICOLLs that received the
highest HRC conservation classification (i.e. Comprehensive Protection), only three are
considered to be at-risk from increasing urban development within a foreseeable planning horizon
(see Table 1-3), and reflects the mostly undeveloped nature of the catchments and waterways of
these particular ICOLLs. At the other end of the scale, of the six ICOLLs that received the lowest
HRC conservation classification (i.e. Targeted Repair), only three are included in the list of at-
risk ICOLLs. The other Targeted Repair ICOLLs are located within the Sydney or Wollongong
urban regions, and therefore have limited potential for future urban expansion.
Table 1-3 Preliminary list of the NSW ICOLLs that are considered to be most
susceptible to impacts associated with future population growth and the HRC
classification of these ICOLLs
Local Govt Susceptible ICOLLs within LGA

Area (LGA)
Comprehensive Significant Healthy Modified Targeted Repair
Protection Protection Conditions
Clarence Cakora
Valley
Coffs Harbour Hearns, Corindi
Woolgoolga
Bellingen Dalhousie, Oyster
Nambucca Deep
Kempsey Saltwater
Great Lakes Smiths
Gosford Wamberal, Avoca, Terrigal
Cockrone

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Local Govt Susceptible ICOLLs within LGA
Area (LGA)
Comprehensive Significant Healthy Modified Targeted Repair
Protection Protection Conditions
Kiama Werri
Shoalhaven Wollumboola*, Swan, Conjola, Narrawallee,

Termeil, Durras Tabourie, Burrill
Willinga
Eurobodalla Candlagan, Congo, Little (Narooma)
Meringo, Bingie, Mullimburra,
Mummuga, Coila, Tuross,
Corunna Kianga,
Bullengella,
Nangudga, Tilba
Tilba, Little
(Wallaga)
Bega Valley Wapengo, Middle Wallaga,
(Tanja), Back Merimbula,
Pambula, Curalo
* Given the refusal of a previous 2000+ lot development proposal on the north-western shore of
Lake Wollumboola, it is unlikely that large scale development would be proposed again near this
ICOLL.
1.3.2 Popularity of ICOLLs for holidays and recreation
As mentioned previously, ICOLLs are distributed along the entire NSW coastline from the far
north coast to the Victorian border (see Figure 1-1). Even though about 75% of the States
population already live in towns and cities located adjacent to the coast or estuaries (NSW
Government, 1992), the coastal zone, and particularly its coastal lagoons, remains popular for
domestic and international tourists in NSW (Cheng, 1981; Harvey & Caton, 2003).
In quoting from RAC (1993), Harvey and Caton (2003) state that 47% of all tourism activity in
Australia occurs in the non-metropolitan coastal zone, while only 30% takes place in the capital

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cities the remaining 23% is spread evenly over the rest of Australia (based on accommodation
nights for the year 1990-91). Almost three quarters of the non-metropolitan coastal tourism
activity occurs in Queensland and New South Wales (Harvey & Caton, 2003).
Johnson (2005) reports that, outside Sydney, the Shoalhaven LGA (located on the South Coast of
NSW) is the states most popular holiday destination, with some 1.28 million overnight trips for
the 12 month period to September 2004. The Shoalhaven LGA contains 12 ICOLLs (see Table
1-1), as well as numerous intermittently open coastal creeks. Second to Shoalhaven in popularity
was Coffs Harbour LGA (Johnson, 2005), which contains three ICOLLs (see Table 1-1) as well as
several other similar, but permanently open, estuaries (e.g. Bonville, Coffs and Moonee Creeks).
The general ICOLL environment is considered to be particularly attractive to tourists, as it

provides a diversity of experiences for visitors (pers. comm., Chris Irons, PhD candidate, Griffith
University / Tourism CRC, September 2004). Irons (pers. comm., 2004) states that tourists are
particularly attracted to ICOLLs as they provide quiescent and protected environments for passive
recreation, while the adjacent beaches provide opportunities for surfing and more active
recreational pursuits. Many ICOLLs are surrounded by low scale rural developments and/or
bushland, which also offers high scenic amenity.
Previously remote sections of the NSW coastline are now becoming increasingly popular with
holidayers who are trying to escape the commercialization of former sleepy coastal villages and
hamlets. Meanwhile, traditional holiday centres, such as Yamba and Port Macquarie, have
become even more popular as a result of significant improvements to the Pacific Highway (both
from Brisbane and Sydney). Many local Councils on the NSW coast report sizable increases in
population during the summer school holiday period (mid-December to end January). Three to six
fold increases in population for the six week holiday period are not uncommon, while the Easter
holiday period and other long-weekends throughout the year also result in a large influx of visitors
to these areas.
The temporary increase in local population during the holiday periods can affect ICOLLs by so
called summer impacts. Summer impacts refer to all detrimental forces affecting ICOLLs and
other coastal waterbodies by the significant, but short-lived, population boom, including:
Additional usage of septic and other on-site sewage treatment systems (which may leach
into groundwater and/or surface water environments);
Additional loads on reticulated sewerage systems, which may be more susceptible to raw
sewage overflows;
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Additional litter discarded around foreshores (e.g. bait bags, plastic bottles, food
wrappings), as well as additional litter derived from urban areas that is washed into ICOLLs
via unfiltered stormwater systems; and
Additional demands on the recreational amenity of ICOLLs, which may manifest as highly
concentrated fishing effort and taking of undersize catches (WBM, 2005a), or the need to
maintain water quality within the waterways suitable for swimming (Webb McKeown &
Associates, 1994a).
With regard to the last dot point above, Hastings Council undertakes dredging of marine sands in
the lower reaches of Cathie Creek and within the ocean entrance of Lake Cathie prior to each
summer holiday season in an effort to facilitate more effective tidal flushing of the lower estuary
(Webb McKeown & Associates, 1994a). Lake Cathie and Cathie Creek are recognised as
important tourism assets, so maintaining a waterway that is usable for recreation purposes
(without being compromised by poor water quality or stagnant water) is considered by Council as
essential to the long-term viability of tourism in the area. Existing management of other NSW
ICOLLs also considers the impacts of potentially degraded water quality on tourism and
recreation (e.g. Cakora Lagoon, pers comm., D. Morrison, Maclean Shire Council, January 2004;
Saltwater Lagoon, pers comm., R. Kemsley, Kempsey Shire Council, January 2004; Narrabeen
Lagoon, pers comm., J. Crawford, Warringah Council, January 2004).
Detrimental impacts of coastal tourism have also been summarised by Harvey and Caton (2003)
as:
Poorly planned coastal development leading to habitat degradation and loss;
Off road vehicles and camping on dunes and around coastal lagoons, leading to vegetation
destruction and erosion;
Disturbance of seabirds and wildlife populations, as well as habitat destruction;
Introduced species affecting terrestrial and marine biota;
Coastal and waterway developments (e.g. marinas) and associated impacts on aquatic,
estuarine and wetland environments (especially mangroves).
The region of Australia where tourism was identified as having the greatest potential impacts on
the environment was from the Sunshine Coast in Queensland to East Gippsland in Victoria,
encompassing the whole of the NSW coastline (Thackway & Cresswell, 1995 cited in Harvey &
Caton, 2003).

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1.3.3 Anthropogenic impacts on ICOLLs
Development has occurred within the catchments of

nearly all NSW ICOLLs. In fact, HRC (2002) claim
that there is only one (1) truly pristine coastal lake in
NSW, this being Nadgee Lake on the far south coast,
which is completely located within a National Park.
All remaining ICOLLs are subject to a host of
anthropogenic impacts. Nadgee Lake the only pristine ICOLL
remaining in NSW (Image: DNR)
Anthropogenic impacts on coastal systems, such as ICOLLs, have been documented by many
authors, both in Australia and internationally. Anthropogenic impacts manifest in virtually all
aspects of the coastal environment, from the physical planform and hydrodynamics of systems, to
the complex biogeochemical processes controlling sediment-water nutrient exchange.
Of particular significance to ICOLLs are the anthropogenic impacts on water quality. As is

described in more detail in Section 7.5, anthropogenic impacts are mostly derived from changes to
the condition of the catchment (see Section 4.3.5.1), and changes to the behaviour of ICOLL
entrance conditions (through artificial management of the connection between the lagoon and the
ocean) (see Section 9; WBM, 2002c, 2005a).
For some ICOLLs, anthropogenic impacts have extended to changes of the physical form of the
waterway. Within the northern beaches of Sydney, the low-lying fringes of several ICOLLs,
including Manly Lagoon, Curl Curl Lagoon and Dee Why Lagoon, were used historically as
landfill sites for a variety of putrescible and non-putrescible waste and are now riparian parklands
and playing fields. Not surprisingly, leachates from these former landfill sites containing elevated
concentrations of several pollutants continue to degrade the aquatic estuarine environments,
requiring extensive and expensive remediation (Lawson & Treloar, 2003; AWT, 2000; Patterson
Britton & Partners, 1994, 1995).
Significant increases in sediment load from the catchment due to anthropogenic development are
also likely to have resulted in accelerated sedimentation of ICOLLs throughout NSW, including
progradation of fluvial deltas (refer Section 5.4). Meanwhile, human settlement has been found to

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correspond with several detrimental ecosystem responses, including decreases in seagrass,
saltmarsh and sedgelands, and an overall increase in mangroves (Sawtell, 2002).
Anthropogenic impacts on hydraulics, sediments and

water quality of an ICOLL can all lead to significant
follow-on changes to the ecology of the system.
When recreational and commercial fishing and
prawning are also considered, it is not surprising that
the ecological environment of ICOLLs can display
clear impacts of anthropogenic activity, sometimes
Curl Curl Lagoon foreshores were
manifesting in phytoplankton blooms, vegetation
reclaimed using landfill (Image: Google)
change and fish kills (Caddy & Bakun, 1995;
Loneragan, 1999; Wilson et al., 2002; Lugg, 1996). Webster and Harris (2004) state that estuarine
degradation, resulting from catchment changes, is well known and common to many systems and
that toxic phytoplankton blooms have recently occurred in the Swan-Canning Estuary (Western
Australia), the Gippsland Lakes (Victoria) and the Myall Lakes (NSW), as a result of landuse
change in the catchments, discharge of urban stormwater and greatly increased nutrient loads.
In the State of the Rivers and Estuaries Report for the Far South Coast of NSW, DLWC (1999)
examined the impacts of anthropogenic influences on the far south coast estuaries (which includes
numerous ICOLLs) using a conceptual pressure-state-response model (see Section 10.3.4 for
further details on this reporting approach). Anthropogenic pressures identified by DLWC (1999)
include:
Changes in estuarine morphology through construction of breakwaters, training walls and

artificial entrance breaching of coastal lagoons (ICOLLs);
Interruption of tidal flows through construction of barriers / structures (e.g. floodgates);
Licensed discharges into the estuaries (including several licensed discharges into ICOLLs);
The presence of at least 17 exotic species (plants and animals);
Commercial fishing (although since 1999, many south coast ICOLLs have subsequently
been closed to commercial fishing); and
Commercial oyster production.
DLWC (1999) also assessed the state of the far south coast estuaries, and in general, found:

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Elevated levels of nutrients, and medium to high levels of water quality stress, as defined
by the DLWC Stressed Rivers assessments;
A reduction in the extent of seagrass at the only two ICOLLs that contain sufficient data for
a historical assessment. Between 1948 and 1994, seagrass coverage declined by 18% at
Merimbula Lake and by 23% at Pambula Lake;
A reduction in the extent of saltmarsh at the only two ICOLLs that contain sufficient data
for historical assessment. Between 1948 and 1994, the area of saltmarsh declined by 29%
at Merimbula Lake and 40% at Pambula Lake;
An increase in the extent of mangroves at the only two ICOLLs that contain sufficient data
for historical assessment. Between 1948 and 1994, the extent of mangroves increased by
122% at Merimbula Lake and 83% at Pambula Lake.
The phenomenon of increasing mangrove extents is exhibited throughout NSW, and is mostly
occurring at the expense of fringing saltmarsh communities (Saintilan & Williams, 1999).
Reasons for this increase are not fully understood. Saintilan and Williams (1999) hypothesise that
the changes are due to a number of factors, including increases in rainfall, revegetation of areas
cleared for agriculture, altered tidal regimes or estuary water levels, and increases in nutrient
levels and sedimentation (many of which are governed by anthropogenic activities).
The anthropogenic manipulation of ICOLL entrances is reported to have potential long term
modifications in vegetation communities and ecological processes, as well as changes to
sedimentation patterns, and entrance behaviour itself (e.g. more rapid closure due to reduced
scouring in the entrance channel) (Lugg, 1996; Roper, 1998). Ecological impacts are mostly
realised when entrances are continually opened at water levels that are lower than the natural
breakout level, and terrestrial species encroach into estuarine wetlands, where previously the
wetland species maintained a competitive advantage due to their tolerance for periodic inundation
of saline or brackish water (ESC, 2001a). Such terrestrialisation of riparian vegetation
communities due to changes in the associated hydraulic regime has been observed at other
locations around the globe, including the Sabie River in southern Africa, which has experienced
reduced flows due to increased farming and extractions (Jocoby, 2004). Riparian vegetation
provides important habitat for fish and other mobile aquatic fauna (Pusey & Arthington, 2003).
Maclean (2002) identifies a number of issues regarding estuary management in NSW that have
arisen over the past 10 years or so, including the spread of Caulerpa taxifolia, and the increasing
usage of jetskis. The issue of introduced pest / weed species is an obvious manifestation of

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anthropogenic influences on an environment. With regard to the aquatic weed C. taxifolia, spread
of the algae has been linked to human activities within a waterway, while transferral between
waterways has possibly been facilitated through fragments of the algae being attached to anchors
and anchor chains of boats (Creese et al., 2004). C. taxifolia has been recorded in several ICOLLs
within NSW, including Lake Conjola, Burrill Lake and Narrawallee Inlet (Creese et al., 2004).
Other weeds and pest species that have been introduced by anthropogenic influences are also
likely to threaten many ICOLLs, including water hyacinth, mosquito fish (Gambusia holbrooki)
and the European carp (Cyprinus carpio) (although these mostly relate to more freshwater
environments).
Direct waterway use of ICOLLs, such as jetskiing (Maclean, 2002), can have considerable
impacts on a number of environmental processes. Estuary users comprise fishers, boaters
(including jet skiers, water skiers, sail boaters, sail boarders, canoeists, etc), foreshore users
(including walkers, sightseers, picnickers, sunbakers, general beach users, etc), and swimmers
(Smith et al., 2001), and each can potentially degrade ICOLLs, in varying degrees. In recognition
of the potential impact of fishing on the ecological environment, the NSW government excluded
commercial fishing from a number of estuaries in 2002, including several ICOLLs. Other direct
uses of ICOLLs, including boating and foreshore access, could potentially degrade marine and
fringing terrestrial vegetation, which ultimately would impact on the ecology of the waterways
through reduced habitat value, and direct pollutant input (such as petro-chemicals and litter).
Despite the issues raised above, degradation of some coastal waterways has been abated, and even
partially reversed. The Lake Macquarie Task Force (1999) states that the environmental condition
of Lake Macquarie has improved in recent years as a direct result of several targeted works
programs, including:
Reticulation of sewerage to approximately 97% of the catchment;
Installation of sediment / erosion and stormwater control devices in the catchment;
Improved community awareness and participation in environmental projects;
Improved Council planning and regulations; and
Major investment by private industry to eliminate and reduce stormwater and other
discharges (particularly heavy metals).
The reticulation of sewerage to towns and villages that fringe ICOLLs is considered to be a major
opportunity for reducing anthropogenic impacts on these systems. Sewerage reticulation schemes

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have recently been implemented at Lake Conjola (south coast NSW) and Tuggerah Lakes (central
coast NSW).
1.3.4 Inadequate existing management practices and policies
One of the most significant problems currently facing NSW ICOLLs is the myriad of planning
instruments that guide management and usage of the waterways and their catchments.
Management approaches and landuse controls vary within and across jurisdictional boundaries,
while many authorities are unaware of their full legal obligations under local and state government
policy. State-wide, there is no agreed management mechanism for ensuring that future decisions
pay sufficient regard to the natural limitations of ICOLLs and their catchments (HRC, 2002).
Further, there is no agreed process for determining the desired outcomes for individual ICOLLs
when considering future management decisions, or for resolving conflicts among competing
interests (HRC, 2002).
Landuse management around ICOLLs is generally governed by Local Environmental Plans

(LEPs) for each individual LGA. Land zonings are presented within the LEPs, which specify
permissible development on each land parcel. The zoning of land around coastal waterways, and
ICOLLs in particular, have typically given little regard to the natural variability in environmental
conditions displayed by these systems, such as varying inundation extents. As a consequence,
many developments in the past have been permitted around the periphery of ICOLLs within their
natural water level range. As the conditions resulting in maximum inundation of an ICOLL may
only occur every few years, their specific space and environmental requirements are unlikely to
have been appreciated by past town planners and policy makers. Therefore, many ICOLLs now
flood private property, infrastructure and assets, which prompts flood mitigation responses by
Councils, such as artificially breaching the entrance berm (refer Section 9).
In recent years, despite increased knowledge of ICOLLs and their unique requirements,
development zonings within LEPs have largely remained unchanged, which potentially opens the
door to further inappropriate development as the demands for future population growth begin to
be realised. This may be redressed to some degree in the near future, by the requirement that all
Councils in NSW review their LEPs and that new LEPs will conform to a standard LEP template
(NSW Government, 2005a).
Management of ICOLLs on a state-wide basis falls within the scope of the Estuary Management
Policy 1992 (refer Section 2.2.1). Under this policy, Councils, in conjunction with State
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Government, can elect to prepare specific Management Plans for estuaries within their LGAs,
including ICOLLs. While a number of Estuary Management Plans for ICOLLs have been
prepared (refer Section 2.3.2), these documents remain non-statutory, with no formal commitment
necessary by Council to guarantee their implementation. Spurway (2004) states that there have
been instances when Council planners have purposefully ignored Estuary Management Plans
when considering Development and Rezoning Applications, as there was no compulsory
requirement for their consideration. Under the initiatives of the State Governments Coastal
Protection Package in 2001 (refer Section 2.2.2.2), it is intended that future Estuary Management
Plans become statutory documents, however, updating of the Estuary Management Manual (NSW
Government, 1992), combined with updating of the Coastline Management Manual (NSW
Government, 1990) to form a new Coastal Zone Management Manual, is still to be finalised (as of
January 2006).
1.3.5 Future climate change
It is now widely accepted within the international scientific community that the global climate is
changing, and will continue to change within future planning horizons, in response to an increase
in greenhouse gases within the Earths atmosphere. Future climate change (including sea level
rise) is fait accompli; the issue for management and future sustainability of coastal resources is
how much will it change? Flannery (2005) opines that in the future, the impacts of climate change
dwarf all other sustainability issues combined, and immediate action is required, at a global scale,
to avoid catastrophic consequences, ranging from loss of species to loss of entire atoll-based
countries (such as Kiribati, Maldives and Tuvalu).
Every five years or so, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) releases
projections for future climate conditions based on detailed and exhaustive predictive climate
modelling. The third and most recent assessment report by IPCC (2001a,b) provides the most up-
to-date projections for changes at a global scale. IPCC (2001a) state that mean sea-level is
projected to increase by between 0.05 and 0.32 metres (with a mid-range scenario increase of 0.16
metres) by the year 2050, and by between 0.09 and 0.88 metres (with a mid-range scenario
increase of 0.48 metres) by the year 2100 (relative to 1990 mean sea level).
The issue of future climate change is a legitimate threat to future management of the NSW coastal
zone. Lord and Gibbs (2004) report that if all greenhouse emissions ceased tomorrow, there
would still be sufficient inertia in the system to result in significant impacts on existing coastal
lifestyles for many decades to come. As a consequence, the time for mitigation has passed, and
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NSW coastal zone managers need to prepare for adaptation to changes in a future coastal climate
(Lord and Gibbs, 2004; Pittock, 2003).
The impacts of future climate change are expected to manifest in a number of ways. Sea-level rise
is recognised as one of the better-understood outcomes of climate change (Lord & Gibbs, 2004),
however, other expected outcomes include changes to wind and wave climates, rainfall patterns,
ocean currents, ocean temperature, and air temperature (IE Aust, 1991 cited in Lord & Gibbs,
2004; Boesch, 2002; Hughes, 2003; Hennessy et al., 2004a).
An increase in mean sea level is expected to result in a landward and upward shift of the entrance
sand berms of ICOLLs, which will increase typical water levels in the lagoons by an equivalent
amount (if entrance and hydrodynamic processes are not artificially manipulated) (refer Section
8).
Given the extent of infrastructure and development around the foreshores of many NSW ICOLLs,
future sea level rise will exacerbate existing inundation risks. This will undoubtedly place
additional pressure on entrance management practices (refer Section 9).
1.4 Previous investigations and recommendations for

coastal lagoon / ICOLL management
Management of estuaries in general has been the topic for many national and international
programs, sponsored by all levels of government, as well as non-government organizations.
International examples of major estuarine investigations include Chesapeake Bay, New York
New Jersey Harbour, San Francisco Estuary, River Thames, and River Mersey.
Within Australia, Smith (2002) examined the drivers for estuary management in terms of
institutional arrangements, management cultures, and community empowerment. Estuary
management approaches were found to be highly diverse throughout Australia, based largely on
the formal (legislative) and informal arrangement and responsibilities for management (Smith,
2002). Within NSW, Smith (2002) found that there has been a shift towards managing estuaries at
a more local scale, being facilitated by greater responsibilities held by Local Government. The
devolution of responsibility for estuary management, however, has diminished the ability to
incorporate holistic, whole-of-government considerations, and may potentially limit the ecological
outcomes for estuary management in NSW (Smith, 2002).

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Smith (2002) also found that there was a notable lack of comprehensive scientific investigations
that were informing management decisions regarding Australian estuaries. Major multi-
disciplinary investigations of estuaries in Australia have previously been limited to the Peel-
Harvey Inlet in Western Australia, Port Phillip Bay in Victoria, and Moreton Bay in south-east
Queensland. The Co-operative Research Centre for Coastal Zone, Estuary and Waterway
Management (CRCCZEWM) has also undertaken integrated estuarine investigations of the
Fitzroy River and Port Curtis (both in central Queensland).
Within NSW, the existing estuary management process (refer Section 2.2.4) requires
consideration of physical, chemical and biological processes through the preparation of an Estuary
Processes Study. Given the relatively large number of estuaries in NSW, funding made available
for scientific assessments is limited, which has led to mostly simplistic and desk-top scientific
analyses of environmental processes. Funding under the NSW Estuary Management Program is
shared between state and local government. With typically small populations to draw revenue
from, most local governments in NSW are not financially capable of funding detailed scientific
investigations of ICOLLs and other coastal resources.
The NSW Estuary Management Program (refer Section 2.2.4) has nonetheless been applied to
several ICOLLs within NSW, with Estuary Processes Studies, Management Studies and
Management Plans prepared in various degrees of detail. ICOLLs that have been targeted to date
are mostly located within or near urban environments, with recommended works focusing on
assessing and mitigating anthropogenic impacts, whilst also maximizing future opportunities for
maintaining or improving social amenity.
Management of coastal lakes and lagoons in NSW has also been the subject of a specific inquiry
by the NSW Healthy Rivers Commission (HRC) (HRC, 2001a, b, 2002; Depalo & Hurst, 2002).
The HRC classified coastal lakes based on their current condition and perceived management
needs. The NSW Government has started to implement the HRC recommendations through the
preparation of sustainability assessments for a small number of pilot coastal lakes along the NSW
coast (NSW Government, 2003; Depalo, 2003; Rissik et al. 2004).
Prior to the HRC investigations, a number of rudimentary and empirical vulnerability

assessments were undertaken (Scanes et al., 1997; DLWC, 2000; Spurway & Lenson, 2001) with
the aim of identifying ICOLLs and other estuaries that require special management consideration.
None of these assessments have been broadly considered from an on-ground management
perspective.

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1.5 Objectives and structure of this dissertation
1.5.1 Objectives for this dissertation
This dissertation provides a synthesis and analysis of existing literature and data regarding the
basic physical and chemical processes of Intermittently Closed and Open Lakes and Lagoons
(ICOLLs) in NSW, along with the frameworks and mechanisms that presently guide their existing
and future management. As well as providing new interpretation of existing physical and
chemical data, this dissertation offers new data on the existing management practices for the
entrances of NSW ICOLLs, and introduces a series of new concepts for improved management
for these unique coastal waterways. The aim of this PhD dissertation is to synthesise existing
knowledge of a broad range of scientific elements relating to ICOLLs, and interpret and integrate
the outcomes to provide a platform for effective future management.
The principal focus for this dissertation is on future management mechanisms for NSW ICOLLs.
Scientific details of ICOLLs in a range of disciplinary areas have been explored only insofar as
they relate to, and would influence, future management decisions. Emphasis has been placed on
establishing conceptual models that ensure consideration of all contributing factors and
relationships regarding the physical and chemical processes of ICOLLs, without necessitating
detailed quantification of all processes occurring within the systems.
Key outcomes of this project involve the formulation of new management approaches that have
been designed to consider the environmental processes occurring within ICOLLs, as well as the
existing institutional arrangements that govern the process of management for ICOLLs within
NSW. A series of management models have been established (refer Section 10) that address the
key pressures facing NSW ICOLLs, to ensure long-term conservation of values and sustainability
of human and environmental usage.
1.5.2 Physical and chemical behaviour and entrance management

focus
This dissertation concentrates on the physical and chemical behaviour of NSW ICOLLs. The
intermittent ocean connection of ICOLLs is the main physical difference between these systems
and other coastal lagoons and estuaries in NSW. While broad management processes and

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opportunities are also discussed in this dissertation, emphasis is placed on management of
entrance processes.
With respect to biological processes, Williams et al. (2004) state that the ecology of ICOLLs is
not necessarily unique, but rather, represents a sub-assemblage of species typically found in other
estuarine environments that have a more permanent connection to the ocean. It has been
considered therefore that future management of biological processes within ICOLLs can be
achieved through consideration and management of the physical and chemical processes that drive
the biology. Consequently, focus for this dissertation has been placed on the physical and
chemical processes of ICOLLs, particularly those that have been modified by past anthropogenic
activities.
1.5.3 Structure of this dissertation
This dissertation has been divided into separate chapters based on the different concepts and areas
of management that are explored as part of this project.
Chapter 1 has provided an introduction to Intermittently Closed and Open Lakes and Lagoons
(ICOLLs), and described the key issues that threaten to degrade their existing values and condition
in the future. As expected, humans are the greatest threat to ICOLLs, and have been responsible
for significant degradation of coastal systems in the past. Future increases in population around
ICOLLs represent the principal issue that needs to be addressed by improved decision making
processes.
Chapter 2 provides an overview of the planning and legislative basis for the management of
ICOLLs in NSW. This chapter illustrates the myriad of planning instruments that needs to be
considered when addressing future management needs, and highlights the short-comings of
existing management frameworks and processes.
Chapter 3 describes a systems-based model of environmental processes occurring within ICOLLs.

Particular focus is given to the interplay between entrance dynamics of ICOLLs and the other
environmental processes that are influenced by the intermittent connection to the ocean. Using the
conceptual model, discussion is provided on the impacts of anthropogenic influences.

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Chapter 4 provides a geomorphological review and assessment of ICOLLs, and compares these
estuary types to other estuaries found in NSW and elsewhere. Chapter 4 also documents many of
the key characteristics of ICOLLs in NSW that are used in subsequent chapters of this dissertation.
Chapter 5 describes the physical behaviour of ICOLLs, with particular emphasis on

hydrodynamics, entrance behaviour and sedimentological processes.
Chapter 6 describes the morphometry of ICOLLs, and provides a methodology for assessment of
natural sensitivity to external inputs based on key morphometric parameters, including the
Entrance Closure Index.
Chapter 7 provides information relating to the chemical behaviour of ICOLLs. Water and
sediment quality is considered based on existing literature and reassessment of existing data
sources for several ICOLLs. Drivers for water and sediment quality in ICOLLs are shown to be
catchment runoff, nutrient releases from the sediments, and hydrodynamic processes (including
entrance conditions).
Chapter 8 outlines the potential future climate change and the expected response by ICOLL
environments. Sea level rise, modified rainfall patterns and altered wave climates are all expected
to change the physical behaviour of ICOLLs, which then is likely to have follow-on impacts on
chemical and biological characteristics.
Chapter 9 describes the existing entrance management practices for ICOLLs. A detailed survey of
ICOLL entrance managers was undertaken, with the results of this survey presented. The survey
found that significant shortcomings of existing management practices, with many ICOLLs
artificially manipulated by authorities with no legal provision.
Chapter 10 of this dissertation provides a series of management models that can be considered for
future management of the NSW ICOLLs. Management models have concentrated on the different
issues that require future management consideration. Given that this dissertation has a strong
management focus, Chapter 10 represents a key element in the presentation of new and original
research.
Chapter 11 provides some concluding remarks regarding the potential application of the
dissertation findings.

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OVERVIEW OF EXISTING ESTUARY MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS 25
2 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING ESTUARY MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS
ICOLLs may be viewed as one of the most complex management systems on the NSW coast, as
their planning and management needs to consider entrance behaviour and management, nutrient
and sediment inputs, resilience of existing ecosystems to impacts, catchment management, and
economic and social interests (Thom, 2004a). From an existing management perspective, NSW
ICOLLs have not specifically been differentiated from other estuary types within the state, and
consequently, their management has mostly been coordinated and carried out under the provisions
established for general estuary management (NSW Government, 1992). Even so, planning and
legislation relating to estuary management in NSW is relatively sparse.
Generic Coastal management has, however, been the focus of considerable development in
recent years, which to some degree incorporates provisions relating to estuary management,
including ICOLLs, as specifically noted in Thom (2004a).
This chapter summarises coastal and estuary related planning and management frameworks that
are generally applied to help guide existing decision making processes for NSW ICOLLs.
2.1 National and international context of estuary management
2.1.1 Existing national frameworks and initiatives
Australia has 37,600 km of coastline and over 1,000 estuaries (NLWRA, 2002). Although 83% of
Australias population lives near the coast, surprisingly 50% of Australian estuaries remain in a
near pristine condition (NLWRA, 2002). This percentage is strongly biased by the large number
of estuaries located along the remote and sparsely populated northern coastlines of mainland
Australia and around the island state of Tasmania. The east coast of mainland Australia, and in
particular the NSW coast, contains very few near-pristine estuaries, along with relatively dense
population.
Estuary management in Australia is the responsibility of each individual state or territory. Smith
et al. (2001) and Smith (2002) provide a summary of existing arrangements for estuary
management throughout Australia. Smith (2002) found that estuary management approaches are
highly diverse and variable throughout Australia, with different legislation and different
ministerial and departmental distribution of powers and responsibilities across all states and

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territories. Smith (2002) states that delegation of estuary management to local government
agencies in some states has further fragmented managerial responsibilities, and significantly limits
opportunities for consistent and integrated management approaches.
The existing poorly integrated management of estuaries throughout Australia is viewed to be

hindering the efficient and sustainable use of Australian estuarine resources, which may lead to
resource wastage (e.g. information duplication or knowledge gaps), as well as conflicts in
priorities and initiatives, and a lack of coordination (Smith et al., 2001). Estuary management
across Australia hitherto has generally lacked direction with regard to agency directorates (Smith
et al., 2001).
A number of key research projects in recent years have provided invaluable knowledge regarding
the physical, chemical and biological processes of estuaries, yet the existing institutional
arrangements for Australian estuaries incorporates limited integration of science into long-term
management policies and works programs (Smith et al., 2001). Meanwhile, effective long-term
management is also compromised through the lack of knowledge of the social science regarding
estuaries, and the role that they play in Australian communities (Smith et al., 2001), although this
is starting to be redressed through initiatives such as the NSW Comprehensive Coastal
Assessment and the Coastal Lakes Pilot Sustainability Assessment.
Improved integration of estuary management across the Australian states and territories has been
improved recently by the National Estuaries Network (NEN), facilitated by the Cooperative
Research Centre for Coastal Zone, Estuary and Waterway Management (Coastal CRC). The NEN
allows estuary managers and researchers from all states and territories to exchange knowledge and
ideas and keep up to date with latest scientific and social research, as well as institutional and
policy change.
2.1.2 Relationship with Australian coastal management
Most legal definitions of the coastal zone include all tidal waterways, estuaries, inlets and bays
located landward of the open coastline. Consequently, the management of estuaries is usually
incorporated, to some degree, under the broader context of coastal management. Australian
coastal management has evolved considerably during the last 100 years, with major advances
towards the end of the century (Thom & Harvey, 2000; Harvey & Caton, 2003). Up until the
early 1990s, local-scale engineering and property management dominated coastal zone
management in Australia, with the focus on protection of assets built on the coastline, and the
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release of new coastal lands for future development (RAC, 1993). Thom and Harvey (2000)
identified four (4) triggers that have stimulated the reform of coastal management experienced
over the last 10 15 years:
Global environmental change;
Introduction and application of the principles of sustainable development;
Application of strategic planning principles aimed at a more holistic and integrated

approach to resource management; and
Greater community awareness and participation in decision making processes.
Harvey & Caton (2003) believe that many of the advancements in coastal zone management in
Australia have stemmed from the Resource Assessment Commissions Coastal Zone Inquiry
(RAC, 1993). In considering coastal management at state and federal levels, the RAC found a
number of shortcomings in the systems of coastal zone management in Australia and
recommended a number of national approaches to improve coastal zone management, particularly
given the expected increase in both population and development along the coast throughout
Australia (Thom & Harvey, 2000).
Living on the Coast: The Commonwealth Coastal Policy 1995 was developed from the findings of
the RAC, and was aimed at promoting ecologically sustainable use of Australias coastal zone
(including estuaries) (Wescott, 2001; Smith, 2002). Although the Commonwealth Coastal Policy
has been regarded as ineffective (Wescott, 2001), a number of positive initiatives were developed
from the Policy, which have seen considerable federal contribution to coastal management at local
scales, including Coastcare, the Coasts and Clean Seas Program (as part of the Natural Heritage
Trust Mark I program), and the more recent regional delivery model for NRM that is based on
catchments (as part of the Natural Heritage Trust Mark II program) (Thom, 2004b).
In October 2003, a Framework for a National Cooperative Approach to Integrated Coastal Zone
Management was endorsed by the Australian Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council
(NRMMC, 2003). This Framework was developed to protect coastal and estuarine water quality,
coastal biodiversity and the economic base of coastal areas around Australia (Slatyer, 2004). The
Framework is planned to be integrated with regional planning under the Federal Natural Heritage
Trust to provide a comprehensive continuum of natural resources from the catchment to the ocean
(Slatyer, 2004). The Framework, however, is not a National Coastal Policy, as recommended by
various preceding reports on coastal management (e.g. RAC, 1993; House of Representatives,
1991, 1980, cited in Thom, 2004b), as the states are reluctant to accept too much Commonwealth
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intervention in coastal matters (Thom, 2004b). Whilst still in its infancy, the Framework should
ultimately result in the development of Implementation Plans, which will be consistent with, and
build on, existing coastal zone planning and management initiatives in each state across Australia
(NRMMC, 2003).
2.1.3 Overseas examples of estuary management approaches
Similar to events in Australia, estuary management internationally has been carried along under
the guise of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). French (1997) states that ICZM
involves an ecosystem-based approach to the problems of management, by developing and
implementing co-ordinated strategies that allocate resources to achieve the conservation and
sustainable multiple use of the coastal zone. ICZM has been described by many different
international organisations, including the World Bank (1993, cited in Kay & Alder, 1999), USAID
(1996, cited in Kay & Alder, 1999) and OECD (1993, cited in French, 1997).
Agenda 21, develop as part of the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, commits coastal nations
to the sustainable development of integrated coastal zone management initiatives, and to the
sustainable development of coastal areas and marine environments under their jurisdiction
(French, 1997). International instruments that provide the framework for integrated coastal zone
management promulgating from Agenda 21, however, are mostly not legally binding, and as such,
implementation and commitment at national levels has been poor (Nogueira de S Patu &
Tsamenyi, 2004). French (1997) states that coastal zone management is best achieved when only
one administrative authority is responsible for the coast. If a collection of groups is responsible,
individual policies of each group can result in fragmentation, such as in the United Kingdom
(French, 1997). On coastlines that contain a number of different countries, the zonation of coastal
jurisdiction (as defined by the Law of the Sea), each with its own legal characteristics, further
fragments administrative and jurisdictional frameworks that defy natural ecological boundaries
(Nogueira de S Patu & Tsamenyi, 2004).
While most coastlines around the world experience discontinuity and fragmentation of
management responsibilities similar to that experienced across Australian states and LGAs, there
are some exceptions, including the USA and South Africa. In the USA, Congress established a
National Estuaries Program (NEP) in 1987 under the Clean Waters Act 1987, to improve the
quality of estuaries of national importance. The NEP involves a stepwise approach to estuary
management, similar to the NSW Estuary Management Program (refer Section 2.2.4), whereby
major threats to the estuary are first identified, then a Management Plan is prepared and
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implemented, and the system monitored (via a report card process) to determine the success (or
failure) of the Plan (SSROC, 2001).
Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plans (CCMPs) developed under the NEP address
many aspects of environmental protection for the estuary, including water quality, habitat, living
resources, and land use. The CCMP has a scientific-basis, and is developed and approved by a
broad range of stakeholders. Like the NSW Estuary Management Plans (see Section 2.3.2) and
other similar natural resource management plans, the CCMP establishes priorities for action,
research, and funding, and serves as a blueprint to guide future decisions and activities related to
the estuary. Unfortunately the NEP covers only 28 estuaries across the entire USA, with a major
focus on the large systems that have a multitude of issues, including Long Island Sound, New
York-New Jersey Harbour, Puget Sound and San Francisco Estuary.
In South Africa, approximately 70% of all estuaries are considered as temporarily open / closed
systems (Whitfield, 2000 cited in Smakhtin, 2004). Environmental management in South Africa
is the joint responsibility of national and provincial (state) governments. The national
Environmental Management Act 1998 provides a framework for the integration of environmental
management activities across all spheres of government, and establishes procedures to promote
cooperative environmental governance (Breen & McKenzie, 2001). At individual estuary scales,
non-statutory estuary management interest groups or forums are established to provide a structure
for people with common interests and shared visions, to engage and contribute to planning and
management at a local scale. These forums are linked through provincial working groups to the
national Coastal Management Sub-committee for Environmental Co-ordination, which is
responsible for co-ordinating the implementation of the national coastal policy (Breen &
McKenzie, 2001).
Estuaries in South Africa are also addressed through catchment management strategies and water
allocation plans by regional Catchment Management Agencies (CMAs). These are similar to the
recently formed Catchment Management Authorities in NSW. The planning process for estuary
management in South Africa follows a similar format to the NSW estuary management process,
wherein visions and goals are first defined for an estuary, followed by specific objectives and
actions, then monitoring and auditing to measure the consequences and determine success or
failure (Breen & McKenzie, 2001) (refer Figure 2-1).

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Figure 2-1 South African Estuary Management Planning Process (source:

Breen & McKenzie, 2001)
2.1.4 Australian examples of estuary management
Many location-specific programs aimed at improving catchments and receiving waters have been
undertaken in Australia, including Moreton Bay, Lake Macquarie (refer Section 2.3.3), Trinity
Inlet (Cairns) and the Derwent Estuary at Hobart (SSROC, 2001). The Moreton Bay Program, for
example, aims to achieve healthy ecosystems through collaboration between community,
government and industry, to reverse current trends of ecosystem degradation by the year 2007,
and restore ecological function and natural values to all waterways by the year 2020 (SSROC,
2001).
Barton and Sherwood (2004) have documented the past management and opening protocols for
five intermittently open estuaries (ICOLLs) in south-western Victoria, managed by Parks Victoria,
namely: Glenelg, Fitzroy, Curdies, Gellibrand, and Aire. These estuaries are similar to the
ICOLLs of NSW, however, they experience a strong seasonal hydrodynamic regime, with high
flows in winter and spring, and low flows during summer and autumn, resulting in entrance
closure in late summer / autumn, which is followed by stratification of the waterbody (Barton &
Sherwood, 2004). Historically, the entrances to these ICOLLs have been artificially breached to
mitigate the impacts of foreshore inundation with no regard for ecosystem processes, and as a
consequence, have often resulted in the evacuation of the only oxygenated water in the estuaries,
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that being the surface waters, leading to mass mortality of estuarine organisms (Barton &
Sherwood, 2004). Barton & Sherwood (2004) consequently recommended the monitoring of
oxygen levels prior to entrance openings in the future.
2.2 Specific legislative and policy framework for estuary

management in NSW
Specific policies and legislation relevant to estuary and coastal zone management in NSW are
summarised below (which have been adapted in part from WBM, 2004a, 2005a,b; Farrier et al.,
1999 and Smith, 2002).
2.2.1 NSW Estuary Management Policy 1992
The NSW Estuary Management Policy, established in 1992, is one of a suite of catchment
management based policies under the umbrella NSW State Rivers and Estuaries Policy. The
Estuary Management Policy was developed in recognition of the environmental, social and
economic importance of estuaries. It provides for the assessment of all estuarine uses, the
resolution of conflicts and the production of a unified and sustainable management plan for each
estuary, including remedial works and the redirection of activities, where appropriate. The
specified general goal of the policy is to achieve an integrated, balanced, responsible and
ecologically sustainable use of the State estuaries, which form a key component of coastal
catchments (NSW Government, 1992, p27).
Specific objectives of the NSW Estuary Management Policy are:
Protection of estuarine habitats and eco-systems in the long term, including maintenance in
each estuary of the necessary hydraulic regime;
Preparation and implementation of a balanced long term management plan for the
sustainable use of each estuary and its catchment so that all values and uses are considered
and which defines management strategies for;
Conservation of aquatic and other wildlife habitats;
Conservation of aesthetic values;
Prevention of further estuary degradation;
Repair of damage to the estuarine environment; and

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Sustainable use of estuarine resources, including commercial and recreational
uses as appropriate.
The Policy is implemented through the development and adoption of specific Estuary
Management Plans, prepared under the Estuary Management Program, which is discussed further
in Section 2.2.4. Policy implementation is facilitated through the Estuary Management Manual
(NSW Government, 1992).
Interestingly, the NSW Estuary Management Policy was never officially gazetted by State
Government, although it has been generally adopted, with the implementation of the Estuary
Management Program (see Section 2.2.4) as described in the Policy. Gazettal of the NSW Estuary
Management Policy has not been actively pursued because, in many respects, the NSW Coastal
Policy 1997 (refer Section 2.2.2) incorporates the aims and objectives of the Estuary Management
Policy given that the Coastal Policy extends to inland coastal waters, such as estuaries, lakes and
lagoons (including all ICOLLs). Specifically, the continuance of the NSW Governments Estuary
Management Program is listed in the NSW Coastal Policy as Action 1.4.6, while preparation of
Estuary Management Plans (as discussed in more specific detail in Section 2.3.2) is identified as
Actions 1.4.3 and 2.1.1 of the Policy. Also, future development within and adjacent to estuaries is
addressed through Action 1.4.7 of the NSW Coastal Policy.
2.2.2 NSW Coastal Policy 1997 and other coastal-related instruments
The NSW Coastal Policy 1997 was prepared to facilitate a sustainable future for the NSW
coastline while balancing environmental, economic, cultural and recreational needs. The Coastal
Policy applies to urban and non-urban areas within the coastal zone of NSW, covering land:
Three nautical miles seaward of the mainland and offshore islands;
One kilometre landward of the open coast high water mark; and
One kilometre around all bays and estuaries.
The definition of the coastal zone includes estuaries, lakes, lagoons, ICOLLs, islands and coastal
river systems in recognition of their strong connection between coastal and estuarine processes
and the dynamics of the littoral coastal zone. As such, the NSW Coastal Policy 1997 is therefore
the principal strategic policy for management of estuaries (including ICOLLs) in NSW.

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The Coastal Policy is based on the fundamental principle of Ecologically Sustainable
Development (refer Section 2.2.2.1). The Policy states the overriding vision of the 1997 Coastal
Policy is the ecological sustainability of the NSW Coast (p18).
Long-term outcomes for the policy are expressed in the nine goals, which are implemented
through designated objectives and specific strategic actions. Responsibility for the strategic
actions is assigned to government agencies, local councils and the wider community. The nine
goals specified in the policy represent a commitment to:
Protecting, rehabilitating and improving the natural environment of the coastal zone.
Recognising and accommodating the natural processes of the coastal zone.
Protecting and enhancing the aesthetic qualities of the coastal zone.
Protecting and conserving the cultural heritage of the coastal zone.
Providing for ecologically sustainable development and use of resources.
Providing for ecologically sustainable human settlement in the coastal zone.
Providing for appropriate public access and use.
Providing information to enable effective management of the coastal zone.
Providing for integrated planning and management of the coastal zone.
The Coastal Policy also contains a large number of strategic actions relating to coastal planning
and management. Some of the policys more important provisions were given stronger statutory
backing by elements of the NSW Coastal Protection Package 2001 (refer Section 2.2.2.2),
including the introduction of State Environmental Planning Policy No. 71Coastal Protection
(refer Section 2.2.2.3).
2.2.2.1 Ecologically Sustainable Development
Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD) is a philosophy of human interaction with the

environment whereby each generation passes on custodianship of an environment that is in the
same condition, or better, than that received from previous generations. Australia's National
Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development 1992 (NSESD) defines ESD as using,
conserving and enhancing the community's resources so that ecological processes, on which life
depends, are maintained, and the total quality of life, now and in the future, can be increased.

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In an Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment (IGAE) between the commonwealth of
Australia and all states and territories, made on 1 May 1992, the four principles of Ecologically
Sustainable Development (ESD) were agreed and defined as follows:
The precautionary principle: The lack of full scientific evidence should not be used as a
justification for the postponement of the introduction of measures to prevent or mitigate
environmental degradation. This principle is fundamental to adaptive management.
Monitoring and prevention are central to the precautionary principle monitoring to
measure progress, and prevention to minimise costs and risks. Decisions can and should be
refined as ongoing monitoring and research provides better understanding.
Intergenerational equity: Each generation should ensure that the health, diversity and
productivity of the environment is maintained or enhanced for future generations. This
principle points to institutional and community responsibilities for integrated management,
to ensure quality of life is maintained and enhanced.
Conservation of biological diversity and ecological integrity: Measures should be taken to

prevent and protect against the extinction or loss of viability of plant and animal species due
to human activities.
Improved valuation and pricing of environmental resources: The quality and value of
environmental resources should be maintained and enhanced through appropriate
management and pricing, preventing degradation and damage.
These principles have been incorporated into the NSW Coastal Policy 1997, and require their
consideration when making future planning and management decisions with respect to the coastal
zone of NSW. The use of the ESD principles in statutory policies, such as the Coastal Policy
1997, provides opportunities for an ecosystem services approach to land and water planning and
management (Thom, 2004b).
Australian Governments have committed themselves to the concept of ESD since 1992 in the
assessment of natural resources, landuse decisions and approval processes (Farrier et al., 1999,
cited in Thom, 2004a). ESD principles have been incorporated into many environmental
management plans and policies, including the Local Government (Ecologically Sustainable
Development) Act 1997 and the federal Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation
Act 1999. Yet interpretation of ESD is still cause for much debate, and it has only been recently
(since 2002) that environmental planning and policy instruments have called for promotion of
ESD principles rather than just consideration of the principles (pers. comm., B. Thom, DoP, May

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2005). Future application of ESD rests on improved knowledge of the functioning of
environmental, economic and social systems at various spatial scales (Thom, 2004a).
The NSW Coastal Policy 1997 is one of the key drivers for directing future planning and
management of the coastal zone in NSW. Given the burgeoning coastal population within the
state (refer Section 1.3.1), the Coastal Policy is considered to be a keystone in achieving a
sustainable and equitable approach to future development along the coast (including estuaries and
ICOLLs).
2.2.2.2 Coastal Protection Package 2001
A package of initiatives aimed at protecting the States beaches, headlands and coastal zone was
announced in June 2001. The key elements of the package were:
A Comprehensive Coastal Assessment (CCA) to assess the environmental, social and

economic values of the 1300 kilometres of NSW coastline. Common data on, and an
analysis of, the values of land within the coastal zone will be provided through the
assessment and utilised through planning and management decisions (refer Section 2.4.4 for
some preliminary outcomes);
A Coastal Protection State Environmental Planning Policy (SEPP) to make the Minister for
Planning the consent authority for major high risk development proposal and development
in sensitive locations along the coast. This SEPP was gazetted as SEPP-71 Coastal
Protection (refer Section 2.2.2.3);
A coastal water quality management strategy to assess the water quality of coastal waters
along the coastline;
Amendments to the Coastal Protection Act to require the preparation of a coastline plan of
management for any beach area likely to be the subject of emergency works and/or public
access constraints (refer Section 2.2.2.4); and
Review and amalgamation of the Coastline Management Manual (1990) and Estuary
Management Manual (1992).
The 2001 Coastal Protection Package was considered by Thom (2004a) to be a major step towards
confronting the negative impacts of individual actions (undertaken by landholders exercising their
property rights), which had hitherto been confounding coastal zone management and resulting in
environmental degradation and foreshore privatisation.

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2.2.2.3 SEPP-71 Coastal Protection and SEPP-State Significant Development
State Environmental Planning Policy (SEPP) No. 71 Coastal Protection is a specific planning
policy that has been established under provisions of the Environmental Planning and Assessment
(EP&A) Act 1979. The aim of SEPP-71 is to ensure that future development within the coastal
zone (including around all inland coastal waters such as ICOLLs) is appropriate and suitably
located, and consistent with the principles of Ecologically Sustainable Development (refer Section
2.2.2.1). SEPP-71 was established to address specific deficiencies in the implementation of the
NSW Coastal Policy 1997 (refer Section 2.2.2).
State Environmental Planning Policy (SEPP) State Significant Development is another new
policy (gazetted on 26 May 2005) that consolidates many previous planning instruments to
provide a single-point reference defining development considered to be of State Significance.
State Significant Development in relation to the coastal zone is defined within the new SEPP as
mining, extractive industry, industry, landfill, recreational establishments, marinas, some tourist
facilities and buildings greater than 13 metres in height above the natural ground level. It also
includes development, comprising subdivision of land:
Within a residential zone into more than 25 lots;
Within a rural residential zone into more than five lots; or
Within any zone into any number of lots if the future development of any lot created by the
subdivision will require effluent to be disposed of by means of a non-reticulated system.
The SEPP also defines Sensitive Coastal Locations, requiring special provisions, as:
A coastal Lake (as listed in Schedule 1 of SEPP-71) (and including all ICOLLs in NSW);
Land within 100m above mean high water mark of the sea, a bay or an estuary;
Land within 100m of the waters edge of a coastal lake, a declared Ramsar Wetland, a
World Heritage property, an aquatic reserve, a marine park, a national park, a nature
reserve, or a wetland subject to SEPP14; and
Residential land within 100m of land identified under SEPP26.
The Minister for Planning becomes the consent authority for State Significant Development,
Significant Coastal Development and Development in Sensitive Coastal Locations. Master plans
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are required to be approved by the Minister before some consents can be granted. Generally a
master plan is a document consisting of written information, maps and diagrams that outline
proposals for development of land.
2.2.2.4 Coastal Protection Act 1979
The Coastal Protection Act 1979 defines the coastal zone of NSW and makes provisions relating
to the use and occupation of the coast. The Act also originally established the Coastal Council of
New South Wales and specified its functions, however, this was repealed, and the Coastal Council
abolished in 2004.
Parts 3 to 5 of the Act remain in force and contain provisions relating to the use and occupation of
the coastal zone, the carrying out of certain coastal protection works, the preparation of coastal
zone management plans and certain ancillary matters relating to the coastal zone.
Part 3 of the Act provides for general supervision of the use, occupation and development of the
coastal zone. This includes a requirement for public authorities (if notified under section 38) to
gain concurrence from the Minister for Planning before any development is carried out or consent
given for the use, occupation or development of the coastal zone. It also provides for general
supervision of development within the coastal zone that is not otherwise subject to the provisions
of an environmental planning instrument (other than a State Environmental Planning Policy).
Part 4 of the Act relates to works in the coastal zone, and provides for the preparation of
coastal management plans by local councils. Part 5 outlines the penalties for offences against
the Act.
Recent Amendments to the Coastal Protection Act

The Coastal Protection Amendment Bill 2002 provides for changes to the definition of the coastal
zone, proposed use of Coastal Zone Management Plans, redefining the objectives of the Act, and
modifying the doctrine of accretion and erosion (Thom, 2003). New provisions within the Act are
aimed at managing ad hoc protection actions during declared emergency situations. Under this
Act, NSW beach environments now receive a high level of protection, as does beach amenity and
permanent public access (Thom, 2003).
A new Part 4B of the Act modifies the common law doctrine of erosion and accretion in relation
to foreshore land. Under this doctrine, the position of any boundaries defined by reference to the
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mean high water mark are not fixed, but migrate in accordance with gradual, natural and
imperceptible movements in the position of the mean high water mark. The Act requires that any
mean high water mark property boundary determination involving an increase in the area of land
on the seaward side of the boundary will only be allowed if it can be established that the trend of
accretion will be indefinitely sustained through natural means, and that no public access to a
beach, headland or waterway will, or is likely to be, restricted or denied.
Relevance to ICOLLs: Recent amendments to the Coastal Protection Act 1979 provide an avenue
for new Coastal Zone Management Plans to become statutory documents, and thus, must be
considered when assessing development applications for proposals that are located near ICOLLs.
Unfortunately, the framework for establishing Coastal Zone Management Plans is still not
finalised, so Estuary Management Plans currently being prepared for ICOLLs (refer Section
2.3.2), will remain non-statutory and advisory only.
2.2.3 Other relevant acts, policies and planning instruments
A range of other state and federal government acts, policies and planning instruments have been
reviewed in the context of existing and future management of ICOLLs, as presented in Appendix
B. Included in this review are:
Local Government Act (1919, 1993);
Crown Lands Act 1989;
SEPP-35 Maintenance of Tidal Waterways;
SEPP-14 Coastal Wetlands;
Wetlands Management Policy 1996;
Water Management Act 2000;
Catchment Management Authorities Act 2003;
Fisheries Management Act 1994
Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995;
National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974; and
Commonwealth Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.

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2.2.4 NSW Estuary Management Program
The NSW Estuary Management Policy 1992 (refer Section 2.2.1), released to help guide
management of the growing pressures on estuarine ecosystems in NSW, is implemented through
the NSW Estuary Management Program. This Program is co-ordinated by the Estuaries Section
of the Department of Natural Resources (DNR), and implemented in co-operation with local
government and the community. The framework for implementation of the Program is defined in
the Estuary Management Manual (NSW Government, 1992), and is illustrated in Figure 2-2.
The Program is initiated through the formation of an Estuary Management Committee (EMC),
which contains representation of a wide range of government and non-government stakeholders,
community groups and individuals. Industries such as tourism, aquaculture, commercial and
recreational fishing, and agriculture, are typically represented on EMCs. The primary role of the
EMC is to co-ordinate and oversee the preparation of scientific and strategic studies that identify
pertinent management issues and define options and strategies for long term management.
Detailed scientific investigations of the estuaries are carried out based on existing relevant data,
and where possible, additional sampling and assessments. The outcome of these investigations are
Estuary Processes Studies, which seek to document and quantify all physical, chemical and
biological processes that occur within the estuary, as well as the inter-relationships between these
processes.
The Estuary Management Manual (NSW Government, 1992) states that an Estuary Processes
Study is to be followed by an Estuary Management Study, which identifies the essential features
and the current uses of the estuary through a formal community consultation program. By
combining the social pressures affecting future management with the scientific issues derived
from the Estuary Processes Study, the Estuary Management Study contains a balanced set of long-
term goals and objectives for future management of the estuary. The Management Study also
identifies a range of options for meeting these objectives, and assesses these options for efficacy
(usually through a multi-criteria assessment framework).
From the findings of the Management Study, an Estuary Management Plan is prepared. The Plan
is a formal (although non-statutory at this stage) planning instrument that describes how the
estuary will be managed in the future. The Plan gives solutions to specific management problems
through a schedule of tailored activities, including on-ground works, planning controls and

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education programs. The Plan is required to be formally accepted by the community, Council,
and the relevant Government Departments, prior to implementation.
ESTUARY MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE
ASSEMBLY OF EXISTING DATA

Discover and assemble relevant data
ESTUARY PROCESS STUDY

Hydraulics: tidal, freshwater, flushing, salinity, water quality & sediment behaviour, etc
Biology: habitats, species, populations, endangered species, etc
Impacts: impact of human activities on hydraulics and biology
ESTUARY MANAGEMENT STUDY

Essential Features: physical, chemical, ecological, economic, social &
aesthetic
Current Uses: activities, land tenure & control, conflicts of use
Conservation Goals: preservation, key habitats
Remedial Goals: restoration of economic quality
Development: acceptable commercial & public works & activities
Management Objectives: identification & assessment
Management Options: implementation of options
Impacts: impact of proposed management measures
ESTUARY MANAGEMENT PLAN

Management objectives
Description of how the estuary will be managed
Recommendations
Schedule of activities to implement recommendations
PLAN REVIEW
Public & Government
IMPLEMENTATION
Local Government Planning Controls
State Government Planning Controls
Remedial Works
Monitoring Programs
Education Programs
Community Services
Monitoring
Figure 2-2 NSW Governments Estuary Management Process (adapted

from NSW Government, 1992)

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The elements of the NSW Estuary Management Program are typical of many natural resource
management frameworks, including the US National Estuary Program (see Section 2.1.3) and the
South African Estuary Management approach (see Breen & Mackenzie, 2001).
The Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has indicated that the Estuary Management Program
has been applied to almost 100 estuaries in NSW, although only half have a Plan currently
undergoing implementation (pers comm., G. Pelosi, DNR, March 2005). Of the estuaries with a
finalised Management Plan, 21 are ICOLLs, while Plans are currently in preparation for a further
four (refer Appendix C).
2.3 ICOLL management in practice
2.3.1 Overview
Current management of NSW ICOLLs is primarily driven by the Estuary Management Program
(described in Section 2.2.4). Application of the program to individual estuaries (including
ICOLLs), however, is based on community pressure and perceived management needs by local
and state government authorities. Preparation of some Estuary Management Plans has been
prompted by increasing pressure for development (e.g. Hearns Lake, Moonee Creek, Smiths Lake,
Saltwater Lagoon). Many isolated ICOLLs, particularly on the NSW south coast, have not been
included in the Estuary Management Program to date. For these systems, decisions regarding
future management are often made in an ad-hoc manner with a poor appreciation of processes and
consequences of actions.
The recent formation of Catchment Management Authorities in NSW under the new Catchment
Management Authorities Act 2003 (refer Appendix B) provides another possible avenue for
assistance with future management of ICOLLs and other estuaries in NSW. Although the roles of
the CMA with respect to the coastal zone are not yet clear, it is possible that these authorities may
assists in the implementation of Coastline Management and Estuary Management Plans,
particularly with regard to co-ordination and funding for on-ground rehabilitation and
conservation works.
2.3.2 Estuary Management Plans for NSW ICOLLs
NSW Governments Estuary Management Program (as described in Section 2.2.4) has been
applied to a number of ICOLLs throughout NSW (refer Appendix C). Some ICOLL Estuary
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Management Plans were prepared more than 10 years ago, and as such, do not incorporate the
provisions of the Coastal Policy 1997 or the principles of Ecologically Sustainable Development.
Most ICOLLs receiving formalised estuary management are located relatively close to well
populated urban and regional centres (eg, Woolgoolga, South West Rocks, Central Coast, Sydney,
Tuross Head and Merimbula), although some Plans have also been prepared for less populated
areas within the Shoalhaven LGA. It appears that ICOLLs requiring significant rehabilitation
have taken precedence over those that are still in relatively good condition, and need only to be
better protected to conserve existing values. Wonboyn Lake appears to be the only near-pristine
ICOLL that has a current Estuary Management Plan, although a range of foreshore and waterway
uses still requires careful planning and management of this system (WBM, 2003a).
Estuary Management Plans for NSW ICOLLs prepared in the 1990s tended to focus on structural
and on-ground works in order to rehabilitate the estuarine environment of the (usually quite
degraded) waterway, including removing sediment build-up (i.e. dredging), stabilising eroding
banks, and minimising impacts of flooding on low-lying lands around the lagoons (often through
artificial manipulation of the lagoon entrance opening regime) (see J. Allen & B Fidge, 1992;
Webb McKeown, 1994a, 1997a).
More recent Estuary Management Plans for ICOLLs and other estuaries have tended to be more
integrated with catchment management, taking a systems approach to conservation and
rehabilitation (e.g. Lake Macquarie - refer Section 2.3.3). Outcomes from recent EMPs include
conservation agreements with landholders, riparian revegetation, and improved land management
practices, as well as development controls, exclusions, offsets, and recommended changes to
landuse zonings (see WBM, 2005a,b).
2.3.3 The Lake Macquarie Estuary Management Framework
Although Lake Macquarie is not a formal ICOLL in the context of this assessment, its
management framework has been discussed here as it presents an innovative approach to the
standard Estuary Management Framework.
An Estuary Management Plan was developed for

Lake Macquarie (WBM, 1997) under the provisions
of the Estuary Management Program. This Plan

9/10/06 15:10 Lake Macquarie successfully managed
with Government support (Image: DNR)
indicated that some $40 million would need to be spent to rehabilitate the lake and ensure its long
term sustainability (WBM, 1997). As the implementation of such a Plan was well beyond the
resources of local government, the Premier of NSW established a Task Force to recommend a
priority Action Plan, along with appropriate institutional arrangements for implementation of the
Plan.
The management framework recommended by the Task Force (Lake Macquarie Task Force,
1999), and adopted by Cabinet, involved the establishment of a Lake Macquarie Project
Management Committee, with representation by Regional Directors of relevant State Government
departments, a councillor from both local government areas (Lake Macquarie and Wyong),
community members, and ex officio members (Jansson, 2004). A specific institutional entity (the
Office of the Lake Macquarie and Catchment Coordinator) was also established under the
framework, being responsible for co-ordination of the priority Action Plan implementation
(Jansson, 2004).
Jansson (2004), in commenting on the success of the framework, explains that no new levels of
bureaucracy were created, but rather, a genuine commitment was established between existing
agencies towards integration and adopting a holistic approach to environmental management.
With no de jure regulatory powers, however, the facilitator of the Action Plan (the Office of the
Lake Macquarie and Catchment Coordinator) has still faced difficulties as existing planning
processes and legislation are still relevant (although with representation by senior government
officials on the Project Management Committee, the processes were often able to be streamlined
and/or accelerated) (Jansson, 2004).
Jansson (2004) also attributes the success of the program to the detail of the Action Plan, which
advanced the typical Estuary Management Plan outcomes of what do we want to achieve? to a
more specific, action-oriented this is how we are going to get there! Success has also been
facilitated by the involvement of the community, who have also become better informed on the
biophysical aspects of the estuary through targeted and regular education program as part of the
Action Plan (Jansson, 2004).
With a budget of $18 million over six years, it is not surprising that the Lake Macquarie Estuary
Management example has achieved some success. Given that the budget from State Government
for the whole NSW Estuary Management Program (minor works program) has typically been
approximately $2 million/yr since its inception in 1992 (Stephens, 2005) (which is then matched

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dollar for dollar by local Councils), the potential for achieving similar success at all other estuaries
in NSW (not all of which are ICOLLs), is small.
2.3.4 Other Plans of Management
There are a number of ICOLLs in NSW that are located partly or wholly within National Parks or
Nature Reserves. Under Section 72 of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974, the National
Parks and Wildlife Service (now Department of Environment and Conservation) is required to
prepare a Plan of Management for each National Park, Nature Reserve and State Conservation
Area. Section 72AA of the Act outlines the required contents of the Plans of Management, with
an emphasis on maintenance of natural processes within the reserves.
Four separate Plans of Management have been prepared for National Parks and Nature Reserves
that contain one or more of the ICOLLs listed in Table 1-1 (NPWS, 2000a,b;2003a,b). The Plans
of Management cover Yuraygir National Park (Arragan and Cakora), Eurobodalla National Park
(Congo, Meringo, Bingie (Kellys), Brunderee, Tarourga, Brou, Mummuga, Corunna), Bournda
National Park (Wallagoot, Bournda) and Nadgee Nature Reserve (Nadgee).
Yuraygir and Nadgee Plans of Management (NPWS, 2003a,b) make little reference to the
estuarine resources within the reserves, with most of the Plans focusing on terrestrial vegetation
complexes and cultural values. Eurobodalla and Bournda Plans of Management (NPWS 2000a,b),
however, recognise the value of their coastal lagoons and promote minimal intervention of natural
lagoon dynamics. The Plans recognise the impacts of the catchment on the estuarine receiving
waters, and provide specific management actions in relation to their long-term sustainability,
including liaising with local government and other authorities to improve water quality of the
ICOLLs.
Preparation of Estuary Management Plans (in accordance with the NSW Governments Estuary
Management Program) has been recommended by both of the latter aforementioned Plans of
Management. The Plans indicate that NPWS (now DEC) will be the lead agency in preparing
these Estuary Management Plans, which will aim to achieve ecologically sustainable management
of the lakes and their catchments (NPWS, 2000a). NPWS (2000b) state that the Estuary
Management Plan for Wallagoot Lake and Bournda Lagoon will address issues such as artificial
opening of the estuaries and sustainable recreational use. Wallagoot Lake and Bournda Lagoon
are both used extensively for recreational purposes, while Bega Valley Shire Council opens

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Wallagoot Lake during times of flood (when the road to the north of the lake is inundated)
(NPWS, 2000b).
2.3.5 Management of ICOLL entrances
A comprehensive investigation of the existing management frameworks and practices for

management of ICOLL entrances in NSW has been carried out as part of this project, and is
described in detail in Section 9. An overview of current ICOLL entrance management is provided
below.
2.3.5.1 Formal Entrance Management Policies
As of mid 2004, there were ten ICOLLs in NSW that have a formal entrance management policy
(either adopted or in interim form), comprising Narrabeen, Dee Why, Curl Curl, Werri, Swan,
Conjola, Tabourie, Durras, Coila and Wallaga.
The entrance management policies generally

outline the conditions under which artificial
opening of the entrance berm would be permitted,
and the most appropriate method for undertaking
the opening works. Some policies also outline the
legislative considerations for the opening and the
Swan Lake has a formal Entrance
consultation that is required to precede or Management Policy (Image: Google)
accompany an artificial opening event.
2.3.5.2 Informal entrance management arrangements
For the NSW ICOLLs that are opened artificially (refer Section 9), approximately 40% are done
so without any legislative provision. In some cases, these illegal openings are carried out by
community members, however, for most, the actions are undertaken by the relevant local Council.
Furthermore, other ICOLLs are opened under the assumed provisions of SEPP-35. As indicated
in Appendix B, this policy is not regarded as applicable to the opening of ICOLL entrances,
particularly if the principal purpose of the opening is flood mitigation.

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2.4 Other planning and management initiatives
2.4.1 Healthy Rivers Commission Independent Inquiry
The NSW Healthy Rivers Commission (HRC) carried out an Independent Inquiry into Coastal
Lakes to highlight the need for improved and coordinated management of coastal lakes (including
ICOLLs) in NSW (HRC, 2001a, 2001b, 2002). This inquiry involved community and stakeholder
consultation for approximately 90 coastal lakes throughout NSW (including all ICOLLs covered
by this dissertation). While the inquiry focused on typically larger lakes and lagoons along the
NSW coastline, HRC advised that the approach adopted is applicable to all estuaries, particularly
the smaller coastal creeks that have intermittently open entrances (HRC, 2002).
The outcomes of the community and stakeholder consultation, along with the findings of
preliminary scientific investigations of the coastal lakes, indicated that the lakes provide valuable
ecological, social and economic benefits to local and wider communities, yet pressures placed on
them by increasing development within their catchments and around their foreshores, have caused
degradation (HRC, 2002). It was viewed by HRC (2002) that there was no agreed management
system that pays sufficient regard to the inherent limitations of coastal lakes, and that a
fundamental change in the decision making process regarding coastal lakes was required in order
to achieve healthier coastal lakes in NSW. Given the limitations of existing management
frameworks, the HRC developed a strategy to assist environmental managers make better
decisions regarding future management of coastal lakes. The strategy included:
A management framework for major classes of coastal lakes;
Preparation of Sustainability Assessment and Management Plans for each coastal lake;
Arrangements to implement key elements of the strategy (e.g. implementation

responsibilities); and
A range of supporting initiatives.
With each coastal lake classified into one of four categories, the management framework
provides guidance as to:
The underlying intention of management decisions;
The scope of the Sustainability Assessment;
The intended outcomes;

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The types of actions possible; and
A selection of management tools for implementing actions.
The four categories of coastal lakes, as defined by HRC (2001b, 2002) comprise:
Comprehensive Protection: where the restoration and preservation of all natural ecosystems is
paramount. These lakes generally have pristine or near pristine catchments, with little
modification to the waterbody, and a high conservation value.
Significant Protection: where focus should be placed on restoring and preserving critical natural
ecosystem processes. These lakes generally have largely unmodified to somewhat modified
catchments and slightly affected waterbodies. The recognised conservation value of these lakes
can be moderate to high.
Healthy Modified Condition: where key and/or highly valued ecosystem processes are to be
rehabilitated and retained. These lakes generally have modified catchment and waterbody
conditions, but can still retain some recognised conservation value.
Targeted Repair: where a preferred lake condition is sought through rehabilitation. These lakes
generally have highly modified catchments, with significant impacts on the waterbodies. There is
generally little recognised conservation value of these lakes.
The HRC (2001a, 2001b, 2002) classified 90 coastal lakes into these four categories based on
their:
Natural sensitivity to human activities;
Existing condition of the catchment and lake waterbody; and
Recognised natural and resource conservation values.
A list of the ICOLLs considered by this dissertation, and their corresponding HRC classification,
is provided in Table 2-1.
Sustainability Assessment and Management Plans (SAMPs) were recommended for each coastal
lake by HRC (2002). It was viewed that the SAMPs would define what activities can and cannot
be carried out within the lake and catchment, given the capability and limitations of the lake to
sustain existing and likely future human activities.
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Table 2-1 Healthy Rivers Commission Classification of NSW ICOLLs

(adapted from HRC, 2002)
Management ICOLLs
Orientation
Comprehensive Arragan Durras Nelson
Protection Bournda Meroo Tarourga
Brou Nadgee Termeil
Brunderee Nargel Wollumboola
Significant Protection Back Cuttagee Swan
Baragoot Dalhousie Tabourie
Bingie (Kellys) Deep Wallagoot
Bunga Meringo Wapengo
Cakora Middle (Tanja) Willinga
Candlagan Mummuga (Dalmeny) Wonboyn
Conjola Oyster
Corunna Smiths
Healthy Modified Avoca Kianga Pambula
Condition Bullengella Kioloa Saltwater (SWR)
Burrill Little (Wallaga) Tilba Tilba
Brush (Swan) Merimbula Tuross
Cockrone Mullimburra Wallaga
Coila Murrah Wamberal
Congo Nangudga Werri
Curalo Narrabeen Woolgoolga
Hearns Narrawallee
Targeted Repair Bellambi Curl Curl Little (Narooma)
Corindi (Pipe Clay) Dee Why Terrigal
HRC (2002) indicated that Sustainability Assessments for coastal lakes should be carried out at
three levels:
State-wide;
lake specific; and

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site specific.
The HRC Independent Inquiry process, which places all coastal lakes into one of the four classes
described above, essentially constitutes the state-wide assessment (HRC, 2002).
The lake-specific sustainability assessments would be based on more detailed information about
individual coastal lakes, and would build on existing information, such as Estuary Processes
Studies and soil maps, wherever possible. HRC (2002) indicated that lake-specific assessments
should consider, as a minimum:
Key ecosystem processes and thresholds;
Catchment processes;
Environmental and ecosystem values;
Indigenous values;
Sustainable resource usage;
Resident values;
Public health implications; and
Existing and possible future mechanisms for implementing strategies.
HRC (2002) suggested that the nature and scope of the sustainability assessments should be
influenced by the management orientation (or class) of the lake. For example, assessments for
Comprehensive Protection lakes would focus on identifying actions required for restoring and
preserving natural processes, whereas assessments for Targeted Repair lakes may be focused on
mitigating adverse effects, such as algal blooms.
Site-specific sustainability assessments should be carried out by proponents of individual

development proposals, and would confirm or fine-tune the assessments at the lake-specific level
(HRC, 2002).
Although the HRC Independent Inquiry provides no statutory basis for changes to the
management framework of coastal lakes in NSW, it did prompt a response from the NSW
Government, with implementation of several HRC recommendations. In a formal Statement of
Intent regarding the HRC inquiry, the NSW Government (2003) committed resources and funds to
carry out a series of pilot Sustainability Assessment and Management Plans (SAMPs) for a small

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group of priority coastal lakes, comprising Cudgen, Myall, Wollumboola, Burrill, Narrawallee,
Coila, Merimbula and Back Lakes (six of which are ICOLLs) (refer Section 2.4.4).
Furthermore, the NSW Government (2003) agreed to implementation of a number of supporting

initiatives, including:
Assessing risks associated with sea level rise and change in storm events (note that Section
8 of this dissertation also provides an overview of climate change impacts on coastal lakes /
ICOLLs);
Reserve the beds of coastal lakes classified as Comprehensive Protection as part of nearby
or adjacent national parks, or declaring the lakes as Marine Parks or Aquatic Reserves;
Declaring adjacent Crown Land with outstanding conservation value as reserves;
Revise estuary and coastal management manuals;
Explore possibilities for nominating a group of

South Coast lakes for World Heritage Listing;
Reinforce efforts to contain the spread of the

noxious aquatic weed Caulerpa taxifolia; and
Investigate possibilities for managing

undeveloped private land with outstanding
Narrawallee Inlet one of the pilot lakes for
conservation value. development of a SAMP (Image: Google)
2.4.2 ICOLL Management Forum 1998
As a precursor to the Healthy Rivers Commission Inquiry into Coastal Lakes, the Coastal Council
of NSW organised and facilitated a public forum on the management of ICOLLs held at the
Fisheries Research Institute, Cronulla on 17 18 September 1998. This forum was attended by
approximately 50 people and resulted in a series of recommendations for consideration by
Government (Coastal Council, 1998), including:
A broad strategic framework for coastal management, beyond the Coastal Policy 1997,
based on the principles of ESD and encapsulates environmental, economic and social
requirements. In many respects, this recommended framework has been established
through SEPP-71 Coastal Protection (refer Section 2.2.2.3);
Preparation of entrance management plans (as part of Estuary Management Plans), and
guidelines to assist in the preparation of these entrance plans, clearly stating the
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management principles and heads of consideration. Recommendations were also made
regarding the legal avenues for artificial entrance openings in recognition that the
provisions of SEPP-35 were inappropriate (refer Appendix B);
Establishment of an inventory of ICOLLs, and documenting their existing environmental

conditions, as well as identifying those ICOLLs that are fragile or robust, with
prioritization on future research and works programs. The Healthy Rivers Commission
(2000) provided such an inventory, and documented the condition of each coastal lake
(even though much information used was anecdotal), subsequently classifying the systems
based on their perceived management needs. This thesis provides an alternative
classification of ICOLLs based on their natural sensitivity to externalities, as determined
from key morphometric parameters (refer Section 6);
Greater recognition of ICOLLs and their specific management requirements as part of the
review of the Floodplain Development Manual (1990), the Coastline Management Manual
(1990) and the Estuary Management Manual (1992). While the Floodplain Development
Manual has been updated (2005), there has been no revision of the other documents. A new
Coastal Zone Management Manual is currently being prepared to replace both the Coastline
Management Manual and the Estuary Management Manual, however, as of January 2006 it
was yet to be released; and
Preparation of Best Practice Guidelines to ensure that the standard of Estuary Management
Plans (particularly with respect to ICOLLs) is consistent and of high quality. Such
guidelines were subsequently prepared by Roper (1998), who consolidated the outcomes of
several estuary management plans prepared up to that time, as well as overseas examples of
estuary management. Unfortunately these guidelines have not been widely utilised in the
preparation of recent Estuary Management Plans, however, most Plans have managed to
incorporate the general ecosystem-based principles espoused by Roper (1998).
2.4.3 Eurobodalla Coastal Capacity Planning Project
With funding from the Natural Heritage Trust (NHT) Coast and Clean Seas Program, Eurobodalla
Shire Council (ESC) carried out a Coastal Capacity Planning Project (Spurway & Lenson, 2001)
that determined suitability of land for future development based on an array of natural resources
data and the principles of Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD). Using the ICOLL,
Corunna Lake, as a case example, ESC assessed hydrology, soil landscapes, estimated nutrient
exports, vegetation and ecosystem mapping, fauna habitats, bushfire hazard and overall estuary
vulnerability (DLWC, 2000) before incorporating these elements into a multi-criteria evaluation
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framework and a Geographical Information System (GIS) to map areas within the catchment that
are more suited to future development. Areas considered unfavourable for development were also
highlighted through the GIS mapping.
Lacking from the ESC project, however, was a mechanism to assess the response of the receiving
water to potential future development within the catchment. Spurway and Lenson (2001)
acknowledge the importance of nutrient management in ICOLLs, and indicate that the University
of Canberra is investigating such issues (refer Section 7.3.4).
2.4.4 Coastal Lakes Sustainability Assessments
The NSW Government has initiated a series of pilot sustainability assessments as a first step
towards implementing the Coastal Lakes Strategy recommended by HRC (2002) (NSW
Government, 2003; Depalo, 2003).
In reporting on progress of the pilot sustainability assessments, Rissik et al. (2004) describe the
general approach being followed to assess the sustainability of the eight pilot coastal lakes. The
interdepartmental committee overseeing the project considered sustainability to mean the long-
term maintenance of natural processes and functions within coastal lagoons and the long-term
maintenance of economic and social considerations of the community of the lagoon catchment
(Rissik et al., 2004). The process adopted in assessing sustainability is shown in Table 2-2.
Table 2-2 Sustainability Assessment Process (source: Rissik et al., 2004)
Stage Phase
1 Community values and issues
2 Targeted consultation
3 Sustainability assessment
4 Management Strategy options
5 Prepare Management Strategy
Given the limited timeframe for assessment, the first two stages were simplified, drawing
extensively from existing information on community and stakeholder values (although updated
through targeted consultation with individuals that have key links to the community and relevant
lagoon and catchment stakeholders) (Rissik et al., 2004).

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Considerable effort has been applied to Stage 3 of the assessment the sustainability assessments.
Two different approaches have been developed to consider sustainability of coastal lagoons: a
Vulnerability-Pressure-State-Impact-Risk-Response (VPSIRR) approach (Rissik et al., 2004), and
a Bayesian Decision Network (BDN) approach (Newham et al., 2004).
Similar to existing Estuary Management Plans, as well as most other natural resource planning
documents, a series of strategy options will be formulated by the sustainability assessments, and
will require a level of community consultation to assess the feasibility given the various
stakeholder positions (Rissik et al., 2004). It is presumed that the effectiveness of the strategies
will also be assessed using the BDN decision support system, to provide a more robust and
scientific basis to the final list of options included in each Lake Management Strategy.
The overall sustainability assessment approach being adopted appears to be consistent with the
principles of ESD, as discussed previously in Section 2.2.2.1. Rissik et al. (2004) acknowledge
the role of local government, the Catchment Management Authorities, and the communities, in the
implementation of the individual Lake Management Strategies, and flags the need for further
consultation and liaison with these organizations in the development of the final Strategy
documents.
2.5 Summary and shortcomings of existing management

framework
In considering all of the statutory and non-statutory provisions for management of NSW ICOLLs,
a number of critical shortcomings have been highlighted:
a) There are no specific statutory controls that recognise ICOLLs and differentiate them from
other estuary types. This is important, as the conservation and management requirements of
ICOLLs are often quite different from other estuary types, which stems from their unique
geomorphologic, hydrodynamic and biotic structure.
b) There is no specific mechanism relating to the management of ICOLL entrances, and as a

result, there is inconsistency and illegality across the state with respect to artificial opening
actions. Only ten ICOLLs have formal entrance management policies, but even so, many
of these policies are considered to be inadequate by the community and/or the agencies
(refer Section 9.3.3).
c) For ICOLLs without Estuary Management Plans, management responsibilities are not
clearly defined, and actions have tended to be reactive, uncoordinated and sectoral. Remote
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ICOLLs may potentially suffer from an out of sight, out of mind management approach,
leaving local landholders free to manage / manipulate the waterways based on their own
requirements.
d) For ICOLLs with Estuary Management Plans, it appears that the Plans lack comprehensive
implementation. Furthermore, the Plans are not always being considered by Councils when
assessing development applications given their unstatutory nature (Spurway, 2004). As a
consequence, ICOLLs conditions may continue to decline in response to inappropriate and
non-compassionate developments.
e) Effective management of ICOLLs (like most other natural resources) requires strong
backing by the local community, however, the slow rate of progress in developing and
implementing Estuary Management Plans is eroding the goodwill and stewardship
opportunities that are provided by an active and motivated community.
f) The currently adopted NSW Estuary Management Program is 14 years old, predating much
of the recent reforms with regard to Ecologically Sustainable Development, and Integrated
Coastal Zone Management. A review process is underway, which will combine the Estuary
Management Manual and Coastline Management Manual producing a new Coastal Zone
Management Manual, however, the timing for this new manual is unknown.
g) There is limited connection between increasing scientific knowledge and current planning
processes regarding NSW ICOLLs. Knowledge regarding ICOLLs and their various
environmental processes is increasing rapidly, however, there is little transference of this
knowledge to planning and policy levels of local and state government.

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A CONCEPTUAL SYSTEMS-BASED APPROACH TO ICOLL PROCESSES AND THEIR INTERACTIONS 55
3 A CONCEPTUAL SYSTEMS-BASED APPROACH TO ICOLL

PROCESSES AND THEIR INTERACTIONS
3.1 Introduction to systems-based management
The concept of systems-based assessments and management has evolved contemporaneously

with integrated natural resource management, both advancing significantly in response to the
1992 Rio Earth Summit (refer Section 3.1.1). Essentially, systems-based management involves
the consideration of the whole environmental system as a single management unit. For this
reason, systems-based environmental management is also referred to as holistic management.
From a predominantly biological perspective, the whole environmental system is termed the
ecosystem, and as such, the term ecosystem-based management is also as an alternative to
systems-based management.
A systems-based approach to assessment and management considers the interactions between the
various elements and processes occurring within an environment, including all physical, chemical
and biological processes. Ecosystem based management is viewed as a significant shift away
from the historical management of human use of the environment, as it recognises that ecosystems
are complex, dynamic and interconnected (Sullivan, 2002). Similarly, Harden Jones (1994)
defines ecosystem based management as 'the necessity of understanding multi-species interactions
and questions of altered structure of the biological community'. Schlaepfer (1997) states that the
idea of using an ecosystem approach in managing natural resources is not new, with reference to
Van Dynes 1969 book titled The Ecosystem Concept in Natural Resource Management.
Schlaepfer (1997) continues to say that the world is continuing to recognise the importance of
ecosystem-based processes, and the need to manage ecosystems in a way that balances and
integrates environmental and development needs.
Although the concept of ecosystem management can be interpreted in many ways, it

fundamentally strives for sustainable development, as natural resources are considered with the
whole ecosystem in mind, and using ecosystem concepts to allocate attention across both internal
interactions and between external systems (Schlaepfer, 1997). The major challenge for the future
management of natural resources is considered by Schlaepfer (1997) to be finding the balance
between production and the productive capacity of the ecosystems - locally, regionally, and
globally, and in both the short and long-terms.

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3.1.1 The CBD Ecosystem Approach to coastal zone management
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was signed by leaders from 150 governments,
including Australia, at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. The convention was established
as an avenue for promoting sustainable development and implementing the principles of Agenda
21 (CBD, 2005). The Convention established three main goals (CBD, 2005):
The conservation of biological diversity;
The sustainable use of its components; and
The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits from the use of genetic resources.
The Convention also recognises that biological diversity is about more than plants, animals and
micro organisms and their ecosystems it is about people and our need for food security,
medicines, fresh air and water, shelter, and a clean and healthy environment in which to live
(CBD, 2005).
The CBD specifically identified the Ecosystem Approach as the fundamental framework to
achieve its goals and objectives. The Ecosystem Approach is a strategy for the integrated
management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in
an equitable way (CBD, 2000, cited in Laffoley et al., 2004). The Ecosystem Approach requires
movement from a predominantly sectoral approach (maximising opportunities and short-term
gains for individual sectors set against one another), to coherent implementation of actions across
the relevant social, economic and environmental sectors (Laffoley et al., 2004). In this regard, the
Ecosystem Approach is not dissimilar to the concepts of Ecologically Sustainable Development
(ESD) and Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM).
Application of the Ecosystem Approach facilitates for a move away from traditional reactive
approaches to coastal zone management, to a more pro-active way of avoiding future
environmental degradation (Laffoley et al., 2004). The Ecosystem Approach is characterised by
the collective and holistic consideration of the following twelve (12) principles (CBD, 1998):
1. Management objectives are a matter of societal choice;
2. Management should be decentralised to the lowest appropriate level;
3. Ecosystem managers should consider the effects (actual or potential) of their activities on
adjacent and other ecosystems;

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4. Recognising potential gains from management there is a need to understand the ecosystem
in an economic context. Any ecosystem management program should:
i. Reduce those market distortions that adversely affect biological diversity;
ii. Align incentives to promote sustainable use;
iii. Internalise costs and benefits in the given ecosystem to the extent feasible;
5. A key feature of the ecosystem approach includes conservation of ecosystem structure and
functioning;
6. Ecosystems must be managed within the limits to their functioning;
7. The ecosystem approach should be undertaken at the appropriate scale;
8. Recognising the varying temporal scales and lag effects which characterise ecosystem
processes, objectives for ecosystem management should be set for the long term;
9. Management must recognise that change is inevitable;
10. The ecosystem approach should seek the appropriate balance between conservation and use
of biological diversity;
11. The ecosystem approach should consider all forms of relevant information, including
scientific and indigenous and local knowledge, innovations and practices; and
12. The ecosystem approach should involve all relevant sectors of society and scientific
disciplines.
Since its establishment, advancements have been made in incorporating the Ecosystem Approach
into a range of initiatives and agreements regarding natural resource management, including
marine and coastal environments (Laffoley et al., 2004). Although focusing specifically on the
application of the ecosystem approach to the British coastal environment, the holistic philosophy
for coastal resource management provided by Laffoley et al. (2004) can equally be applied
elsewhere in the globe, including the coastal zone of NSW.
A key difference between the Ecosystem Approach and other forms of Integrated Coastal
Management is the fact that the Ecosystem Approach focuses on coherence in contrast to
integration, to foster a more logical, consistent and orderly approach to management (Laffoley et
al., 2004). Laffoley et al. (2004) states that Integration alone can potentially incur the cost of
being reductionist, or attempts to create new structure that may be politically impracticable.
Coherence potentially delivers the benefit of the sum of the parts exceeding the whole.

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3.1.2 Models to facilitate understanding and management of complex
ecosystems
With respect to coastal environments, and ICOLLs in particular, there are many environmental
processes (covering physical, chemical and biological spectra) that require consideration from a
holistic, systems-based perspective. Interactions between these processes are dependent on a wide
range of environmental conditions, and as such, there is a myriad of outcomes when considering
management opportunities for management. In citing Golley (1993), Laffoley et al. (2004)
highlights this point by stating Ecosystems are not only more complex than we think, ecosystems
are more complex than we can think.
Modelling has typically been used to help interpret the complex inter-relationships between
environmental processes. Two types of models are available for this purpose: predictive
numerical models, and conceptual processes models. Predictive modelling allows the
consequences of actions and changes to a system to be determined and quantified. Predictive
modelling, however, requires specific definition of the individual relationships between all
environmental processes, which are often site specific and difficult to quantify. Some attempt has
been made to quantify relationships between some state variables in a number of estuaries, as part
of multi-million dollar research investigations, including Port Phillip Bay, Moreton Bay and the
Gippsland Lakes. Site-specific predictive models have been produced from these investigations,
which consider and simulate the most fundamental (i.e. carbon and nutrient based) environmental
processes occurring in those estuaries (see Webster & Harris, 2004; Parslow et al., 1999; Baird,
2001). The Port Phillip Bay model incorporated nutrients, phytoplankton and zooplankton (NPZ)
within both the water column and the sediments (refer Appendix H further details), and was
underpinned by extensive field data collection to define relationships and equations within the
model.
From an international perspective, the Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone (LOICZ)
program has established a range of analytical tools for assessing and modelling coastal systems.
The LOICZ approach has been applied to a number of south-east Australian estuaries (including
sub-tropical rivers of the north coast, the Hawkesbury-Nepean River, Lake Illawarra and
Gippsland Lakes) as compiled by Smith and Crossland (1999).
It is considered that these predictive models, although effective at simulating the processes of the
estuaries they were developed for, are potentially limited in providing guidance on the
management of other estuarine systems, particularly those with very different hydrodynamic
regimes (e.g. intermittently open coastal lagoons). In fact, it is considered that direct application
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of existing models to other environments, such as ICOLLs, without detailed reanalysis and
investigation of site-specific processes, could potentially inhibit effective management, as
fundamental assumptions in the model may not necessarily be correct or even relevant. For
example, the Port Phillip Bay predictive ecosystem model is nitrogen-based, as it was
determined that nitrogen was the limiting nutrient for primary productivity in Port Phillip Bay
(Murray and Parslow, 1997). While other similar marine-based systems may indeed also be
nitrogen-based this condition is not automatically correct for all estuaries, especially ICOLLs that
are often completely disconnected from the marine environment.
It is considered that a new suite of predictive models are required to provide a detailed
understanding and appreciation of the physical, chemical and biological processes of estuarine
systems that are intermittently closed and open to the ocean, rather than inheriting the modelling
assumptions relevant to permanently open estuaries and semi enclosed coastal inlets. Given the
vast amount of data that is usually required to establish a new suite of predictive ecosystem
models, a more simplified, conceptual approach to modelling should be considered. Conceptual
models do not require specific quantification of individual relationships between physical,
chemical and biological processes in the environment. Rather, conceptual models simply identify
the relationships to provide greater understanding of the complexity of systems, so that
management decisions can be made giving consideration to the likely holistic response of the
system as a whole (refer Section 3.2).
3.2 Introduction to conceptual models
Conceptual models are often developed where detailed, site-specific information regarding
environmental processes and interactions is unknown. Conceptual models describe typical
conditions and typical interactions between processes, based on generic information and data
sourced from other similar environments.
A key advantage to establishing conceptual models is the relatively minimal time and expense
required for development. Ryan (2002) states that conceptual models are useful as planning and
management tools because they succinctly communicate the complexity of the biophysical
properties of coastal waterways. In this context, they can be used to:
Provide a framework for organising knowledge, in order to help understand how systems
function, and demonstrate the links between geomorphology and other processes;

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Present a holistic picture of Australian coastal waterways to assist the application of
environmental indicators (including the setting of 'trigger' values);
Identify areas of uncertainty (and lack of knowledge) that help to prioritise research needs
and monitoring activities;
Consider the dynamics of coastal ecosystems at temporal and spatial scales appropriate to
making management decisions; and
Facilitate stakeholder participation, and foster cross-disciplinary communication and

discussion.
Scheltinga et al. (2004) also highlight the importance of conceptual models in assessing overall
environment health (refer Section 3.3.2), and recommend the development of such models to
illustrate the interactions between processes, and more importantly, the relationships between
management actions and the response of the natural ecosystem.
Conceptual models of environmental systems can take a variety of forms, including a network
approach (colloquially known as spaghetti diagrams) whereby key components are linked to
each other via a flowchart (e.g. DeVivo, 2005; Sime, 2002; WBM, 2002a), and pictorial
representations that mimic real conditions and biophysical environments (e.g. Ryan, 2002;
MBWCP, 2005).
Selected examples of existing conceptual models of estuarine environments (some of which

describe ICOLLs specifically) have been reviewed and are discussed in Appendix D. These
examples include pictorial conceptual models developed by Geoscience Australia (Ryan, 2002),
MBWCP (2005), and NIWA Australia (Spooner & Spigel, 2005), as well as network-based
conceptual models developed by WBM (2002a,c).
Based on the information, processes and approaches of existing conceptual models, as reviewed in
Appendix D, a new systems-based conceptualisation of ICOLLs has been developed (refer
Section 3.3). This new conceptual model has been established for the purpose of assisting with
development and assessment of future management strategies for NSW ICOLLs, as presented in
Section 10.

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3.3 Development of a new systems-based conceptual model
for ICOLLs
The conceptual models reviewed and described in Appendix D are considered valuable for the
context in which they were developed, however, all have distinct and different disadvantages in
terms of conveying information regarding environmental processes and interactions between these
processes. A new, systems-based conceptual model has therefore been developed, specifically for
NSW ICOLLs, to redress the short-comings of existing models.
In developing the new conceptual model, separate sub-models were first prepared for each key
component of the ecosystem (i.e. physical, chemical and biological processes) and describe the
inputs and outputs that influence the behaviour of each process that are distinctly relevant to
ICOLLs. These sub-models were then combined based on the fundamental principle of a net one-
way migration of influences, from physical processes to chemical processes and then to biological
processes (Figure 3-1), as introduced previously in the WBM estuary processes interaction model
(refer Appendix D). Although there is a net one way influence from physical to chemical to
biological processes, there are still some smaller backward influences, which are described in the
separate sub-models, below.
Physical Chemical Biological

Processes Processes Processes
First order Second Order Third order

(Primary process) (Secondary process) (Tertiary process)
Figure 3-1 Net one-way flow of influences of ICOLL processes
As this dissertation primarily focuses on the physical and chemical behaviour of ICOLLs, greater
detail has been afforded to these processes. The biological processes are, in essence, the end
member of the processes chain (refer Figure 3-1), meaning that effective characterisation of the
physical and chemical processes of ICOLLs will mostly pre-define the ecological structure
occurring within the intermittently open coastal systems.
For the physical and chemical processes, sub-models were developed for both the water and
sediment components of a typical ICOLL environment. The conceptual sub-models of physical
processes within ICOLLs are shown in Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-3, representing the water and
sediment components respectively, while the conceptual sub-models for the chemical processes
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are presented in Figure 3-4 and Figure 3-5, again representing the water and sediment
components, respectively.
ICOLL entrance Catchment

conditions condition
Groundwater
Waterway physical Oceanic inflows Volumetric
Evaporation Direct rainfall inflows and
structure and outflows catchment runoff
outflows
Hydrodynamics
Figure 3-2 Simple hydrodynamics conceptual sub-model of ICOLLs
Figure 3-2 shows typical inputs and outputs of a water balance model for most estuaries (see
Brown & Root, 2001; WBM, 2001a, for examples). For ICOLLs, however, the condition of the
entrance controls the degree of inflows and outflows to the ocean, and as such, has been added to
the hydrodynamic sub-model (refer Section 5.1). Furthermore, the condition of the catchment has
been added to the model, as it controls the contribution of volumetric runoff and groundwater
hydrodynamics. In addition to specific inputs and outputs, the physical structure of the waterway
has been included in the hydrodynamic conceptual model, as the physical structure (including
shape, depth, etc) can also affect the hydrodynamic patterns (e.g. flushing, circulation, tidal
ingress) (refer Section 6).

Oceanic inputs and

Catchment
Hydrodynamics discharges of
sediment runoff
sediment
Sedimentology
Figure 3-3 Simple sedimentological conceptual sub-model of ICOLLs

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The sedimentological sub-model shown in Figure 3-3 defines the two principal sources of
sediment (i.e. marine and terrestrial) (refer Section 5.4), as well as the waterway hydrodynamics,
as the driving factors for the physical sedimentological processes of ICOLLs. The hydrodynamics
is considered critical in defining the transportation, distribution and settlement of marine and
terrestrial sediment once the sediment is delivered to the waterway.

Atmospheric inputs Oceanic inputs and Sediment sinks Biological uptake

Catchment runoff
and releases of discharges of and inputs of and inputs of Groundwater
Hydrodynamics of chemical
chemical chemical geochemical biochemical geochemical inputs
constituents
constitents constituents constituents contituents
Water Quality
Figure 3-4 Simple water quality conceptual sub-model of ICOLLs
The water quality sub-model (Figure 3-4) reflects the considerable interactions between surface
water quality and other estuarine processes within an ICOLL environment. The sub-model
demonstrates many of the features of typical nutrient balance models in terms of inputs and
outputs, including the contributions to water quality made by oceanic and catchment inputs, and
the interactions with the estuary sediments, and ecology (e.g. algal productivity) (refer Section 7).
Hydrodynamics are also significant in defining surface water quality of ICOLLs, as it controls the
advection, dispersion and dilution of inputs delivered to the waterway.
Catchment
conditions
Catchment runoff Biological uptake

of organic and and interaction of
Water quality sedimentology
inorganic biogeochemical
particulates contituents
Sediment Quality
Figure 3-5 Simple sediment quality conceptual sub-model of ICOLLs

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Both the entire water quality processes and the entire sedimentological processes influence
sediment quality within ICOLLs (refer Figure 3-5). The surface water quality of ICOLLs
influences the flux of chemicals between the water and sediment environments, while the
sedimentological characteristics control the ability of the sediment to retain chemical compounds.
Sediment quality is also influenced by the inputs of particulate chemicals from the catchment (e.g.
particulate organic carbon and nutrients), which settle to the bed of ICOLLs before reacting with
the environment (such as respiration, decay, oxidation).
Biological processes within the sediment layer play a significant role in moderating the exchange
of chemicals between the water and sediment environments. Research by CSIRO and others has
shown that microphytobenthos (also called benthic microalgae) are critical components of an
ICOLL environment, and can account for much of the primary productivity within a waterway
(refer Section 7.2.2).
The simplistic conceptual sub-model for biological processes within ICOLLs is shown in Figure
3-6. Whilst the biology cell has been kept generic, there are many separate aspects of the
biological environment that interact with each other and with the other physical and chemical
processes occurring within ICOLLs, including the simple phytoplankton (pelagic, epiphytic /
periphytic and benthic microalgae and macroalgae), zooplankton, benthic and pelagic
invertebrates (e.g., molluscs, gastropods and prawns), and pelagic vertebrates (e.g. fish). The
biological communities of ICOLLs overall are considered to be euryhaline, comprising fewer
species but in higher abundance (Teske & Wooldridge, 2001). The ecology of ICOLLs is
therefore considered not unique, but rather, a subset of the ecology found more generally in open
estuarine and marine environments albeit at different abundances and species dominance
(Williams et al., 2004).
ICOLL entrance
condition
Oceanic inputs and

Water quality Hydrodynamics Sedimentology Sediment quality outputs of
biological species
Biology
Figure 3-6 Simple biological conceptual sub-model of ICOLLs

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Moverley and Hirst (1999) have shown that benthic macrofauna can vary based on environmental
conditions, and as a result, may be considered as a proxy for assessing environmental health.
Benthic macroinvertebrates have also been studied by Dalton et al. (2002) within small
intermittently opening coastal creeks on the south coast of NSW, and showed different
assemblages based on different sedimentological and hydraulic environments. Meanwhile,
DLWC (1999) conducted a survey of fish and macroinvertebrate communities within coastal
NSW, and revealed distinct differences in taxonomic richness among estuaries, with lower
richness in intermittently open lagoons than estuaries with an open mouth.
Fish communities within ICOLLs have been investigated by many researchers (Jones & West,
2005; Pollard, 1994a, b; Williams et al., 2004; Pease, 1999; Bell et al., 2001; Griffiths, 1999) and
is has been found that the character of the biological communities is dependent on the physical
and chemical environment in which they reside. Wilson et al. (2002) also studied a fish kill in
Cockrone Lagoon and concluded that the mass mortality was a function of the unique
hydrodynamic environment of ICOLLs (specifically, the abrupt evacuation of water from the
system following entrance breakout, which can expose and subsequently kill off marine vegetation
and macroalgae).
All of the conceptual sub-models discussed above show clear links and dependencies between the
different biophysical processes occurring within ICOLLs. A distinct advantage of this network-
based approach to conceptual modelling is that all of the sub-models can now be combined into a
single unified model to provide a more holistic and systems-based representation of the overall
ICOLL processes and influences on the physical, chemical and biological behaviour. This
combined conceptual model is presented in Figure 3-7, and includes some expansion of the
processes to draw distinction between the key biological elements of ICOLLs, and also the key
anthropogenic pressures on ICOLLs. Such a detailed network-based representation of ICOLL
processes can be used as a basis for more predictive modelling using empirical, Bayesian or other
approaches.
Figure 3-7 maintains the top down effect used by WBM (2002c), but expands considerably on
the peripheral factors that also influence the behaviour of each of the key ICOLL processes.
Figure 3-7 is considered to be a significant advancement on previous conceptual models in terms
of relaying the important interactive links between the different biophysical components of
ICOLL environments, and is used extensively to help formulate and assess future management
approaches for ICOLLs (refer Section 10).

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As demonstrated in Figure 3-7, the primary structure and functioning of ICOLLs can be related
back to two principal drivers entrance conditions and catchment conditions. This is consistent
with the findings of Roy et al. (2001), who state that estuary function is influenced by a) entrance
condition, which controls tidal exchange, salinity regime and the recruitment and migration
behaviour of the biota, and b) catchment conditions, which determine the nature of the original
estuary basin, its infilling history, the distribution of the present-day zones and ecological habitats,
the extent of freshwater mixing, nutrient cycling and survival regimes for the biota.
3.3.1 Significance of anthropogenic influences on ICOLL processes
The primary anthropogenic impacts on ICOLL processes have been identified within previous
conceptual models (WBM, 2002c, 2005a), and are also highlighted in Figure 3-7 (shaded cells).
From a management perspective, it is important to note that the key anthropogenic components
influence the principal ecosystem drivers (entrance conditions and catchment conditions) and as
such are positioned at the top of the ICOLL processes tree. This means that anthropogenic
impacts will be experienced by virtually every environmental process that occurs within ICOLLs.
With respect to the entrance conditions, anthropogenic activities can potentially alter the degree of
tidal exchange between the ICOLL and the ocean (via artificial entrance opening for example).
With respect to catchment conditions, development within the catchment will alter hydrology,
which will then modify the volume of catchment runoff entering the ICOLL, as well as the
sediment and chemical characteristics of the runoff. Anthropogenic development can also have a
direct impact on the physical structure of the waterway, by infilling low-lying riparian areas or
construction of causeways, culverts and floodgates, for example.
Catchment runoff can also be modified by water extractions within the catchment. Freshwater
extracted from a catchment can change the natural flow regime entering an ICOLL. Most
extractions occur as a press type impact occurring on a continuous basis during both wet and dry
periods. When combining both catchment development and freshwater extractions, the hydrology
could theoretically be modified such that the discharge regime entering the ICOLL is significantly
higher during wet weather events and significantly lower during dry weather periods, compared to
natural conditions.

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Artificial entrance Anthropogenic

Coastal processes
management development
ICOLL entrance Catchment Freshwater

conditions condition extractions
Groundwater
Waterway physical Oceanic inflows Volumetric
Evaporation Direct rainfall inflows and
structure and outflows catchment runoff
outflows
Atmospheric inputs Oceanic inputs and

Oceanic inputs and Catchment runoff
Catchment and releases of discharges of Groundwater
discharges of
sediment
sediment runoff Hydrodynamics chemical chemical
of chemical
constituents
geochemical inputs
constituents constituents
Catchment runoff
of organic and
Sedimentology Water Quality inorganic
particulates
Oceanic inputs and

Sediment Quality outputs of
biological species
Mobile oceanic
Microphytobenthos Pelagic and
Benthos and species (eg fish
Biology marine vegetation
(Benthic
microalgae)
and invertebrates)
epiphytic micro and
macro algae
and marine algae
Figure 3-7 Simple system-based conceptual model of holistic estuarine processes in ICOLLs
(shaded cells represent anthropogenic activities)

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3.3.2 Use of conceptual models to determine indicators of ecosystem

condition
Coates et al. (2002) suggest that ecosystem health, or ecosystem condition, is a reflection of the
naturalness or normality of an environmental system. Providing an indication of ecosystem health
is difficult, however, and dependent on the context of specific assessments. Overall assessments
therefore require consideration of multiple indicators, both biotic and abiotic, at different levels of
organisation (Coates et al., 2002). A number of recent studies have attempted to define
parameters that can be assessed and used in combination to provide a measure of ecosystem health
(e.g. Scheltinga et al., 2004; Moverley & Hirst, 1999).
Critical to the assessment of environmental health is recognition of natural variability in

ecosystem parameters (Coates et al., 2002). ICOLLs, more than any other type of estuary,
experience significant variability in physical and chemical conditions, which relates to the
intermittent nature of the ocean connection (Coates et al., 2002), and as such, it is difficult to
differentiate between natural and anthropogenic-induced variability. Murray et al. (2002) provide
an example of this with reference to Lake Wollumboola. If ecosystem indictors for Lake
Wollumboola included dissolved oxygen, hydrogen sulfide production, seagrass and macroalgae,
then the lake would be deemed in poor health, however, the catchment is mostly undeveloped
suggesting that these poor conditions are naturally occurring (Murray et al., 2002).
Conceptual models can be used to assist in assessing and interpreting parameters that can be used
as indicators for environmental health (Ryan, 2002). Conceptual models can assist in the
customising of relevant 'trigger values' (values for key indicators, above or below which there is a
risk of adverse biological effects) and targets appropriate for the general application of indicators
(Ryan, 2002). Based on the interactions shown in the new systems-approach conceptual model
(Figure 3-7), it is clear that the biological processes are the end result of nearly all the physical and
chemical processes occurring within ICOLLs. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that
biological indicators would be suitable surrogates for a measure of environmental health.
However, as there are many processes influencing the biological outcomes of ICOLLs, it would
be difficult to interpret the results from a management perspective (i.e. if the outcome is
undesirable, what is causing the problem?).
Moverley & Hirst (1999) attempted to establish environmental health assessment protocols for
Australian estuaries based on benthic macrofauna communities. They found such a range of

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physical and chemical conditions within Australian estuaries that a standardised set of indicators
could not be determined. Stratified estuaries were found by Moverley & Hirst (1999) to be
frequently depauperate, and were consequently recommended for exclusion from future
environmental health assessments based on benthic community structure. As many ICOLLs have
the potential to become stratified, benthic macrofauna communities in ICOLLs are likely to be a
poor indicator for overall environmental health.
Furthermore, it is considered that the timescale of some biological processes can be long
compared to the timescales for problems to occur and the need for appropriate management
responses. Biological processes should therefore only be used for environmental health
assessment when considered in combination with other physical and chemical processes and
interactions (Scheltinga et al., 2004; Radke et al., 2003). Scheltinga et al. (2004) further suggest
that different indicators be used for assessment of different stressors the stressors relating to the
context/objectives of the environmental health assessment.

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GEOMORPHOLOGY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ICOLLS 70
4 GEOMORPHOLOGY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ICOLLS
4.1 Geomorphic evolution of ICOLLs
4.1.1 International perspectives
ICOLLs and other similar coastal lagoons have evolved around the world as a result of either the
growth of sand barriers across the mouth of tidal inlets by longshore sediment transport, or by the
landward movement of sand barriers over the sea floor under wave action during the Post-glacial
Marine Transgression (between 18,000 and 6,000 years ago) (Bird, 1994; Barnes, 1980; Kench,
1999; Woodroffe, 2002). Longshore transport processes have tended to form choked coastal
lagoons (according to the terminology of Kjerfve, 1986, cited in Kjerfve, 1994) and are
representative of the lagoons on the south-east coast of Australia. Shore-normal (or onshore)
sediment transport processes have tended to form restricted or leaky coastal lagoons, as per the
aforementioned Kjerfve classification, and are typically found in many overseas coastlines,
including the east coast of USA. Coastal lagoons comprise approximately 13% of coastal areas
worldwide (Kjerfve, 1994) (see Section 1.1), and are most numerous on micro-tidal coasts
(Barnes, 1980).
Barriers created under longshore sediment transport processes tend to establish elongated lagoons,
with their long axes parallel to the coastline, which are subject to large wind fetches, with wind-
induced waves and currents continuing to rework sediment along lagoon shoreline (Barnes, 1980).
The internal longshore transport processes sometimes result in cuspate divisions and segmentation
(or septation) of the lagoon into separate basins (Woodroffe, 2002) (see Figure 4-1).
The coastal barrier creates a natural dam within a permanently drowned valley or coastal inlet,
allowing the lagoon to trap terrigenous and marine sediment. The rate of sediment accumulation
is dependent largely on catchment characteristics, including river discharge, petrology and
weathering characteristics of lithologies (Roy, 1984). Ultimately, the sediment accumulation
reduces the waterway depth and contracts the lagoons foreshores. Coastal lagoons are thus short-
lived (in a geological context), transitory and dynamic features of the coastline (Barnes, 1980;
Bird, 1994; Woodroffe, 2002).

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Figure 4-1 Schematic representation of a typical coastal lagoon and associated

energies showing septation of the waterbody into separate basins (Source:
Woodroffe, 2002)
Most coastal lagoons across the globe have established during the Holocene Post-glacial
transgression and subsequent standstill, however, it is possible that some date back to earlier
episodes of submergence during Pleistocene interglacials. During ensuing glacial periods of low
sea level, the lagoons would have been converted to subaerial basins that were then reflooded
during marine transgressions (Bird, 1994). It is considered that even if coastal lagoon
development originated in the Pleistocene, the lagoonal environment would have been reshaped
extensively during the Holocene, with reworking of Pleistocene sediments and deposition of new
Holocene sediment within the coastal barriers (Bird, 1994).
4.1.2 Australian coastal environments
The evolution of Australian coastal lagoons and other estuaries has been largely controlled by
fluctuations in sea level (Kench, 1999). Unlike the north Atlantic and some other regions around
the world where sea level has exhibited a continual rise to the present position (Pirazzoli, 1991;
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Nichol et al., 1994, cited in Kench, 1999), Australian estuaries have a mid-late Holocene sea level
history due to the relative constant sea level experienced for about the last 5,500 6,000 years
(Kench, 1999).
Prior to the 1980s there were few attempts to classify or pigeonhole the coastal environment of
Australia (Thom, 1984), with only Jennings and Bird (1967 cited in Kench, 1999) acknowledging
gross morphology differences and distinguishable regional characteristics within Australian
estuaries (based on geographical variations in climatic and oceanographic factors). Over the last
20 years, Australian estuaries have been subject to several classifications, which have employed a
range of analytical approaches, including climate, hydrology and morphology based methods (e.g.
Rochford, 1951, 1959; Roy, 1982, 1984; Thom et al., 1992; Boyd et al., 1992, Bucher and
Saenger, 1991, 1994; Dalrymple et al., 1992; Digby and Ferguson,1996; Digby et al., 1999; Roy
et al., 2001; Heap et al., 2001; and Harris et al., 2002). Most recent estuary classifications have
been based on the relative significance of river, wave and tidal energy components (see Dalrymple
et al., 1992; Heap et al., 2001, Harris et al., 2002), and show distinct patterns of estuary-type
dominance in different sections of the Australian coastline.
As part of the National Land and Water Resources Audit (NLWRA), Geoscience Australia (Heap
et al., 2001) classified nearly 1000 estuaries throughout Australia into seven categories loosely
based on relative river, wave and tide dominant processes (see Figure 4-2):
Wave dominated deltas;
Wave dominated estuaries;
Wave dominated strandplains;
Tide dominated deltas;
Tide dominated estuaries;
Tide dominated creeks and lagoons; and
Embayments.
Coastal lagoons are wave dominated environments that have relatively little river power in
comparison to wave power given their relatively small catchments and open coast exposure. As
such, coastal lagoons tend to straddle the categories of wave dominated estuaries and wave
dominated strandplains (see Figure 4-2).

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Figure 4-2 Estuary types based on relative river, wave and tide forces (source:
Dalrymple et al. 1992; Boyd et al., 1992)
Dominant estuary types vary around the Australian coastline (see Figure 4-3). For simplification,
Geoscience Australia has considered coastal lagoons and strandplains as a single estuary type
(which also encompasses ICOLLs, as adopted by this dissertation). Wave dominated
environments are mostly found along the southern coast, while tide-dominated estuaries are found
along the northern Australian coast (Ryan et al., 2003). Within Australia, ICOLLs are essentially
restricted to two broad geographic zones: the south-east coast and the south-west coast (see Figure
4-3).
The geomorphology of coastal lagoons (including ICOLLs) is considered to be similar to wave-

dominated barrier estuaries, however, they lack a distinct fluvial bay-head delta (Roy et al., 2001)
due to the relatively small terrigenous input from catchment runoff processes.
4.1.3 The NSW Context
There are approximately 130 estuaries in NSW that have a waterway size larger than
approximately 1 hectare, most of which are wave-dominated environments (Heap et al., 2001;
Harris et al., 2002). Roy (1984) classified NSW estuaries into three basic types according to their
entrance conditions (see Figure 4-4):
i. Drowned river valley estuaries;
ii. Barrier estuaries; and
iii. Saline coastal lakes.

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Figure 4-3 Estuary type occurrence around the Australian coastline (source:
Ryan et al., 2003)
According to Roy (1984), Drowned River Valleys have open mouths with subaqueous tidal deltas
and full tidal ranges throughout, whereas barrier estuaries and saline coastal lakes occur behind
coastal barriers with saline coastal lakes ephemerally open and normally non-tidal. ICOLLs
would generally be considered to accord with the saline coastal lakes category of Roy (1984).
Roy (1984) states that Drowned River Valleys are found almost exclusively along the central
coast of NSW, while barrier estuaries and saline coastal lakes are found state-wide, although
barrier estuaries tend to be larger and more mature in the northern half of the state.

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Figure 4-4 NSW Estuary Types (Source: Roy, 1984)
Bird (1967a cited in Bird 1994) states that barrier sedimentary processes in estuaries on the NSW
north coast (north of Newcastle) have been augmented by fluvial sediments delivered to the coast
by rivers and distributed alongshore, however, this view is not supported by Chapman et al.
(1982) who state that the supply of sand to the coast by rivers during the mid to late Holocene
standstill has been negligible in south east Australia. Chapman et al. (1982) also state that the
north coast of NSW exhibits a higher level of stratigraphic and morphological maturity than the
south coast, possibly due to regional north-south variations in coastal deposits and shelf
morphology (e.g., the shelf is shallower in northern NSW than southern NSW, and there is a net
northward littoral drift of sand along the coast, with abundant sand on the north coast and a
sediment deficit on the south coast).
Coastal barrier environments on the south coast of NSW (south of latitude 33S) are characterised
by small embayments with narrow stationary barriers of Holocene age, which are typically
compartmented between prominent bedrock headlands (Chapman et al., 1982). Barrier estuaries
on the south coast of NSW have only been partially infilled with Quaternary sediments, which

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contrast with the major river valleys of the NSW north coast, where barrier estuaries are virtually
completely infilled (Chapman et al., 1982).
Roy (1984) provides a description of the evolutionary process of all three NSW estuary types.
The evolution of saline coastal lakes (refer Figure 4-5) is similar to that for barrier estuaries,
except that waterbodies are usually smaller and marine sand deposits are less well developed,
particularly in youthful stages of evolution (Roy, 1984).
Figure 4-5 Stages of Evolution of Saline Coastal Lakes (ICOLLs) (source: Roy,
1984)

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Within the context of this dissertation, ICOLLs are considered to be saline coastal lakes (Roy,
1984) that have maintained an intermittent / ephemeral connection to the ocean. Former ICOLLs
that have been permanently modified to achieve a permanent ocean entrance (.i.e. ventilated
ICOLLs), have not been considered in detail as part of this dissertation, as aspects of entrance
behaviour and issues relating to future entrance management are not relevant. Nonetheless, many
of the management outcomes from this dissertation (refer Section 10) may still be applied to other
permanently open coastal systems, including ventilated ICOLLs.
As illustrated in Figure 1-1, and noted by Chapman et al. (1982), ICOLLs are most common along
the south coast of NSW. The reason for the higher number of ICOLLs in this geographical
location is related to the lack of Quaternary infilling of the estuary paleovalleys, particularly in
comparison to similar environments on the north coast of NSW. Rainfall on the south coast is
generally lower and the coastal catchments are generally smaller than elsewhere on the NSW
coast, meaning that there is a reduced potential for sediment erosion and runoff from the
catchment to infill the drowned embayments. The smaller catchments on the NSW south coast are
due primarily to the relatively close proximity of the Great Dividing Range to the coast in this
region (with the Range actually meeting the coast just south of Sydney, in the Royal National
Park).
Meleo (1999), in support of the previous views of Roy (1984), found that infilling of estuarine
paleovalleys in south eastern Australia was controlled by the volume of sediment delivered to the
estuary, along with the morphology of the paleovalley, which controls the capacity for trapping
terrigenous sediment. Sediment runoff from the catchment is primarily related to lithological
controls (Meleo, 1999).
ICOLLs within NSW require specific management considerations due to their variable entrance
conditions, and the impact of the entrance condition on a range of environmental processes,
including water quality and aquatic habitat structure (Griffiths, 1999; Griffiths & West, 1999;
Pollard, 1994a). There are about 70 ICOLLs in NSW of size greater than one hectare, of which
approximately 70% are closed for the majority of the time (see discussion in Section 4.3.4). As
discussed further in Section 4.3.4, ICOLLs tend to be either predominantly open or closed to the
ocean (although all predominantly closed ICOLLs would open periodically following significant
catchment runoff, and all predominantly open ICOLLs would close from time to time, particularly
during extended drought conditions). The degree of openness depends primarily on exposure to
ocean waves and on fluvial discharge, with the latter also influenced by climatic fluctuations on
decadal timescales (eg El-Nino / El-Nina phenomena) (Roy et al., 2001).

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4.2 Structure and function of ICOLLs
A technical assessment of the structure and function of estuaries of southeast Australia is provided
by Roy et al. (2001). The assessment includes a classification of estuaries, based on estuary type
and their evolutionary maturity. Five (5) broad groups of estuaries were identified based on the
extent of marine influence. The grouping has considered the previous classification of Roy
(1984), as well as a number of subsequent classifications (e.g. Bucher and Saenger, 1991; Digby
et al., 1999). Group I are semi-enclosed bays that are characterised by marine waters, Group II are
tide-dominated estuaries (including Drowned River Valleys), Group III are wave dominated
barrier estuaries, Group IV are intermittent estuaries, and Group V are freshwater lakes that rarely,
if ever, are brackish but have occasional linkage to the sea (Roy et al., 2001). Based on this
classification, NSW ICOLLs would be included in Group IV.
Roy et al. (2001) states that the intermittent nature of the Group IV estuaries is due to small
catchment and river discharges, which allow the estuary mouths to become blocked by beach sand
for much of the time. Within NSW, Roy et al. (2001) states that there are 62 Group IV saline
coastal lagoons, 49 Group III barrier estuaries and eight Group II drowned river valleys. This
number of saline coastal lagoons is similar to the number of ICOLLs in NSW that have been
identified and considered in this dissertation (refer Table 1-1). Roy et al. (2001) also states that
half of the Group III barrier estuaries have training walls at their mouths, which would maintain a
permanently open entrance. It is considered that many of the NSW estuaries with trained
entrances may have been Group IV intermittently open estuaries prior to the entrance works
(including systems such as Lake Macquarie, Wallis Lake, Wagonga Inlet and Cudgen Creek).
Roy et al. (2001) further subdivide each broad estuary Group into a series of estuary types.
Within Group IV (intermittent estuaries), estuaries are divided into: [Type 8] saline coastal
lagoons (e.g. Smiths Lake); [Type 9] small coastal creeks (e.g. Harbord/Manly Lagoon); and
[Type 10] evaporative lagoons (e.g. The Coorong, South Australia). Few, if any, ICOLLs in
NSW would be considered evaporative lagoons, so only Type 8 and 9 systems are considered
relevant to this dissertation.
Four broad geomorphic zones within southeast Australian estuaries were also identified by Roy et
al. (2001), comprising: marine flood-tidal delta; central mud basin; fluvial delta; and riverine
channel and alluvial plain. Differences in these geomorphic zones can represent different stages

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of estuary evolution, for example, youthful estuaries are characterised by large and relatively deep
central mud basins and small alluvial delta and alluvial plains (as there has been limited infilling
of estuary paleovalleys by catchment runoff sediments) (Roy et al., 2001). Increasing maturity of
estuaries is represented by seaward progradation of fluvial deltas and general infilling of central
mud basins. At full maturity, fluvial deltas merge with marine flood-tide deltas, and central mud
basins are virtually non existent (being fully infilled by terrigenous material and converted to
alluvial floodplain) (Roy et al., 2001).
With specific reference to lagoonal waterbodies (both permanently and intermittently open to the
ocean), it is considered that the fringes of the waterways could also be separated into a separate
geomorphic zone. Based on work in Lake Illawarra and Durras Lake by DNR and DEC (Wilson,
2004; WBM, 2002a), the functionality of coastal lagoons is quite different between the deeper
mud basins and the shallower sandier fringes, with different rates of nutrient exchange,
microphytobenthos abundance and macrophyte cover. Wind-stirring of sediments around the
lagoon shoreline results in a dominant coarse-grained sediment facies, with sediment reworked
along the foreshores from the fluvial and marine deltas under wind-generated wave action
(Woodroffe, 2002). Within the context of Roy et al.s (2001) assessment, it is considered that the
shallow margins of ICOLLs can be interpreted as equivalent to a fluvial delta (as it contains
similar sediment type and has similar depths, although the margins would not be subject to
periodic freshwater dominance and gross sediment deposition, associated with catchment runoff
events).
The fully matured evolutionary state of an ICOLL is a tidal river / creek stretching from the
uplands to the ocean, with fringing freshwater wetlands and alluvial floodplains. As an ICOLL
matures, it is postulated that the ocean entrance would be open more regularly, to the extent that
ultimately, the entrance would be nearly permanently open to the ocean. This hypothesis is
related to the ability of the system to store catchment runoff before allowing discharge to the
ocean. For immature ICOLLs, there is generally a large waterway area to accommodate runoff
with minimal increases in water level. For mature ICOLLs on the other hand, storage is only
within the narrow riverine channel, and thus rapidly increasing water levels in response to
catchment runoff would readily exceed entrance berm levels causing breakout (see Section 5.2).
Also, as the frequency of entrance breakout increases, the coastal processes cannot generally
establish high berm levels before the next breakout event, meaning that lower water levels (which
occur more frequently) are capable of inducing breakout (i.e. a self perpetuating trend towards a
permanently open entrance).

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Most NSW ICOLLs would be considered as youthful to semi-mature, as they contain extensive
central mud basins, and poorly defined fluvial deltas. One of the key differences between ICOLLs
and other barrier estuaries in NSW is the size of the catchment (and hence the availability of
sediment for infilling of estuary paleovalleys). Consequently, most ICOLLs in NSW are
considered less mature than their barrier estuary counterparts (which are mostly semi-mature to
fully mature systems, particularly on the north coast of NSW, as noted by Chapman et al., 1982).
Roy et al. (2001) associates geological evolution of estuaries with changes in estuarine biota and
ecology. Over the longer-term (centuries to decades), Roy et al. (2001) consider that assemblages
respond primarily to estuary evolution, especially to changes in habitat distribution. In this
context, short-term ecological variability can be ignored. As originally stated by Roy (1984),
biological productivity generally increases as estuaries evolve from youthful to semi-mature
states, followed by a decline as they reach full maturity. The initial increase in biological
productivity is related to the penetration of light to a larger benthic area within the estuary as the
central mud basin shallows (and moves into the photic zone) and the fluvial delta expands. As the
estuary nears maturity, however, wind-induced stirring of bed sediments would inhibit light
penetration, while the overall area of the submerged bed is also reduced (as alluvial floodplains
replace former aquatic habitat).
The impact of estuary maturity on biological productivity can be demonstrated by a comparison

between seagrass cover in ICOLLs (as a percentage of the total waterway area) and the average
depth of the ICOLL (as a broad indicator of maturity) (Figure 4-6). Seagrass productivity in
ICOLLs is a maximum for typical water depths of approximately 1 to 2 metres, although
considerable variability exists, particularly for ICOLLs with depths less than 2 metres (and may be
due to a range of factors other than water depth). ICOLLs with depths greater and smaller than
this range tend to have reduced seagrass coverage, as described by Roy (1984) and Roy et al.
(2001).
Functionality of estuaries with respect to mobile aquatic fauna was also considered by Roy et al.
(2001). Entrance conditions were found to be a significant driver for species richness within NSW
estuaries. Drowned River Valleys, with wide and deep estuary mouths were found to have the
greatest species richness, while saline coastal lagoons have the lowest species richness, given their
intermittently open and closed connections to the ocean, which inhibits entry of migrant and
transient species (Roy et al., 2001). Further, ICOLLs with mostly closed entrances (as discussed
further in Section 4.3.4) have been found to exhibit even lower species richness compared to
ICOLLs that are mostly open (Williams et al., 2004).

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The overall functionality of ICOLLs has been assessed for this dissertation (Appendix E). The
functionality assessment is based on the four broad geomorphic zones identified by Roy et al.
(2001), and considers key ecosystem processes. The assessment of ICOLL functionality is
accompanied by an equivalent assessment of permanently open estuaries to provide an indication
of the significance of the intermittent nature of ICOLL entrances.
%age seagrass coverage of bed

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
0.0
1.0
2.0
Average lagoon depth (m)
3.0 50 %ile curve
4.0
+/- 1 standard deviation

5.0
6.0
7.0
Figure 4-6 Seagrass productivity in NSW ICOLLs versus waterway depth

(as a surrogate for ICOLL geomorphic maturity)
4.3 Characteristics of ICOLLs
Physical, chemical and biological data for a large number of NSW ICOLLs have been collated
from a number of different sources, including Estuary Processes Studies, State of the Rivers and
Estuaries reports, State of the Environment reports and general environmental assessments. No
additional physical, chemical of biological data have been collected for NSW ICOLLs as a
specific component of this thesis. Existing data is presented in Appendix F, and contains a range
of data pertaining to the ICOLL waterbodies, as well as their catchments. Summary statistics for
the data are presented in Table 4-1.

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The data presented in Appendix F have been used throughout this dissertation to provide a basis
for analysis and assessment of NSW ICOLLs, and to highlight the biophysical differences
between ICOLLs with different waterway and catchment characteristics.
Provided below are general descriptions of some key ICOLL characteristics.
Table 4-1 Statistical summary of NSW ICOLL data
Units 90%ile 50%ile value 10%ile value Standard

value (median) deviation
Physical Data
Catchment area km2 89.9 19.9 2.51 237.9
2
Waterway area km 4.62 0.50 0.08 2.64
Waterway perimeter km 26.9 8.60 2.22 12.46
Waterway volume ML 15,060 726.5 48 8,688
Average depth m 2.23 0.85 0.38 1.17
%age catchment forest % 97.1 72.4 20.0 30.8
%age catchment rural % 71.8 20.0 1.44 24.8
%age catchment urban % 36.0 0.57 0.00 19.7
%age time entr. closed % 95 81 2 35
Av. period open days 365 42 7 315
Av. No. closures / yr - 6.2 0.76 0.26 2.88
Tidal range, when open m 0.37 0.20 0.09 0.21
Average ann. Rainfall mm 1420 977 867 217
Average ann. Evap. mm 800 700 680 41
Av. ann. catchmt. runoff m3 28456 4384 1331 40153
Latitude S 36.8 35.9 30.6 1.89
Chemical Data
Typical total nitrogen gL-1 1126 700 222 528
Typical total phosphorus gL-1 89 27 16 45
Typical chlorophyll-a gL-1 6.5 2 0.7 8.4
Typ. TN in sediments mgkg-1 5000 3000 200 1982
-1
Typ. TP in sediments mgkg 710 500 27 288
Typ. TOC in sediments % 4.4 3.5 1.3 1.25
Biological Data
%age waterway % 2.15 0 0 3.5

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Units 90%ile 50%ile value 10%ile value Standard
value (median) deviation
mangroves
%age waterway seagrass % 39.8 9.3 0 17.4
%age waterway % 18.2 1.2 0 21.3
saltmarsh
4.3.1 Waterway area
The waterway areas of NSW ICOLLs were taken as the physical surface areas of each water body.
A standardised methodology for determining waterway area was adopted, which involved
digitization from scanned 1:25,000 topographic maps. For ICOLLs that are closed from the
ocean, the waterway area is dependent on the water level. As the digitised waterway area reflects
only a snap-shot in time (and at a water level that is not known), the adopted waterway area values
must be used and interpreted with caution, as realistically they could be both larger and smaller
than the values digitised from the maps. A variation in waterway area of up to 30% could be
expected in some ICOLLs as a result of variable water levels (the waterway area variability is
dependent on the geomorphology and foreshore ground profile of the estuary and the degree of
water level variability, which in turn is a function of the sand barrier crest elevation at the ocean
entrance). Nonetheless, with a small number of exceptions, the mapped waterway areas were
relatively consistent with previously documented values, such as from the NLWRA (Heap et al.,
2001) and the OzEstuaries database (www.ozestuaries.org).
The waterway area of ICOLLs in NSW generally corresponds to the size of the contributing
catchment (Hurrell and Webb, 1993), although there is still significant variability in this
relationship, of up to two orders of magnitude (refer Figure 4-7). A comparison between
waterway area and associated catchment area can also be used to commentate on the relative
geomorphological state of the ICOLL. Systems with a smaller waterway area relative to the
catchment area are considered to be more geologically mature, while those with a larger waterway
area relative to the catchment area are considered to be more geologically youthful.
4.3.2 Waterway volume
The waterway volumes of NSW ICOLLs were taken from existing literature wherever possible,
and generally reflect the results of detailed hydrographic surveys of ICOLLs. In most
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circumstances, waterway volumes have been reported for typical water levels. Reported values
for waterway volumes must therefore be used with caution, as values could also vary significantly.
It is considered that volumes of ICOLLs reported in literature could vary by up to +/- 50%.
Detailed bathymetric surveys of all ICOLLs have not been carried out, and therefore, waterway
volumes were available for only a limited number of NSW ICOLLs.
100
Geologically youthful lagoons, with
less relative infilling of paleo-valleys
10
Two orders of magnitude variance
Waterway Size (km2)
0.1 Geologically mature lagoons, with

more relative infilling of paleo-valleys
0.01
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0 10000.0
Catchment Size (km2)
Figure 4-7 Relationship between catchment size and waterway size
The volume of the waterway relative to the size of the catchment can also provide a rudimentary
indication of the geomorphological maturity of an ICOLL (see Figure 4-8). Systems with
relatively small volumes compared to their catchments are likely to have been more infilled by
alluvial (catchment runoff) processes and thus are considered to be more evolved, or mature.
The ratio of waterway volume to waterway area is the average waterway depth. Vide supra, the
depth of an ICOLL can have a wide range of impacts on overall ICOLL functionality, as
highlighted by the relationship between depth and seagrass coverage (refer previous Figure 4-6).
4.3.3 Waterway shape
Waterway shape is a characteristic that has not typically been recorded for NSW ICOLLs, or most
other estuary types in Australia. Waterway shape does not appear in previous estuarine
inventories, such as Bell and Edwards (1980) or Digby et al. (1999). It is interesting to note that
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the Australian Estuaries Database (as recorded in Digby et al., 1999) provides no indication of
waterway shape, or even waterway perimeter, despite the database being developed in response to
broad consultation with various environmental agencies and research organisations.
100000000
1.1067
y = 21525x
2
R = 0.4679
Three orders of magnitude variance

10000000
More
geomorphologically
Waterway Volume (m3)
youthful
1000000
100000
10000
More
geomorphologically
mature
1000
1 10 100 1000
Figure 4-8 Correlation between waterway volume and catchment size
A simple indication of the relative shape of an ICOLL is given by comparing the waterway
perimeter to the waterway area. Those ICOLLs with small perimeters relative to their waterway
areas are more circular in shape, while those with large perimeters relative to their waterway
areas are more linear or dendritic (see Figure 4-9).
The shape of an ICOLL can potentially have a significant impact on the hydrodynamic processes,
and associated follow-on effects such as water quality. Relatively linear ICOLLs have been given
the new term displacement-dominated ICOLLs (see Figure 4-10a). This term has been assigned
because catchment runoff that enters the ICOLL tends to push out, or displace, the resident water
in the system. Following significant catchment runoff, the water quality of a displacement-
dominated ICOLL, starting in the upstream extremities of the waterway, can more reflect the
quality of the inflowing runoff rather than the antecedent conditions in the ICOLL prior to the
event. Examples of displacement dominated ICOLLs would include Corindi (Pipe Clay) Lagoon,
Dalhousie Lagoon, Narrawallee Inlet and Curl Curl Lagoon.

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70
y = 11.211x0.5771
R2 = 0.8086
60
50
More linear
Waterway perimeter (km)
40
More circular
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Waterway area (km2)
Figure 4-9 Comparison of ICOLL perimeters and waterway areas
Relatively circular ICOLLs have been given the new term mixing-dominated ICOLLs (refer
Figure 4-10b). Catchment runoff that enters a mixing-dominated ICOLL tends to become
assimilated with the resident water of the ICOLL prior to discharge to the ocean. Mixing in these
ICOLLs is further enhanced by wind-stirring of the waterbody due to typically larger wind fetch
lengths. Examples of mixing dominated ICOLLs would include Lake Wollumboola, Coila Lake,
Dee Why Lagoon and Nadgee Lake.
a) Displacement-dominated b) Mixing-dominated

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Figure 4-10 Conceptual waterway shapes of ICOLLs
Combined two-dimensional numerical hydrodynamic and advection / dispersion modelling (using

the RMA platform 2) was used to demonstrate the significance of shape on the tidal flushing
behaviour of ICOLLs. Two shape conditions were modelled for theoretical ICOLLs: a linear
displacement-dominated system; and a circular mixing-dominated system. In both cases, the same
waterway area was adopted (0.5km2: being the median area of all NSW ICOLLs (see Table 4-1)).
The displacement-dominated model layout had a waterway perimeter of 8.2km, while the mixing-
dominated model layout had a perimeter of 2.2km. The same tidal range was adopted for both
model scenarios.
The results of the tidal flushing modelling show that the mixing-dominated scenario is
significantly better flushed by tidal exchange, with a maximum e-folding flushing time 3 of 2.6
days. This is approximately ten times less than the corresponding maximum e-folding time of the
displacement dominated model, which was found to be 32.5 days (see Figure 4-11).
The significance of waterway shape is also evident when comparing the typical water quality
characteristics of two adjacent and similarly sized ICOLLs (Dee Why Lagoon and Curl Curl
Lagoon), with contrasting waterway shapes. Following significant catchment runoff, water
quality in the displacement-dominated ICOLL (Curl Curl Lagoon) largely reflects the quality of
the inputs, particularly in the upper reaches of the waterway. In contrast, water quality in the
mixing-dominated ICOLL (Dee Why Lagoon) is generally constant throughout the waterway, and
following catchment runoff is still more reflective of antecedent conditions (see Figure 4-12a and
Figure 4-12b).
Also, following entrance breakout and lagoon drainage, tidal flushing in the displacement-
dominated ICOLL (Curl Curl Lagoon) was relatively ineffective with slow recovery of marine
water back into the system, whereas in the mixing-dominated ICOLL (Dee Why Lagoon), marine
waters were exchanged effectively within the lagoon (see Figure 4-12c and Figure 4-12d). These
data support the theoretical difference in flushing efficiency between displacement dominated and
2
RMA (Resource Management Associates) is an internationally recognised suite of two / three
dimensional modelling software that simulates hydrodynamics using a finite element approach. The
software was originally developed at the University of California, Davis, and has been used in Australia
since the early 1990s.
3
For the purposes of the modelling, the comparative e-folding flushing time was taken as the time
required for the concentration of a conservative constituent to reduce from an initial concentration of
unity to a concentration of 1/e (or 0.37). The maximum flushing time was measured at the furthest
extremity of the model layout.
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mixing dominated waterways, as identified through advection /dispersion modelling (see
discussion above and Figure 4-11).
a) Displacement-dominated b) Mixing-dominated
Figure 4-11 Results of advection / dispersion modelling for different waterway shapes
(note, scales of figures differ total waterway areas are the same)
4.3.4 Entrance behaviour
The behaviour of ICOLL entrances is assessed further in Section 5.2, however, the data presented
in Appendix F show a broad spectrum of typical entrance conditions displayed by NSW ICOLLs
(Figure 4-13). Some ICOLLs are closed for the vast majority of time, while other ICOLLs are
mostly open. The proportion of time that an ICOLL entrance is typically closed has been given
the new term Entrance Closure Index (ECI) (refer Section 5.3). Based on a range of data sources,
as discussed further in Section 5.3 (and detailed for individual ICOLLs in Appendix F), it has been
found that approximately 70% of NSW ICOLLs are mostly closed (i.e. have an ECI of greater
than 0.6), while approximately 25% of ICOLLs are mostly open (with an ECI of less than 0.2)
(Figure 4-13). Few ICOLLs have an entrance condition that is approximately open and closed for
equal periods of time.
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200 200
Post Runoff
180 180
Pre Runoff
160 160
140 140
Total Phosphorus (ug/L)

120 120
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
Outside Inside Mid Lagoon - Mid Lagoon - Outside Inside Mid Lagoon - Mid Lagoon -
Entrance Entrance surface bottom Entrance Entrance surface bottom
a) Displacement Dominated ICOLL (Curl Curl) b) Mixing Dominated ICOLL (Dee Why)
10 10
Open entrance
9 9
Closed entrance
8 8
7 7
Chlorophyll-a (ug/L)
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
Outside Inside Mid Lagoon - Mid Lagoon - Outside Inside Mid Lagoon - Mid Lagoon -
Entrance Entrance surface bottom Entrance Entrance surface bottom
c) Displacement Dominated ICOLL (Curl Curl) d) Mixing Dominated ICOLL (Dee Why)
Figure 4-12 Typical water quality (Total Phosphorus and Chlorophyll-a)

characteristics measured over approximately 10 years for two ICOLLs with
different waterway shapes

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(termed Entrance Closure Index - refer Section 5.3) 1.00
0.90
Proportion of time that entrance is closed
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
Mummuga (Dalmeny)
Oyster
Termeil
Smiths
Middle (Tanja)
Pambula
Merimbula
Terrigal
Burrill
Corindi
Curl Curl
Baragoot
Hearns
Durras
Tuross
Tilba Tilba
Tabourie
Arragan
Deep
Cakora
Nelson
Brou
Swan
Meroo
Coila
Cockrone
Tarourga
Avoca
Back Lagoon
Corunna
Meringo
Kianga
Bournda
Brunderee
Bunga
Cuttagee
Nadgee
Curalo
Dalhousie
Nangudga
Conjola
Congo
Narrabeen
Murrah
Narrawallee
Dee Why
Wonboyn
Wamberal
Wollumboola
Werri
Wallagoot
Willinga
Wallaga
Wapengo
Woolgoolga
Little (Wallaga)
Figure 4-13 Typical entrance conditions for most NSW ICOLLs
The ECI values (i.e. proportion of time the entrance is closed) for NSW ICOLLs were determined
using a range of techniques, including records of closure held by Government authorities, analysis
of long-term water level data, historical aerial photography interpretation and existing literature.
The accuracy of the indices relates to their method of determination, which ultimately is a function
of the availability of long term information on ICOLL conditions. All ECI values are considered
approximate, and can potentially vary on decadal scales due to dominant meteorological
conditions (see discussion in Section 5.3.2). Future climate change may also influence long term
lagoon conditions, and thus may modify ECI values in time (refer Section 8.2.4).
4.3.5 Chemical characteristics
Unlike many of the physical characteristics, the chemical characteristics of ICOLLs vary both in
space and time. Therefore, the values presented in Appendix F represent typical values for
ICOLLs, representing the conditions in the waterway for the majority of the time. As dry weather
conditions generally persist longer than wet weather conditions, the values shown in Appendix F
generally correspond to dry weather. It must also be recognised that there is a significant dearth of
water quality data for most NSW ICOLLs, meaning that statistical outcomes are generally poorly
founded.

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The chemical data presented in Appendix F show that chemical characteristics of NSW ICOLLs
are quite varied. For example, typical total nitrogen (TN) concentrations in ICOLLs range from
50 g/L to nearly 3000 g/L, and typical total phosphorus (TP) concentrations range from 5 g/L
to nearly 250 g/L. Water quality within ICOLLs that are closed from the ocean is regarded to be
more spatially constant than within ICOLLs that receive regular tidal flushing (refer Appendix E).
This homogeneity of water within closed ICOLLs results from the lack of interaction with
externalities and the internal mixing processes associated with wind-driven circulation of waters
within the waterbody.
4.3.5.1 Impacts of catchment conditions
Figure 4-14 shows the correlation between typical TN concentrations and the degree of
disturbance within the ICOLL catchment (as measured by the proportion of catchment remaining
in a forested condition). Research by Harris and others (see Section 7.2.1) suggests that TN
concentrations should increase in ICOLLs with increasing disturbance within the catchment.
Figure 4-14, however, suggests that TN in ICOLLs with mostly natural catchment could be as
high as ICOLLs with largely developed catchments. For catchments that contain > 40% forest,
TN concentration varied between 50 and 1600g/L, while for catchment with < 40% forest (i.e.
highly disturbed catchments), TN concentrations were more consistent and typically between 800
and 1100g/L.
Figure 4-15 shows a similar correlation between typical TP concentrations in ICOLLs and
catchment disturbance. Unlike the results for TN, Figure 4-15 shows a mild correlation (R2 =
0.51) between typical TP concentrations and the proportion of the ICOLL catchment that remains
in a forested condition. This correlation highlights increasing TP concentrations with increasing
catchment disturbance (or reducing forested proportion of the catchment). The correlation
between TP and catchment disturbance is characterised by a notable upward shift in TP
concentrations as catchment development reaches 60% (i.e. 40% of catchment remaining in
forested condition). For ICOLLs with more that 40% of the catchment still forested, typical TP
concentrations are generally within the range 15 50g/L, while for ICOLLs with less than 40%
of the catchment forested, typical TP concentrations are generally within the range 65 - 90g/L.

9/10/06 15:10
2000
1800
1600
1400
Total Nitrogen (ug/L)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Proportion of Catchment Forested
Figure 4-14 Correlation between typical Total Nitrogen and ICOLL catchment
condition (measured by degree of disturbance)
120
y = -112.22x + 117.02
2
R = 0.5089
100
80
60
40
20
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Figure 4-15 Correlation between typical Total Phosphorus and ICOLL catchment

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Figure 4-16 shows a similarly mild correlation (R2 = 0.50) between typical chlorophyll-a
concentrations and the degree of catchment disturbance. Like TP, chlorophyll-a concentrations
increase with catchment disturbance. An upward shift in chlorophyll-a concentrations is evident
for ICOLLs with less than approximately 55% of the catchment remaining in a forested condition.
For ICOLLs with more than 55% of the catchment forested, chlorophyll-a concentrations are
generally between 0.5 and 3g/L, while for ICOLLs with less than 55% of the catchment forested,
chlorophyll-a concentrations are generally between 2 and 10g/L.
12
-2.4614x
y = 10.301e
2
R = 0.4958
10
8
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Figure 4-16 Correlation between typical Chlorophyll-a and ICOLL catchment

4.3.5.2 Impacts of entrance conditions
The correlations between phosphorus, chlorophyll-a and catchment conditions without an

accompanying correlation in nitrogen prompted further investigation. Based on the entrance
behaviour information presented in Section 4.3.4 (and to be discussed further in Section 5.3),
ICOLLs were separated into those systems that are considered mostly open and those that are
considered mostly closed. Figure 4-17 shows the same Total Nitrogen data as that presented in
Figure 4-14, but with the data points differentiated between mostly closed and mostly open
ICOLLs.

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For ICOLLs that are mostly open to the ocean, there is a correlation (R2 = 0.85, although this is
somewhat limited in small number of data points) between typical Total Nitrogen concentrations
and the degree of catchment disturbance. As for TP and chlorophyll-a, the correlation
demonstrates increasing TN concentrations with increasing catchment disturbance.
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
Mostly Open ICOLLs
200 Mostly Closed ICOLLs
y = -970.28x + 1062.2
2
Li (M tl O R = 0.8447
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Percentage of Catchment in Forested Condition
Figure 4-17 Correlations between typical Total Nitrogen and ICOLL catchment
condition when factoring typical entrance condition
For ICOLLs that are mostly closed, TN concentrations are not recorded below approximately
500g/L, and can be as high as 1600g/L, regardless of the catchment condition (including
virtually pristine environments). This is regarded as significant, as the trigger value for estuarine
degradation, as reported in ANZECC (2000) is just 300g/L. Clearly, the application of the
ANZECC (2000) guidelines for TN is limited with respect to ICOLLs, particularly those ICOLLs
that are mostly closed.
The impacts of entrance condition on chemical characteristics of NSW ICOLLs were assessed
further by considering only those systems with more than 70% of their catchments remaining in a
forested condition (Figure 4-18). The threshold of 70% was chosen as it approximately represents
a level of catchment disturbance that is tolerated by most ICOLLs without significant degradation

9/10/06 15:10
(i.e. systems with >70% forest can be regarded as somewhat natural systems, and retained much
of their natural functionality) (refer Figure 4-15, Figure 4-16 and Figure 4-17).
For ICOLLs that remain in a natural condition Total Nitrogen, Total Phosphorus and
Chlorophyll-a concentrations are all significantly lower in ICOLLs that are mostly open compared
to ICOLLs that are mostly closed (Figure 4-18). Typical TN concentrations for mostly open
systems were less than 250g/L, while mostly closed systems were greater than 500g/L and up
to 1600g/L. For TP, mostly open ICOLLs had concentrations of 20g/L or less, compared to
mostly closed systems that had concentrations ranging between 14 and 52g/L, while for
chlorophyll-a, mostly open ICOLLs had concentrations of around 1g/L, while mostly closed
ICOLLs had concentrations of between 0.5 and 4g/L (Figure 4-18).
For ICOLLs that are mostly open, the lower chemical constituent concentrations can be explained
by the flushing effect of the ocean and the interaction with ocean waters, which have naturally low
nutrient and chlorophyll-a concentrations (generally). For mostly closed ICOLLs, however,
nutrient levels within natural systems can be quite elevated. In the case of Total Nitrogen, the
concentrations in natural systems can be as high, or even higher, than concentrations in ICOLLs
that have highly disturbed catchments (delivering substantially greater proportions of nutrients to
the waterway), thus masking any correlation between catchment condition and TN concentrations
(refer Figure 4-17).
The results for typical TN concentrations in ICOLLs suggests that nitrogen and phosphorus
processes within ICOLLs are not closely coupled, and that nitrogen is retained within ICOLLs
independently of phosphorus and chlorophyll-a. Based on the results of a large number of
researchers (including CSIRO, Geoscience Australia, SCU see Section 7.2.2), it is considered
that the elevated nitrogen concentrations in ICOLLs is related to the interaction with bed
sediments and the efficiency of the sediments to remove nitrogen from the system through
nitrification denitrification processes.

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For ICOLLs with > 70% forested catchments

1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Proportion entrance closed

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00

4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Figure 4-18 Relationship between entrance condition and chemical

characteristics for mostly (> 70%) forested ICOLL catchments

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4.3.6 Biological characteristics
The biological data (comprising areas of mangroves, saltmarsh and seagrass) presented in
Appendix F and statistically summarised in Table 4-1 has been taken from West et al. (1985) only
in order to provide a consistent methodology for reporting. It is recognised that the methods
adopted by West et al. (1985) were relatively simplistic and approximate, as it formed the basis
for an entire state-wide inventory of estuarine vegetation. It is further recognised that the extents
of biological communities within ICOLLs can vary with time. Given the relatively large variation
in water levels experienced by ICOLLs, these systems are likely to be more subject to variations
in estuarine flora assemblages than any other estuary type. Consequently, the information
presented in Appendix F is not regarded as current, but rather, has only been used for comparative
purposes and to illustrate the degree of variability of biological processes within NSW ICOLLs.
Few broad conclusions can be made from the biological data obtained for the NSW ICOLLs. In
general terms, saltmarsh is generally absent from ICOLLs that have a more disturbed catchment
presumably as the foreshores have been developed for urban or rural enterprises, while seagrass
coverage is variable, which would be a consequence of a number of biotic and biotic factors. One
of these factors, as discussed previously in Section 4.2 is average lagoon depth. It has been found
that, despite the considerable variability within the data, seagrass coverage is greatest for ICOLLs
with typical waterway depths of between 1 and 2 metres (refer Figure 4-6). For deeper ICOLLs,
the majority of the waterway bed is below the photic zone, and thus beyond the limit of available
light for photosynthesis by seagrass. For shallow ICOLLs, wind-driven circulation would keep
fine sediment suspended, thus maintaining high turbidity, which again would limit light
penetration to the waterway bed.
Further, mangroves in ICOLLs are rare, given their generally small water areas and tidal ranges
(Roy et al., 2001). Most mangroves are found in ICOLLs that are mostly open, and generally
occur in relatively small abundance (most likely due to the limited tidal range within ICOLLs and
the high degree of water level variability). There does appear to be some exceptions to this,
however, with a number of mostly closed ICOLLs on the north coast of NSW also containing
mangroves, including Woolgoolga Lake and Hearns Lake (see Appendix F). Additional
information and anecdotal sources indicates that mangroves can also be found in Corindi (Pipe
Clay) Lagoon, Dalhousie Lagoon and Oyster Creek, with the latter two having pneumatophores in
excess of 1 metre long (pers. comms., R. Glover, NRCMA, June 2004; L. Whetham, Coastcare,
July 2005). These particular ICOLLs are subject to relatively rapid water level variations (due to a
large catchment in comparison to water surface area of the lagoons), meaning that they tend to fill

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and break out often (refer Section 6.2). Consequently, it is hypothesised that the existence of
mangroves in these particular systems is an artefact of the relatively regular flushing that would be
experienced by the frequent entrance openings.
As mangroves respire through their pneumatophores, sustained inundation by elevated water

levels will effectively drown the trees. The opening and closing cycle of these ICOLLs are
considered to occur over a sufficiently short timeframe to preclude significant mangrove mortality
due to inundation of pneumatophores. With respect to Dalhousie Lagoon and Oyster Creek, the
natural morphologic response of the mangroves to develop extended pneumatophores to
compensate for more variable water levels has increased the survival opportunities of mangroves
in these particular waterways.
It is considered that the existence of mangroves in these mostly closed ICOLLs would also be
highly sensitive to long-term meteorological conditions. That is, during extended drought
conditions (as being experienced at present: 2005), the natural frequency of entrance opening
would be reduced, and therefore mangrove extends could be expected to retract, particularly if
water levels are maintained at higher levels. Conversely, during dominantly wet conditions when
entrance breakouts would occur often, the mangrove extents could be expected to expand. The
growth characteristics and dynamics of mangroves in respect to dominant hydrological processes
in mostly closed ICOLLs is clearly an area for further research.
Apart from the broad estuarine vegetation communities that have been mapped for ICOLLs (by
West et al., 1985, and most recently by NSW DPI-Fisheries), there is limited information
regarding the biological environment of ICOLLs. Some studies have investigated a small subset
of the NSW ICOLLs (eg Pollard, 1994a,b; Jones and West, 2005; Dye, 2005; Dye and Barros,
2005; Williams et al., 2004), however, there remains a need to fully document the ecological
habitats and communities of ICOLLs at a state-wide basis in order to gain a better understanding
of the significance and value of ICOLLs from an ecological perspective.
The state of the entrance (i.e. closed, shoaled or open) is viewed as the single most important
factor governing the structure and functioning of the resident biotic community of intermittently
open and closed estuaries (Smakhtin, 2004). Given that the water exchange between the ocean
and the ICOLL is probably the most important factor influencing the recruitment of marine
organisms (Ryan et al., 2003), it is not surprising that ICOLLs tend to exhibit lower fish species
richness when compared to permanently open estuaries (Pollard, 1994a; Roy et al., 2001;
Williams et al., 2004).

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PHYSICAL BEHAVIOUR OF ICOLLS 100
5 PHYSICAL BEHAVIOUR OF ICOLLS
5.1 ICOLL Hydrodynamics
5.1.1 Introduction
Hydrodynamic processes within estuaries refer to the movement and mixing of fresh and marine
waters and the transfer of this water through the natural system, over both short and long
timeframes. Mixing within estuaries has both advective and dispersive components (Fisher et al.,
1979). Given that only broadscale hydrodynamics requires consideration from a holistic
management perspective, only advective components of estuarine hydrodynamics are discussed.
Fisher et al. (1979) indicate that (advective) mixing in estuaries is driven by three principal
mechanisms: wind, tide, and river (fluvial discharge).
For ICOLLs, Ryan et al. (2003) state that freshwater inputs are very low (or negligible), which
would presumably limit the influence of fluvial discharges on mixing. Ryan et al. (2003) also
state that ICOLLs are often intermittently closed, and remain closed for long periods of time, thus
also limiting the influence of tidal behaviour on mixing processes. Consequently, the most
significant physical energy source causing mixing in many ICOLLs is internally generated wind-
induced waves (Ryan et al., 2003).
The intermittent nature of ICOLL entrances results in two distinctly different hydrodynamic
regimes: one relating to when the entrance is open and connected to the sea, and one relating to a
closed entrance condition, when the ICOLL acts essentially as a reservoir (Ranasinghe &
Pattiaratchi, 2003). Hydrodynamic characteristics of an ICOLL, such as circulation, mixing and
flushing, which govern the health of the waterbody, change significantly depending on the inlet
condition (Ranasinghe & Pattiaratchi, 2003).
A conceptual model of ICOLL hydrodynamic processes was presented previously in Figure 3-2.
This model demonstrated that there are a number of factors influencing the hydrodynamics of
ICOLLs, including:
Waterway physical structure;
Evaporation;
Oceanic inflows and outflows;
Volumetric catchment runoff;

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Direct rainfall; and
Groundwater inflows and outflows.
The relative importance of each of these factors changes with time, resulting in different
hydrodynamic responses during the overall hydrologic cycle. In addition to the simple open and
closed conditions (Ranasinghe & Pattiaratchi, 2003), distinct hydrodynamic conditions occur
when the waterway is rapidly filling (as a result of significant catchment inflows and rainfall), and
when the waterway is rapidly draining (as a result of a scouring entrance). These latter two
conditions, however, persist for only short periods of time in comparison to the more steady state
open or closed conditions.
In considering South African ICOLLs, Smakhtin (2004) views the duration of the closed and open
phases as dependent on the interaction of river runoff, evaporation, seepage and wave overwash in
the mouth region, with closed phases normally occurring during periods of low stream or river
flow, while floods are responsible for breaching the mouth and scouring the estuary. Ryan et al.
(2003) also highlights the significance of evaporation in ICOLLs, which can lead to hypersaline
conditions during periods of sustained entrance closure, while sub-surface exchange through
permeable barrier may also influence hydrodynamics.
5.1.2 Hydrodynamic states within ICOLLs
Whilst it is broadly accepted that hydrodynamics of ICOLLs differ depending on whether the
entrance is closed or open (see discussion above), it is viewed that there are more than these two
general hydrodynamic states in ICOLLS. A more detailed appraisal of ICOLL hydrodynamics
can be gained by observing typical water level patterns within a real system. Figure 5-1 shows a
time-varying water level plot for Avoca Lake in NSW covering a period of 12 months. This plot
is considered to be mostly typical of water level
regimes for the vast majority of ICOLLs in NSW,
particularly those that are closed for the majority of
the time. Water levels included in the record vary
between RL 0.1 and 2.2m AHD, with tidal
behaviour observed for approximately 10% of the
period (Figure 5-1). Avoca Lake a typical mostly closed
ICOLL, Central Coast NSW (Image: DNR)

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A number of distinct hydrodynamic conditions, or states, can be observed from this record
including:
1. Tidal behaviour (open entrance) corresponding to general open steady state
2. Minimal inflow (closed entrance) corresponding to general closed steady state
3. Significant inflow (closed entrance)
4. Significant outflow (open entrance)
These hydrodynamic states, and resulting hydrodynamic characteristics, are discussed further
below.
Avoca Lagoon Water Levels (July 97 - June 98)
2.5
1 2 2 2
3 3 323 4
2
Water Level (m, AHD)
1.5
0.5
0
1/06/1997 1/07/1997 31/07/1997 30/08/1997 29/09/1997 29/10/1997 28/11/1997 28/12/1997 27/01/1998 26/02/1998 28/03/1998 27/04/1998 27/05/1998 26/06/1998 26/07/1998
0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00
Figure 5-1 Typical water level temporal profile for Avoca Lake (July 1997 to June 1998)
5.1.2.1 Hydrodynamic State 1: Tidal behaviour
This hydrodynamic state is defined by the distinctive semi-diurnal tidal signature in water levels
(Figure 5-2), and is characteristic of the hydrodynamic regime of most permanently open barrier
estuaries, and ventilated ICOLLs. Exchange between oceanic and lagoonal waters can be
significant during this state, with the extent of exchange controlled by the depth and width of the

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entrance channel. When the channel is shallow, tidal exchange may only occur during the higher
stages of the tide (see second State 1 period in Figure 5-2).
2.5
2
1.5
0.5
0
1/06/1997 1/07/1997 31/07/1997 30/08/1997 29/09/1997 29/10/1997 28/11/1997 28/12/1997 27/01/1998 26/02/1998 28/03/1998 27/04/1998 27/05/1998 26/06/1998 26/07/1998
0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00
Figure 5-2 Hydrodynamic State 1: Tidal behaviour, open entrance
Mixing between marine and lagoonal waters is greatest in the immediate vicinity of the entrance
channel, although if exchange is maintained for extended periods, marine waters can slowly
migrate further into the ICOLL (refer Section 4.3.3). The physical structure of the ICOLL can
facilitate the tidal mixing / flushing process (refer Section 4.3.3).
The duration of this hydrodynamic state is variable, particularly in mostly closed ICOLLs. In
some circumstances, only one tide may penetrate the ICOLL before the entrance recloses, while in
other cases, the entrance may remain open for many months. Mackenzie et al. (2004) recorded
open entrance durations ranging between 1 and 31 days for five small ICOLLs around Batemans
Bay, while for larger systems, such as Coila Lake, entrances have remained open for up to 15
weeks (ESC, 2001a). The duration of the open entrance condition is largely related to the amount
of sand removed from the entrance during the breakout process (Mackenzie et al., 2004), which in
turn is a function of the hydrostatic head across the entrance and the amount of sand in the
entrance at the time of berm breaching. Thus, breakouts at higher ICOLL water levels tend to
result in longer-lasting open entrance conditions (ESC, 2001a), although this would also be
influenced by the predominant wave climate during the period of opening (and thus the ability for
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coastal processes to return scoured sand to the entrance by onshore and longshore sediment
transport processes).
The tidal behaviour state would dominate hydrodynamic conditions in mostly open ICOLLs.
Gordon (1990) states that the mean daily water surface of open ICOLLs is superelevated above
mean sea level. The superelevation, which is typically between 0.2 and 0.4 metres, varies over a
28 day cycle, with higher levels during spring tides, and lower levels during neap tides, however,
storm surge and wave setup adjacent to the entrance can also superelevate lagoon levels, by an
additional 0.3 metres (Gordon, 1990). A weak seasonal periodicity in superelevation associated
with seasonal variations in mean air pressure is also noted by Gordon (1990).
Although the entrance is open during this hydrodynamic state, significant tidal attenuation across
the entrance still restricts tidal range, resulting in minimal tidal velocities within the ICOLL
(except in the vicinity of the entrance channel). Tide induced mixing (vertical and horizontal) of
the waterway is therefore minimal (Ranasinghe & Pattiaratchi, 2003). Although a small
horizontal gyre generated by the Coriolis Effect has been recorded in Western Australian estuaries
(Ranasinghe & Pattiaratchi, 2003), it is considered that Coriolis would have only a minor
influence on mixing within most NSW ICOLLs given their relatively small size.
For the other hydrodynamic factors identified in Figure 3-2, the additional volumetric inputs
associated with catchment runoff, direct rainfall and groundwater discharges would simply result
in a larger ebb tide discharge, with little overall influence on water levels within the ICOLL, while
evaporation from the water surface would also have an insignificant impact on waterway
hydrodynamics.
5.1.2.2 Hydrodynamic State 2: Minimal inflow
The minimal inflow hydrodynamic state is defined by relatively constant, or slowly changing,
water level conditions within an ICOLL (Figure 5-3). The closed entrance condition during this
hydrodynamic state means that there is no ocean exchange, except for minor wave overwash
during periods of high seas. Small baseflows from the catchment and/or groundwater inputs to the
ICOLL can result in a slow, steady increase in water levels, particularly following small to
moderate rainfall / runoff events.

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2.5
2
1.5
0.5
0
1/06/1997 1/07/1997 31/07/1997 30/08/1997 29/09/1997 29/10/1997 28/11/1997 28/12/1997 27/01/1998 26/02/1998 28/03/1998 27/04/1998 27/05/1998 26/06/1998 26/07/1998
0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00
Figure 5-3 Hydrodynamic State 2: Minimal inflow, closed entrance
Evaporation from the waterway can be significant during this hydrodynamic state. When
evaporation exceeds volumetric inputs to the ICOLL, which is highly probable during summer
months, water levels can steadily decrease (see Figure 5-3). Runoff from small rainfall events may
result in small, sudden water level rises during this period. Percolation of lagoonal water through
the coastal barrier may also occur, but rates of percolation are considered small compared to rates
of evaporation and basal inflows, even when water levels are high (WBM, 2001a).
With no tide induced mixing and minimal fluvial inflows, the principal mechanism for vertical
and horizontal mixing during this hydrodynamic state is wind-driven currents. Wind-driven
circulation would be most pronounced in ICOLLs that contain large wind fetches over a range of
wind directions. As such, large and more circular ICOLLs (i.e. mixing dominated ICOLLs, refer
Section 4.3.3) would be the most mixed, and small linear ICOLLs would be least mixed. Wind-
induced circulation would also help to breakdown stratification during periods of entrance closure
(Ranasinghe & Pattiaratchi, 2003; WBM, 2002b).
This hydrodynamic state is capable of persisting for extended periods of time, up to several years
in many cases, depending on the occurrence of large rainfall events or persistent wet weather
conditions. This state is usually followed by State 3 conditions (refer Section 5.1.2.3).

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5.1.2.3 Hydrodynamic State 3: Significant inflow
The significant inflow hydrodynamic state is defined by rapid water level rise, as a direct
consequence of significant catchment runoff and direct rainfall onto the waterway surface (Figure
5-4). This state only lasts for a few days, while ever inflows from the catchment remain high. If
the increase in water levels in the ICOLL result in overtopping of the entrance berm, then this
state is immediately followed by State 4, otherwise, the system will revert to State 2 following
cessation of significant inflows. Given its short duration, impacts of evaporation, groundwater
and wind-driven circulation are considered to be minor. Further, there is no oceanic exchange of
water during this hydrodynamic state as the entrance is closed.
The significant inflows to the ICOLL during this state are entirely freshwater. Depending on the
dynamics of the inflow plumes / jets, it is possible that the freshwater inflows can reside as a
surface lens overlying the resident saline or brackish water. This stratified condition would persist
until vertical mixing of the water column is established (when the system reverts back to State 2,
or associated with rapid discharge of water from the ICOLL during State 4 refer Section
5.1.2.4). In the immediate vicinity of the inflow locations, it is possible that the resident water can
be displaced by the inflow through the whole water column. This would be most likely in
ICOLLs that are more linear in shape (i.e. displacement-dominated waterways, refer Section
4.3.3).
2.5
2
1.5
0.5
0
1/06/1997 1/07/1997 31/07/1997 30/08/1997 29/09/1997 29/10/1997 28/11/1997 28/12/1997 27/01/1998 26/02/1998 28/03/1998 27/04/1998 27/05/1998 26/06/1998 26/07/1998
0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00
Figure 5-4 Hydrodynamic State 3: Significant inflow, closed entrance

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5.1.2.4 Hydrodynamic State 4: Significant outflow
The fourth hydrodynamic state, significant outflow, is also a relatively short-lived condition, and
is defined by a period of rapid water level reduction as waters are discharged from the ICOLL
through the entrance channel (which in turn is increasing in size and permitting more rapid
discharge of lagoonal waters, refer Section 5.2.1) (Figure 5-5). This hydrodynamic state will only
persist while ever there is sufficient hydrostatic head across the entrance channel to drive the
discharge, and the ICOLL water levels are higher than the maximum bed level of the entrance
channel.
After the entrance berm has been breached, it is typical for ICOLL water levels to drain to tidal or
near-tidal levels within a period of 24 48 hours (Gordon, 1990). The amount of lagoonal water
discharged during breakout is dependent on the degree of entrance scour (Mackenzie et al., 2004).
Discharge from Smiths Lake, on the north coast of NSW, has been calculated at approximately 16
million cubic metres over a period of about 30 hours (pers comm., J. Everett, PhD candidate,
UNSW, June 2005). After breaching, the entrance channel is broad for a few days only; for the
rest of the open phase (hydrodynamic state 1, refer Section 5.1.2.1), the channel is narrow with
flow dominated by a small trickle to the sea (Smakhtin, 2004).
2.5
2
1.5
0.5
0
1/06/1997 1/07/1997 31/07/1997 30/08/1997 29/09/1997 29/10/1997 28/11/1997 28/12/1997 27/01/1998 26/02/1998 28/03/1998 27/04/1998 27/05/1998 26/06/1998 26/07/1998
0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:00
Figure 5-5 Hydrodynamic State 4: Significant outflow, open entrance

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Although the entrance is open during this hydrodynamic state, the dominant outflow prevents tidal
ingress of marine waters into the lagoon. Meanwhile, catchment runoff inflows, direct rainfall or
groundwater inflows during this time would essentially add to the discharge volume, potentially
extending the duration of this hydrodynamic state. Evaporation would be insignificant given the
relatively short duration for this state.
Where this hydrodynamic state is induced by a significant rainfall and runoff event (i.e. state 3), it
is possible that the freshwater runoff (typically contained within the top 1 2 metres of the lagoon
water) will dominate the outflowing discharge (Barton & Sherwood, 2004; pers. comm., E. Gale,
PhD candidate, UWA, 2004). In these circumstances, the lagoon condition following discharge
may be characterised by antecedent waters, prior to the rainfall and runoff event. In a heavily
stratified system, it may also be possible that the only waters remaining in an ICOLL following
breakout could be the former hypolimnion, which may be characterised by poor water quality
(including low DO), and lead to a range of biological stresses (Spooner & Spigel, 2005). Also, for
systems that contain internal occluded embayments, such as the Tuross system, waters within the
occlusions may have little influence from the catchment runoff event, but rather remain more
reflective of lagoonal conditions prior to the event.
If there is significant entrance scour, and the entrance channel is lowered to below tidal level (i.e.,
below the level of high tide), then state 4 will be followed by state 1, with the ICOLL
experiencing tidal behaviour; otherwise state 4 will be followed by state 2. The degree of entrance
scour is usually reflective of the hydrostatic head across the entrance berm (refer Section 5.2).
5.2 Entrance dynamics of ICOLLs
ICOLL hydrodynamic processes are largely controlled by lagoon entrance behaviour (Hurrell and
Webb, 1993). The condition of a lagoon entrance is a function of the wave climate, incoming tidal
conditions, ebb tide currents, and discharge of floodwaters, of which the first two tend to wash
sand into the entrance and close the channel, and the latter two tend to keep the channel open by
expunging sediment out of the entrance and back into the marine environment (OBrien, 1969
cited in Bird, 1994; Gordon, 1990; Hanslow et al., 2000, Elwany et al., 2003).
The influence of floodwater discharges on entrance dynamics is significant, however, these

conditions occur only intermittently. Therefore, between flood events, entrance dynamics is
dominated by a complex interplay between tidal in and out flows and wave driven littoral sand
transport (Elwany et al., 2003). Given the variability in potential flood, tide and sediment
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transport conditions, there exists a wide range of possible entrance conditions at every ICOLL in
NSW.
ICOLL entrance conditions have typically been categorised as open, closed and constricted states
(see PBP, 1999), while the entrance morphodynamic processes governing the different entrance
conditions have been identified as breakout, constriction and closure (see MHL, 1989). The
sequence and relationship between these entrance conditions and morphodynamic states is shown
conceptually in Figure 5-6.
Initial rapid
Shoaled entrance Entrance
constriction
conditions closure
Open entrance Closed entrance

conditions conditions
Rapid breakout
Figure 5-6 Morphodynamic cycle of ICOLL entrance processes
The dynamics of ICOLL entrances can be separated into those processes that result in entrance
opening, and those that lead toward entrance closure. Consequently, these two facets of entrance
dynamics are described separately below.
5.2.1 Entrance opening / breakout processes
ICOLL entrances generally open in response to overtopping of the entrance sand berm by rising
water levels within the lagoon. As such, the occurrence of entrance breakout is mostly controlled
by rainfall and associated runoff within the catchment, which increase lagoon water levels as the
runoff is stored in the closed terminal system.
The heights of the entrance berms for NSW ICOLLs are typically in the order of RL 2 3m AHD
(refer Section 5.2.3). In many cases, however, water levels within ICOLLs are not permitted to
reach the natural entrance berm level, as artificial pilot channels are excavated artificially through
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the berm to initiate a premature breakout. This is done to mitigate inundation risks around ICOLL
foreshores (refer Section 9).
Despite considerable variability in the physical processes occurring during entrance breakout, it is
viewed by AWACS (1994) that these processes are governed by:
Rate of rise of water in the lagoon, which is consequently dependent on the rainfall / runoff
event occurring within the ICOLL catchment;
Beach berm characteristics at the lagoon entrance, including factors such as berm breadth;
Ocean water level characteristics (including tidal and setup conditions at the time of
breakout); and
Wave activity.
The mechanisms of ICOLL entrance breakout have been investigated by Gordon (1981, 1990) and
MHL (1989), with particular emphasis on three ICOLLs: Dee Why Lagoon, Narrabeen Lagoon,
and Lake Wollumboola. The actual ICOLL entrance breakout process can be separated into three
distinctive stages (Gordon, 1990), as discussed below.
5.2.1.1 Stage 1: Gradual overtopping of beach berm
Overtopping of the entrance sand berm commences once the lagoon water level exceeds the crest
level of the berm, with outflow occurring initially as a thin sheet (Gordon, 1990). Gradually, as
the degree of overtopping increases (with continued increase in lagoon water levels), a preferred
incipient scour channel develops between the crest and the ocean (Gordon, 1990; MHL, 1989).
High velocities within the channel (in the order of 3 m/s) result in rapid scour and widening of the
channel (MHL, 1989), commencing at the seaward end of the outflow, and progressively working
back towards the lagoon to form a defined outflow pilot channel (AWACS, 1994).
Initially, the rate of scour of the entrance berm is low because sediment transport threshold
conditions are exceeded only marginally (Gordon, 1990). Stage 1 is typically short-lived,
generally lasting for between 80 and 100 minutes, and is essentially controlled by the rate of rise
of lagoon water level, the differential head between the lagoon and the ocean water level, the
porosity of the beach, the width and cross-sectional shape of the barrier at the entrance, and the
concurrent wave conditions (Gordon, 1990).

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5.2.1.2 Stage 2: Weir / hydraulic jump
The second stage of entrance breakout according to

Gordon (1990) involves the development of a
semicircular weir at the upstream end of the
channel, which controls the outflow of water from
the lagoon into the channel (see image opposite).
Gordon (1990) states that as water passes over the
weir, it plunges into a pool before flowing towards
the ocean through a series of unsteady flow Stage 2 Weir and Plunge Pool formation
during breakout of Wamberal Lagoon,
conditions, such as hydraulic jumps, until velocities 22/3/83 (Image: AWACS, 1994)
slow sufficiently at the ocean boundary.
Bed slope adjustment within the channel translates upstream from the downstream end, while
wave action has little impact during this stage, as the outflow is sufficiently energetic to dominate
the nearshore surf zone processes (Gordon, 1990). Velocities within the channel can reach 3 to 4
m/s under supercritical flow. This stage normally lasts for about 100 to 140 minutes (Gordon,
1990).
At the end of this stage, the upstream weir collapses, which can be likened to a slow dambreak
process, with a large surge in discharge from the lagoon for a short period of time (AWACS,
1994).
5.2.1.3 Stage 3: River flow
Following collapse of the Stage 2 upstream weir

(refer Section 5.2.1.2), a steadier flow regime is
established, although velocities within the channel
can still be high, resulting in sequences of standing
waves and some unsteady flow conditions (see
image opposite).
Coila Lake - one day after breakout, April
2002 (Image: WBM)
Gordon (1990) indicates that Stage 3 is typically
reached about 150 180 minutes after commencement of lagoon breakout, irrespective of the
lagoon size. The duration of Stage 3, however, is dependent on the size of the lagoon and

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catchment (i.e., representing the total volume being discharged through the entrance). Gordon
(1990) states that within a few hours, the lagoons investigated can be drained sufficiently to allow
tidal ingress and associated sedimentation, while for the comparatively large Smiths Lake,
drainage typically takes about 30 hours (pers comm., J. Everett, PhD candidate, UNSW, July
2005).
Flow through the entrance channel during this stage is controlled by the head difference between
the lagoon and the ocean, and the scour characteristics of the channel (which define the channel
width and depth) (Gordon, 1990). Channel discharge slowly decreases as lagoon water levels
subside, velocities reduce and ocean influences increase (AWACS, 1994).
During the breakout process, large quantities of sand are removed from the entrance berm. As
well as vertical scour of the channel, sand is lost from the entrance berm as the channel widens
laterally in response to progressive bank collapse of the discharge channel (Visser, 2000). MHL
(1989) determined that the volume of sediment removed from the entrance of Narrabeen Lagoon
during breakout could range between 2,000 and 30,000m3, although most events would move in
the order of 3,000 to 8,000m3. This material is typically transported into the nearshore surf zone
where reduced currents allow deposition in the form of an offshore sand bar (Sheedy, 1996).
5.2.2 Entrance closing processes
Ranasinghe & Pattiaratchi (2003) have summarised previous hypotheses regarding estuary inlet
closure, as either:
Interaction between inlet current and longshore current; or
Interaction between inlet current and onshore sediment transport.
In Western Australian ICOLLs, small wave incidence angles (< 20) will generate onshore
sediment transport capable of closing entrances, while larger incidence angles (> 20) will result
in entrance closure due to longshore sediment transport (Ranasinghe & Pattiaratchi, 2003).
Critical to entrance closure processes, however, is the availability of sediment in the nearshore
zone and upper beach face, which can be reworked into the entrance compartment (MHL, 1989),
and the incident wave climate (and thus the available energy to push sands back into the entrance
compartment, either from offshore deposits or alongshore from the adjacent beach) (Nittim &
Cox, 1986). If re-closure of an ICOLL entrance occurs relatively rapidly following breakout, it is
possible that nearshore sediment would be available, given the nearshore deposition of material
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previously scoured from the entrance (Sheedy, 1996). If closure occurs some time following
entrance opening, however, then the offshore deposition following entrance breakout process may
have been redistributed by wave and current action. In this circumstance, it is likely that
longshore drift would represent the main mechanism and sand source for entrance closure.
For ICOLLs that are mostly closed (and entrance opening typically lasts for less than a month or
so), it is possible that onshore sediment transport is largely responsible for entrance closure. For
ICOLLs that are mostly open, however, the sediment infilling the entrance channel is likely to be
sourced from longshore drift from adjacent beaches. Under both circumstances, the relative
timing of entrance closure would relate largely to the available wave energy that drives sediment
transport within the coastal zone.
It is postulated that entrance closure due to onshore sediment transport processes would occur over
a relatively short period of time, as the rate of sand transported shoreward by wave action would
be high, whereas entrance closure due to longshore sediment supply would be much slower, as it
is reliant upon suitable incident wave conditions. This difference may explain why some ICOLLs
(such as Coila Lake) can close rapidly following entrance breakout, while other systems (such as
the adjacent Tuross Lake) experience a very drawn-out closure process (sometimes lasting years
as the entrance morphs from an open state to a heavily shoaled state and finally to a closed state).
Closure on an ICOLL entrance involves the recovery of the entrance beach berm following
lagoon breakout and scour of the entrance. There are three stages of entrance berm recovery:
Stage 1 tidal exchange, channel meandering and channel infixing;
Stage 2 closure at low tide with overtopping at high tide, berm crest formation;
Stage 3 closure and berm stabilisation.
These stages correspond with Phases 2 to 4 from Sheedy (1996). Phase 1, as defined by Sheedy
(1996) represents entrance opening, channel formation and lagoon level decline, which was
described previously as part of the entrance opening processes (refer Section 5.2.1). It is inferred
that entrance closure processes described by Sheedy (1996), as outlined further below, are based
on an available offshore sediment supply. Nonetheless, the conceptualisation of entrance closure
processes would still be valid for longshore sediment supply conditions, although the rates of infill
leading to complete entrance closure are likely to be much slower.

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5.2.2.1 Stage 1: Tidal exchange and early stages of infill
During Stage 1 of entrance closure, the lagoon experienced tidal behaviour and is strongly
influenced by ocean inundation (swash) processes. The volume of sediment within the entrance
channel begins to increase due to deposition of suspended sediment entrained by wave stirring
with the incoming tide and swash, and progressively throttles the tidal flow (MHL, 1989; Gordon,
1990; Sheedy, 1996). Sediment infilling of the lagoon entrance channel occurs on the first flood
tide following breakout (i.e., the first opportunity for inflow to the lagoon from the marine
environment) (Gordon, 1990). Due to an asymmetry of the flood and ebb tidal flow regimes
through lagoon entrances (i.e., flood tides produce relatively high velocities near the peak flow, as
compared with the ebb tide which generates longer lasting but lower flow conditions), the ebbing
tides are typically unable to remove sand from the channel at a rate that matches the deposition,
thus creating a net imbalance favouring flood tide transport of sediment into the lagoon (Gordon,
1990) and the formation of a shoal within the entrance channel (MHL, 1989).
For newly formed entrance channels (i.e. immediately following entrance breakout), swell wave
bores penetrating the entrance can erode the banks on either side of the entrance channel, resulting
in bank slumping, and instantaneous deposition within the entrance channel (Sheedy, 1996).
Swell waves tend to standardise the shore-parallel berm profile by spreading and shallowing the
channel profile across the beachface.
With increasing deposition at the base of each side of the channel cut, as well as in the channel
itself, the low tide channel becomes constricted and begins to meander (Sheedy, 1996). The slope
of the channel reduces as the meander length increases, which in turn reduces tidal velocities, and
hence entrance shoaling is further accelerated (Gordon, 1990). The increased shoaling in the
entrance reduces capacity for tidally driven processes to contribute to further berm growth, instead
relying more on wave action, including overtopping (Sheedy, 1996).
5.2.2.2 Stage 2: Low tide closure and berm crest formation
Stage 2 involves complete closure of the channel during low tide. Wave bores still enter the
channel at high tide and continue to widen and shallow the entrance channel (Sheedy, 1996).
A berm across the entrance channel is slowly established during this Stage, with a definite crest,
and gentle backslope to the lagoon (Sheedy, 1996). Wave-built sand berms are accretionary

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sediment features (Weir et al., 2004) that are formed by deposition of sediment transported onto
the upper beach face or swash zone by wave run-up, or uprush, above the local tidal level
(Gordon, 1981; MHL, 1989; Hanslow et al., 2000; Baldock et al., 2004; Weir et al., 2004). This
results in the vertical growth in berm height, which continues until it is equal to the maximum
height of the wave run-up (Hanslow, et al., 2000). Sheedy (1996) states that berm crest during
Stage 2 is still overtopped at high tide, resulting in overwash processes and sediment deposition on
the lagoon side of the crest due to friction and percolation (Hanslow et al., 2000). Overwash at
this time is associated with singular or combined effects of tide, storm surge, wave setup and wave
run-up (Sheedy, 1996).
Berm height typically recovers at a logarithmic rate following entrance breakout, with relatively
rapid initial recovery, followed by a reduced deposition rate, until eventually, run-up is unable to
overtop the berm crest (Sheedy, 1996; Hanslow et al., 2000). The controlling factors determining
run-up processes, and therefore berm recovery and ultimate berm height, were found to be tide
levels, combined with wave energy and beach face slope (which is controlled by sediment size
and wave height, see Hanslow et al., 2000). Thus, maximum wave run-up occurs when increased
wave setup accompanies spring high tides (Weir et al., 2004).
5.2.2.3 Stage 3: Complete entrance closure
The final stage involves the complete closure of the lagoon entrance. Complete closure is
achieved by continued berm building on the beach face, with some overtopping by extreme
events, but at much slower rates (Sheedy, 1996). The overall longevity of the entrance channel
(i.e., the time a lagoon remains open) is dependent on the tidal prism of the lagoon and the gross
sediment transport environment of the adjacent beaches (Gordon, 1990).
Complete closure of a lagoon entrance is normally associated with any one, or combination, of the
following: a flood tide, a storm surge event, elevated wave energy conditions, the spring tidal
cycle and low rainfall in the catchment (Gordon, 1990). Once the entrance is closed, the berm
again develops rapidly over a period of about 10 days, after which time the crest height is
generally at an elevation of about 1.4 to 1.6 metres above mean sea level (the normal elevation of
wave uprush) (Gordon, 1990). Whilst it is possible that larger waves may continue to increase
berm elevations (Sheedy, 1996), once wave heights exceed a critical erosion-accretion threshold,
very large waves tend to erode the beachface, leading to rapid berm removal (Hanslow et al.,
2000).

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Aeolian processes take over as the dominant berm formation mechanism once the entrance is
closed, resulting in small scale dunes and hummocky morphology, assisted at times by wave
uprush during large spring tides and/or storm waves (MHL, 1989; Gordon, 1990; Hanslow et al.,
2000). An incipient foreshore may also develop across the entrance during sustained periods of
entrance closure (MHL, 1989). The entrance berm gradually assumes the geometry of the
adjacent beach berm (Gordon, 1990; Sheedy, 1996; Hanslow et al., 2000), at which time it is
considered to have achieved full recovery. MHL (1989) summarised the stratigraphy of the
entrance berm in relation the different depositional processes, which is reproduced as Figure 5-7.
Ocean side Lagoon side
Figure 5-7 Stratigraphy of ICOLL entrance berm (Source: MHL, 1989)
5.2.3 Dynamic equilibrium of entrance conditions
For mostly closed ICOLLs, the ultimate channel configuration represents a state of dynamic
equilibrium wherein the closed entrance berm undergoes minor erosion and accretion due to
variable coastal conditions, but in essence, is stable, until water levels in the lagoon once again
overtop the berm crest and the cycle of entrance breakout and berm rebuilding is resumed. As
such, the dynamic equilibrium condition can be considered to represent the long-term typical
berm condition of the ICOLL entrance.
The crest elevation of the entrance berm under dynamic equilibrium conditions will be a
function of wave run-up, which in turn is a product of incident wave conditions (wave height and
period) and beach slope (which is related to beach grain size) (Hanslow et al., 2000). Exposed

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beaches tend to have higher wave run-up, as do steeper beaches, however, as indicated previously,
there exists a paradox whereby larger waves tend to erode the beachface, rather than building a
higher berm.
Maximum berm heights at lagoon entrances in NSW are typically between 2 and 3 metres above
mean sea level (Gordon, 1990; Hanslow et al., 2000). Data collected by Hanslow et al. (2000)
show a general relationship between lagoon entrance berm heights and beach orientation (Figure
5-8).
In general, highest berms tend to occur on beaches exposed to the south-east, although
considerable scatter is evident, possibly due to other factors, such as proximity to headlands,
islands and reefs, and offshore bathymetry, all of which would influence the height of incident
waves (Hanslow et al., 2000). Both beachface slope and grain size also appear to be important in
defining maximum berm heights, with higher berms on beaches with coarse sediment and steeper
beach face slopes (Hanslow et al., 2000) (see Figure 5-8).
For mostly open ICOLLs, the dynamic equilibrium state is represented by a condition whereby
the combination of ebb tide and fluvial discharges have the capacity to remove marine sediment
deposited in the entrance channel by preceding flood tides and wave / swash processes. This
situation may persist where fluvial discharges are significant (thus maximising the outflow
scouring potential) or where wave and swash processes are small (thus minimising the inflow
deposition potential).
5.3 Entrance Closure Index
By definition, ICOLLs are open intermittently, however, there is a considerable variability in the
typical condition, or degree of openness, of ICOLL entrances. Bird (1994) states that coastal
lagoon entrances (at an international scale) vary from permanent entrances, which allow a
perennial unhindered exchange of water between the lagoon and the ocean, to completely
enclosed lagoons with an impermeable barrier preventing exchange with the ocean.
Roy et al. (2001) suggest that the degree of openness is dependent on exposure to ocean waves
and on fluvial discharge (refer Section 4.2), while Lugg (1996) is more specific in suggesting that
entrance conditions are controlled by the morphology of the entrance, the exposure of the entrance
to longshore drift, the size of the catchment, the tidal prism and the prevailing climate conditions.

9/10/06 15:10

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4.0
Saddle Berm Crest Level (m AHD)

3.0
2.0
1.0
0 45 90 135 180
Entrance Orientation (degs)
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Beach Slope
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
Grain Size d50 (mm)
Avoca Bullengella Curl Curl Wollumboola Dee Why
Kianga Lake Brou Lake Cathie Little Lake MacMasters
Terrigal Wallabi Pt Wamberal Werri
Figure 5-8 Relationship between berm height and beach orientation, beach
grain size, and beach slope (Source: Hanslow et al., 2000)
9/10/06 15:10
Some ICOLLs in NSW have not closed in living memory (such as Wapengo, Nelson, Pambula),
although closure is theoretically possible. At the other end of the scale, some NSW ICOLLs are
open only every few years following significant rainfall (including Wollumboola and Coila
Lakes). A recent extended period of drought in NSW has lead to significant entrance shoaling in
many ICOLL entrances, including Tuross Lake (WBM, 2004a), as well as the complete entrance
closure of Wonboyn Lake, which was previously considered to be permanently open (WBM,
2001c).
The Entrance Closure Index (ECI) is a new term given to the proportion of time that the entrance
of an ICOLL is closed. The ECI is calculated over a long term period, and as such, represents
typical, averaged entrance conditions. Differences in typical entrance conditions of NSW ICOLLs
have not been given much consideration by researchers in the past. Rather, entrance conditions
have typically been categorised broadly as generally open, generally closed, and intermittent,
(see Hurrell and Webb, 1993; West et al., 1985; Pollard, 1994a,b).
The ECIs for most NSW ICOLLs were presented previously in Figure 4-13, and were determined
using a range of techniques, including existing literature, Council records of entrance closure,
analysis of long-term water level records, and historical aerial photography interpretation. Values
derived from literature included the outcomes of predictive analysis undertaken by DLWC (2000).
The accuracy of the indices relates to their method of determination, which ultimately is a function
of data availability. All ECI values presented in Figure 4-13 are considered approximate only, and
subject to error. Further, ECI values can potentially vary on decadal scales due to dominant
meteorological conditions, thus a single value is not valid for a given ICOLL in perpetuity. Future
climate change may also influence long term lagoon conditions, and thus may modify typical ECI
values in time (see Section 8.2).
As discussed previously, approximately 70% of NSW ICOLLs are mostly closed (with an ECI of
0.6 or greater), while 25% are mostly open (with an ECI of 0.2 or less) (Figure 4-13). Very few
ICOLLs have an approximately equal proportion of time in an open and closed state. A frequency
distribution plot of ECIs (Figure 5-9) highlights the strong bimodal behaviour of ICOLL
entrances, being either mostly open or mostly closed. This bimodal behaviour of ICOLL
entrances is considered to be significant, however, the reason for its occurrence is undocumented
and is likely to be poorly appreciated.

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25
20
Frequency (Number of ICOLLs)
15
10
0
1.0 - 0.9 - 0.8 - 0.7 - 0.6 - 0.5 - 0.4 - 0.3 - 0.2 - 0.1 -
0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
Proportion of time lagoon entrance is closed (ECI)
Figure 5-9 Distribution plot of Entrance Closure Indices for most NSW ICOLLs
highlighting the bimodal nature of lagoon entrances
5.3.1 Reasons for observed differences in Indices
Entrance conditions of ICOLLs are likely to depend on a number of factors relating to both coastal
and catchment processes (Roy et al., 2001), as well as broad topographic features of the entrance
compartment and adjacent coastline, such as headlands, offshore reefs, and the presence of
shallow rock underlying the entrance.
It has been posited that ICOLLs are either mostly open or mostly closed due to the hydraulic
stability of the inlet channel (pers. comm., A. Nielsen, SMEC, November, 2004). This opinion
was founded on inlet stability theory of OBrien, Dean, Escoffier, Keulegan and others, which
suggests that an hydraulically unstable channel will either continuously scour until it reaches a
stable cross-sectional flow area, or will continuously shoal until the inlet is closed completely
(Nielsen, undated) (refer Figure 5-10).
From an Escoffier Diagram (Figure 5-10), it can be shown that tidal inlet channels are inherently
stable when the cross-sectional area is greater than the critical flow area. For channels that are
larger than the critical flow area, reduced current velocities will allow shoaling until the critical

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flow area is attained. The critical flow area therefore corresponds to conditions whereby current
velocities can mobilise bed sediments and self-scour the channel to maintain a consistent cross-
sectional area. Channels that are smaller than the critical flow area are hydraulically unstable,
resulting in either continuous shoaling until the channel is completely closed, or continuos scour
until it reaches the critical flow area (Figure 5-10).
Figure 5-10 Escoffier Diagram of estuary inlet stability (source: Nielsen, undated,
adapted from Keulegan, 1951)
The approach described above (Nielsen, undated) is based on the assumption that littoral drift is
small and the entrance channel is short and regular. A fortiori, it assumes consistent
hydrodynamic forces through the channel. Its applicability to ICOLLs therefore may be limited
given the active littoral processes at most ICOLL entrances (as geomorphologically, they have
evolved due to littoral sand transport), and the intermittent nature of significant flood events.
Alternative hypotheses for defining typical ICOLL entrance conditions have been sought. As
described previously in Section 5.2, the condition of an ICOLL entrance at any particular moment
in time is likely to be determined by the relative balance between catchment processes that try to
open the entrance, and the coastal processes that try to close the entrance. Typical entrance
conditions (which define the ECI) are therefore likely to be a function of the relative balance
between catchment and coastal processes when considered over the long-term. Alternative

9/10/06 15:10
hypotheses regarding typical entrance conditions therefore relate to characteristics that drive
catchment and coastal processes.
The size of the catchment and size of the waterway have previously been identified as a factor in
determining typical entrance conditions of intermittently open estuaries in NSW (Hurrell & Webb,
1993). ICOLLs with comparatively small catchments and waterways have been described as
generally closed, while ICOLLs with comparatively large catchment and waterways have been
labelled generally open (Figure 5-11). Intermediate systems are described as intermittently open
and closed (Hurrell & Webb, 1993).
Figure 5-11 Relationship between typical entrance behaviour, catchment size and
waterway size for intermittently open NSW estuaries (source: Hurrell and Webb, 1993)
Using the data presented in Appendix F, a more detailed assessment has been carried out in
relation to catchment areas and typical entrance conditions of NSW ICOLLs (Figure 5-12).
Whilst there was significant scatter in the data, a crude relationship was evident, with larger
catchment having more open entrances and smaller catchments having mostly closed entrances (as
found by Hurrell & Webb, 1993). From the data, it was shown that for a catchment size

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> 100km2, the ICOLL entrance was typically mostly open (i.e. low ECI value), whereas for a
catchment size < 10km2, the ICOLL entrance was typically mostly closed (i.e. high ECI value).
The findings imply that large catchments (> 100km2) generate sufficient volumetric runoff to
overcome the coastal processes on a near permanent basis. In contrast, the runoff from small
catchments (< 10km2) would rarely have sufficient energy to remove entrance sands and dominate
over local coastal processes.
1.00
Proportion Entrance Closed
0.50
0.00
1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
Figure 5-12 Variability in typical entrance behaviour for NSW ICOLLs relative to
catchment size
For ICOLLs with a catchment size between 10 and 100km2, it is expected that other factors would
also contribute to determination of typical entrance conditions, as explored further below.
Where the entrance opening forces are largely driven by the size of the catchment, closing
forces are likely to be driven by wave climate and
associated longshore drift potential at the entrance.
The degree of ocean exposure to different wave
directions (i.e. wave direction window) has been
used as an indicator for longshore drift potential at
the ICOLL entrance (refer image adjacent). Roy et

9/10/06 15:10 Definition: ICOLL entrance ocean exposure
al. (2001) highlighted the importance of entrance exposure to the degree of openness of
intermittently open estuaries, however, there has been no quantifiable assessment of entrance
exposure for the ICOLLs of NSW in relation to its impact on entrance openness.
Most ICOLLs entrances have naturally migrated to the immediate north or the south of headlands,
as these positions represent the locations of minimum longshore sediment drift within the coastal
compartment. Entrances located on the southern side of a headland are protected from the north-
easterly ocean swell, and thus would have a reduced ocean exposure. Similarly, entrances located
on the northern side of a headland are protected from a south-easterly and southerly swell. ICOLL
entrances that are located mid-way along a beach compartment are typically exposed to both
northerly and southerly dominant ocean swell, and thus have a large ocean exposure. These
entrances are consequently subject to relatively high gross rates of longshore sediment drift.
A relationship between the degree of ocean exposure of ICOLL entrances and their corresponding
Entrance Closure Indices was developed for NSW south coast ICOLLs (Figure 5-13). From this
relationship it is evident that ICOLLs with large ocean exposures, which typify entrances located
mid-way along a beach compartment, are mostly closed.
1.20
1.00
Entrance Closure Index
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.00 30.00 60.00 90.00 120.00 150.00 180.00
Ocean Exposure of Entrance (degrees)
Catchments <10 & >100km2 Catchments between 10 & 100km2
Data only covers the 39 ICOLLs located on the south coast of NSW, south of Jervis Bay

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Figure 5-13 Relationship between ocean exposure of ICOLL entrance (as a
surrogate for wave climate and associated littoral transport potential) and typical
entrance behaviour for NSW south coast ICOLLs
When excluding ICOLLs with catchments < 10km2 and > 100km2 (as the typical entrance
conditions for these ICOLLs can be determined by their catchment size), ICOLLs with an
entrance exposure greater than 60 are all mostly closed. For ICOLLs with an entrance exposure
less than 60, the entrance may be mostly open or mostly closed. Once again, additional factors
are likely to contribute to determining typical entrance conditions for these particular ICOLLs.
So far only the very basic characteristics that define catchment and coastal processes have been
considered. Other features may also help to define the relative magnitude of these processes in
ICOLL entrance over the long term, including:
i. Frequency of entrance breakout events, as ICOLLs with a higher breakout frequency may
have a less developed entrance berm, which would become susceptible to breakout
resulting from catchment processes;
ii. Availability of marine sand, as the entrance sand berm can only be built if there is available
sand transported into the entrance compartment from adjacent beaches or from nearshore
sand shoals;
iii. Entrance channel constrictions, which may artificially maintain high tidal velocities through
the channel, which inhibit deposition and infill of the entrance.
With respect to point (i), the frequency of entrance breakout has been considered by utilising the
ratio of catchment size to waterway size. For large catchments with comparatively small
waterway areas, the waterway provides little storage capacity for catchment runoff, thus resulting
in rapid water level rise and relatively frequent entrance breakout. In contrast, small catchments
with large waterway areas provide significant opportunity for retention of catchment runoff,
without prompting entrance breakout. The catchment : waterway size ratio for south coast
ICOLLs was compared to typical entrance conditions (Figure 5-14). When considering all ICOLL
data, the significant scatter in the data points precludes any meaningful relationships being drawn.
However, when excluding ICOLLs that have catchments smaller than 10km2 and larger than
100km2, as well as ICOLLs that have entrance ocean exposure greater than 60, remaining
ICOLLs with a catchment : waterway size ratio exceeding 50 are all mostly open.

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For point (ii), the availability of sand has been considered as a function of the length of the
adjacent ocean beach. Longer beaches are considered to provide a more available source of sand
for infilling of ICOLL entrance compartments. A comparison between adjacent beach length and
typical entrance conditions (Figure 5-15) again shows significant scatter within the data points.
Even when data is excluded for those ICOLLs that can be explained by factors described
previously, the results still do not provide a relationship between entrance conditions and beach
length. The exception to this, however, is Wapengo Lagoon, which effectively has a zero beach
length, as the entrance is flanked by rocky headlands on both sides. In this regard, Wapengo
Lagoon has an entrance geomorphology more akin to a drowned river valley rather than a barrier
lagoon (given the absence of a barrier).
1.20
1.00
0.80
ECI
0.60
0.40
Small & large catchments, + intermediate
catchments with ocean exposure > 60 deg.
Catchments between 10 & 100km2 and

0.20 ocean exposure < 60 deg.
0.00
1 10 50 100 1000
Catchment : Waterway size ratio
Figure 5-14 Relationship between catchment to waterway size ratio and

typical entrance behaviour

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1.20
1.00
0.80
ECI
0.60
Small & large catchments, + intermediate

catchments with ocean exposure > 60 deg.
0.40 Catchments between 10 & 100km2 and ocean
exposure < 60 deg.
0.20
0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Adjacent beach length (km)
Figure 5-15 Relationship between adjacent beach length and typical

entrance behaviour
Of the seven mostly open ICOLLs with a catchment

size less than 100km2, three have a catchment :
waterway ratio greater than 50, and one has a beach
length of zero. It is considered that the remaining
three mostly open ICOLLs are also dependent, to
some degree, on geomorphic features of the entrance,
which constrain tidal currents and prevent channel
Merimbula Lake entrance (Image: DNR)
blockage (point (iii) above). The three remaining
ICOLLs are Merimbula, Nelson and Burrill Lakes.
All of these waterways contain headlands adjacent to
the entrance, with exposed bedrock near the water
level. It is considered that bedrock may extend under
the entrance channels at a relatively shallow depth.
Lugg (1996) has previously suggested that the

morphology of the entrance site inter alia can Nelson Lake entrance (Image: DNR)
influence the frequency and duration of ICOLL
entrance closure. Lugg (1996) also stated that
entrances on the northern side of a headland are more

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Burrill Lake entrance (Image: DNR)

typically open than entrance on the southern side due to the protection afforded by the headland
from a dominant southerly swell. Analysis of the data for NSW ICOLLs has found that there is no
significant difference in the number of typically open or closed ICOLLs located to the north or
south of a headland (~40% of entrances to the north are mostly open c.f. ~30% of entrances to the
south).
The results of the above investigations of alternative explanations for typical ICOLL entrance
conditions are summarised in Table 5-1.
Table 5-1 Factors defining typical ICOLL entrance conditions
Driver Outcome
Catchment Size < 10km2 10 100km2 > 100km2
Ocean Entrance Exposure > 60 < 60
Catchment:Waterway Ratio < 50 > 50
Geomorphic control (1) No
Mostly closed
Yes
Mostly open
Mostly closed
Mostly open
Mostly closed
Mostly open
(1) Coastal geomorphology control extends to Wapengo Lagoon, which has no adjacent coastal
beach and hence no substantial entrance barrier.
5.3.2 Short-term / long-term variations in ECI
Geomorphology controls on entrance behaviour are considered fixed, as are long-term averaged
coastal processes (although there may be some changes in the future with global climate change,
refer Section 8.2.1). Fluvial discharges, however, are subject to seasonal and longer term (e.g.

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decadal) fluctuations in meteorological conditions, which may subsequently alter the typical
behaviour of an ICOLL entrance.
If rainfall occurs seasonally, Entrance Closure Indices (ECIs) may vary between the seasons.
Within South Africa and Mexico for example, intermittently open coastal lagoons receive
significant catchment runoff during defined periods of the year (Breen & Mackenzie, 2001;
Lankford, 1976). During these wet periods, the ECI would be low, as the entrances would be
dominated by fluvial scour, while for the remaining dry period, minimal fluvial discharge would
increase the ECI.
Roy et al. (2001) indicate that entrance conditions can be influenced by fluvial discharges that
vary on decadal timescales. The recent extended drought within much of eastern Australia,
including the NSW coast, highlights the consequences of such meteorological trends on entrance
behaviour. On the NSW south coast, Tuross, Wonboyn, Murrah, Wallaga and Conjola Lakes rely
on fluvial discharges to maintain predominantly open entrance conditions (i.e. they have
catchments greater than 100km2). Of these, Wallaga, Tuross and Conjola Lakes are considered
the most susceptible to closure during dry weather condition due to large (i.e. > 60) ocean
entrance exposure (for Wallaga and Tuross), and small (< 50) catchment : waterway size ratios
(for Wallaga and Conjola). Also, mostly closed ICOLLs may still experience an increase in ECI
values under low rainfall / runoff conditions.
Erskine and Warner (1988) have shown that NSW coastal rivers experience alternating periods of
high and low flood frequency, which have been termed Flood Dominated Regimes (FDR) and
Drought Dominated Regimes (DDR). The duration of these periods varies between 30 and 50
years, and is controlled by secular rainfall changes, which in turn are influenced by the Southern
Oscillation Index (SOI) and the latitudinal path of the sub-tropical high pressure belt (Erskine and
Warner, 1988). Since 1821, alternating cycles of DDR and FDR have been identified by Erskine
and Warner (1988), including 1821 1856 = DDR; 1857 1900 = FDR; 1901 1946 = DDR;
and 1947 1978 = FDR. Given the general paucity of significant flood events in coastal NSW
within the past 20 years or so, it is considered that the current meteorological state has reverted to
a drought dominated regime. This assumption is generally supported by the cumulative Southern
Oscillation Index records (refer Figure 5-16), which show that between 1947 and 1976 the Index
was mostly positive (giving an upward slope), whereas since 1976, the Index has been mostly
negative, giving a distinctive downward slope to the plot (Figure 5-16). The transition from a
FDR to DDR in 1976 corresponds to the first magic gate of climate change, as posited by

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climatologist Julia Cole, which marked the onset of significant change to global climatic
conditions (Flannery, 2005).
It is hypothesised that during FDR periods, ECIs would reduce due to the greater frequency of
floods and presumably entrance breakout events, while during DDR periods, ECIs would increase,
as the frequency of flood events would be reduced. Hypothetical changes to ECI values in
response to varying rainfall / runoff conditions have been suggested (Figure 5-17). It is
considered that the potentially largest impact on entrance conditions as a result of alternating FDR
and DDR would be experienced by those ICOLLs that are sometimes open and sometimes closed,
such as Mummuga, Durras, Arragan, Conjola and Congo. For such systems, a change to the long
term rainfall conditions may potentially change typical entrance conditions (from most open to
mostly closed, or vice versa). It is considered that ICOLLs with dominantly mostly closed
entrances would remain mostly closed regardless of prevailing long-term rainfall conditions, and
similarly for ICOLLs with dominantly mostly open entrances (Figure 5-17).
80
60
Cumulative Southern Oscillation Index
Flood Dominated Regime Drought Dominated Regime

40
20
0
1947 1952 1957 1962 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002
-20
-40
Figure 5-16 Flood- and Drought-Dominated regimes since 1947, based on a cumulative
Southern Oscillation Index, as derived from Bureau of Meteorology data
Small variation

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1.00
Hypothetical shift in ECI profile to reflect a
period of Drought Dominated Regime (DDR)
0.90
0.80
Proportion Entrance Closed
0.70
0.60
Hypothetical shift in ECI profile to reflect a
0.50 period of Flood Dominated Regime (FDR)
Large variation
0.40
Hypothetical ECI profile that represents
0.30 a balance between DDR and FDR
0.20
Small variation
0.10
0.00
Middle (Tanja)
Mummuga (Dalmeny)
Termeil
Terrigal
Oyster
Curl Curl
Murrah
Burrill
Tilba Tilba
Corindi
Meroo
Meringo
Merimbula
Baragoot
Swan
Avoca
Tuross
Tarourga
Narrawallee
Smiths
Tabourie
Hearns
Durras
Brou
Kianga
Coila
Cockrone
Nadgee
Corunna
Bournda
Back Lagoon
Brunderee
Bunga
Cuttagee
Curalo
Nangudga
Arragan
Conjola
Congo
Narrabeen
Deep
Cakora
Nelson
Pambula
Dalhousie
Little (Wallaga)
Wamberal
Wallagoot
Werri
Dee Why
Wonboyn
Willinga
Woolgoolga
Wallaga
Wapengo
Wollumboola
Figure 5-17 Hypothesised variability in ECI values due to long-term variations in

meteorological conditions, as implied by FDR and DDR periods
For ICOLLs with ECIs that have been derived from contemporary water level records, the ECI
values may already favour a DDR profile, whereas ICOLLs with ECIs that were derived from
long term historical air photo interpretation (with many photos dating back to the 1940s) are likely
to represent a more centred profile.
The hypothesised response of ECI values to changes in rainfall / runoff is supported by an analysis
of annual average entrance conditions at Dee Why Lagoon over the period 1996 to 2003. The
analysis shows that periods of higher rainfall resulted in a greater proportion of time that the
entrance was open, and thus a lower ECI value, whereas periods of lower rainfall generally
resulted in a more closed entrance and a higher ECI value (refer Table 5-2). With the exception of
one 12 month period (2000 2001), the relationship between ECI and rainfall was strongly linear
(R2 = 0.97) (Figure 5-18). For an average rainfall year, the ECI value of Dee Why Lagoon was
found to be approximately 0.85. A 20% variation in rainfall was found to modify the ECI value
by 0.05 (i.e. a value of 0.9 for a 20% reduction, and a value of 0.8 for a 20% increase) (see Figure
5-18).

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Table 5-2 Temporal variability in ECI values of Dee Why Lagoon, equivalent
monthly SOI values and monthly rainfall
Year Number of Proportion of Equivalent Average Average SOI

entrance time entrance Entrance Closure annual rainfall value (from
(1)
breakouts is open Index (ECI) (mm) BoM data)
1996-7 5 0.11 0.89 1014 -2.0
1997-8 6 0.18 0.82 1395 -14.3
1998-9 5 0.27 0.73 1820 10.5
1999-2000 6 0.15 0.85 1181 7.0
2000-1 7 0.34 0.66 1219 6.0
2001-2 4 0.15 0.85 1207 -2.8
2002-3 4 0.16 0.84 1161 -7.9
(1) Measured at Cromer Golf Course, which is considered reasonably representative of the Dee Why
Lagoon catchment. Data courtesy Bureau of Meteorology
0.9
ECI value
0.8
2
R = 0.9743
0.7
Outlier (2000/01)
0.6
-40% -20% 0% 20% 40% 60%
Rainfall re lativ e to long te rm av e rage
Figure 5-18 Relationship between annual ECI and annual rainfall at Dee Why
Lagoon for period 1996 to 2003
In addition to the impacts of long-term rainfall variability on ECI, it is possible that long-term
variability in typical wave climate may also modify ECIs for NSW ICOLLs. In particular, long-
term variations in typical wave direction may cause minor beach rotations, which may modify the

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morphodynamic processes within ICOLL entrances. Further discussion on the impacts of altered
wave climate on ICOLL processes, including entrance morphodynamics, is provided in Section
8.2.
5.4 Sedimentation within ICOLLs
The physical sedimentary environment of ICOLLs is considered relatively straightforward, and as

such, is discussed here in only as much detail as necessary for consideration by future
management regimes.
ICOLLs represent an immature geomorphic state, and as such, are subject to on-going physical
evolutionary change (refer Section 4.1). Evolution primarily results from an accumulation of
terrigenous sediment and the associated morphodynamic response of the system to sedimentation
(Roy, 1984). Ultimately, ICOLLs today will be replaced by depositional coastal plains in the
future (Bird, 1994).
Most estuaries, and particularly ICOLLs, have been naturally accumulating sediment since the end
of the Post Glacial Marine Transgression and associated sea level standstill some 7,000 years ago.
During high sea levels, such as at present, coastal valleys are drowned by the sea and infill with
sediment from the land and from the sea (refer Section 4.1). This has occurred many times during
each interglacial period over the last few million years (Roy, 1984).
There are three primary sources of sediments delivered to ICOLLs: catchment runoff, marine
sediment ingress and aeolian transport (Bird, 1994). Sediment may also be generated in-situ from
erosion of foreshores (Bird, 1994), however, the contribution of this source is considered to be
small.
With respect to catchment runoff, coarse terrigenous sediment is generally deposited as a fluvial
delta at the outlet of catchment streams, where it may subsequently be spread around the shore by
wave action (Bird, 1994; Roy et al., 2001). Fine catchment sediment is transported into the low
energy deeper central basins and is deposited to form a muddy bed substrate (Bird, 1994; Roy et
al., 2001; Ryan et al., 2003). Inputs of catchment derived sediment to ICOLLs generally occur as
discrete events associated with high rainfall and significant volumetric runoff from the catchment
(Ryan et al., 2003), which are thus capable of transporting the sediment along watercourses. A
certain amount of the sediment delivered to an ICOLL from the catchment may be carried out to

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sea through the entrance, if open, during outflowing floods or ebbing tides (Bird, 1994; Ryan et
al., 2003).
Accumulation of sediment in ICOLLs is dependent on the sediment yield from the catchment,
which derived from soil erosion. Erosion of catchment soils is considered a natural process and
occurs even in the most pristine ecosystems (Simms et al., 2002), however, soil erosion and
sediment yields may have been increased in recent times by deforestation and development within
catchments (Bird, 1994). Using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE), Simms et al.
(2002) showed that soil erosion (and hence sediment yield) is significantly higher in parts of a
catchment where landuse has been modified from the natural forested condition. Using the NSW
south coast ICOLL, Lake Wollumboola, as an example, Simms et al. (2002) found that disturbed
areas of the catchment, which account for only 14% by area, contribute 88% of the total soil
erosion within the catchment.
Dams and other impoundments that intercept sediment transport along rivers and streams,
however, may actually reduce sediment yield to downstream receiving waters, compared to
natural (pre-dam) conditions (Bird, 1994).
An increase in the sediment yield to an estuary will result in an increase in the sediment
accumulation rate. Examples of increased sediment accumulation due to anthropogenic influences
within the catchment are recorded by several researchers, and manifest as accelerated progradation
of bayhead fluvial deltas (Jones et al., 2003; Sloss
et al., 2004a) and accelerated shallowing of central
mud basins (Sloss et al., 2004a). Sloss et al.
(2004a,b) found that sedimentation rates in the
central basin of Lake Illawarra over the past 50
years have been approximately 4.5mm/yr,
compared to rates of about 0.3mm/yr during pre-
Lake Illawarra accelerated sedimentation
European times. This is consistent with WBM
from catchment development (Image: Google)
(2002a) who report that contemporary
sedimentation rates in Lake Illawarra were estimated to be between 2.9 and 21 mm/yr, while pre-
European conditions were likely to be between 0.3 and 1.4 mm/yr. Clearly, contemporary
infilling of Lake Illawarra is much higher than natural infill rates for NSW estuaries, which have
been estimated to be in the order of 0.15 1mm/yr, depending on estuary type, sediment supply
and the size of the estuary basin (i.e. paleo-valley) (Roy, 1984).

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Infilling of a drowned paleo-valley occurs fastest in the deepest parts of the valley due to the
natural focusing of sediment towards these areas (Baumber, 2001). As the valley infills,
sedimentation rates reduce, as sediment is distributed over a greater bed surface area (Baumber,
2001). Further, as the resident volume of an ICOLL reduces, the capture efficiency of sediment
reduces, and more fine-grained material is expected to be discharged to the ocean during open
entrance conditions.
Sedimentation rates in ICOLLs would reduce until the central mud basin is shallow enough to
become vegetated. Vegetation in the central mud basin, and along the shores, may then accelerate
sedimentation due to reduce velocities close to the bed surface (Ryan et al., 2003), leading to an
overall contraction of lagoon planform shape.
Sediment derived from the open coast accumulates within ICOLLs as marine tidal deltas, and is
composed of moderately well sorted quartzose sand with subordinate amounts of mud (Roy et al.,
2001). The marine sands are transported into the estuary entrance by tidal processes and deposit
to form flood tide deltas that are often exposed at low tide. These shoals can be supplemented by
sediment washover of the entrance berm (Bird, 1994; Ryan et al., 2003), and by aeolian transport
of sand from coastal dunes and beach system (Bird, 1994).
The unique hydrologic cycle of ICOLLs is considered to have a notable impact on sedimentation
processes. When entrances are closed, ICOLLs retain 100% of sediment loads derived from
catchment runoff, regardless of the sediment grainsize. The sediment, particularly the fine-grained
facies, is subject to resuspension by wind-generated currents within the lagoon, which leads to
increased turbidity of the system (and reduced light penetration to the bed, thus minimising
potential for seagrass development). During breakout, high velocities and turbulence associated
with the rapid drawdown of the lake water levels may stir bed surface sediment and discharge this
sediment to the ocean, thus scarifying some sediment that had previously been deposited on the
bed and negating previous sedimentation of the waterway.
For ICOLLs that have a relatively dynamic water level and breakout often, seagrass is mostly
absent from bed surfaces (refer Figure 4-6) due to the less stable bed surface conditions and the
inconsistent penetration of light to the bed. Therefore, these particular ICOLLs are mostly devoid
of aquatic macrophytes despite typical depths that are clearly within the photic limits.
With respect to sediment quality, concentrations of some constituents such as trace metals, are
clearly elevated due to anthropogenic influences. Lake Macquarie and Lake Illawarra both

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contain sediments that are high in trace metals. With respect to Lake Macquarie, elevated
concentrations of Zinc and Lead occur in the northern half of the lake due to the continuous
operation of the Cockle Creek smelter (Chenhall et al., 2004). Lake Illawarra also has elevated
concentrations of trace metals, including Copper, Lead and Zinc, but mostly within the near
surface sediments (i.e. top 50cm), and mostly within the fine grained muds of the central basin
(Chenhall et al., 2004). The contamination of Lake Illawarra with these metals is the result of
industrially-derived ash from steel manufacturing, copper smelting and electric power generation
(Chenhall et al., 2004).

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MORPHOMETRIC ASSESSMENT OF ICOLLS 138
6 MORPHOMETRIC ASSESSMENT OF ICOLLS
6.1 Description of morphometry
Morphometry is the measurement of the external form of a physical component or feature.

Morphometry is used in the physical geography field to describe the physical shape and form of
catchments, rivers, streams and other physical environments. Within the context of this
dissertation, morphometry is used to describe the physical geographic characteristics of ICOLLs,
including parameters such as size, shape and structure.
The morphometry of an ICOLL influences its hydrodynamic processes, which in turn control
many of the other physical, chemical and biological processes of the waterway, including water
quality, sedimentation and ecological structure (refer Section 3.3). As such, morphometry is a
critical aspect of ICOLLs that needs to be considered in the context of holistic future management.
6.2 Morphometry as an indicator of natural sensitivity
Morphometric parameters can be used to highlight differences between ICOLLs that influence the
natural response of the waterways to external loadings. Morphometric parameters are relatively
easy to determine, and as such, can provide a simple means to assess and classify the natural
sensitivity (or robustness) of individual ICOLLs to external loads.
An assessment of the ICOLL morphometry has been carried out to determine the natural
evacuation potential, dilution potential, and assimilation potential of each NSW ICOLL, which
collectively, provide a gauge of their relative sensitivity to external inputs.
6.2.1 Previous sensitivity assessment of ICOLLs
Broad classifications of NSW estuaries and coastal lakes have been carried out previously by a
number of state government agencies (HRC, 2002; DLWC, 2000; Scanes et al, 1997). The
Healthy Rivers Commission (HRC, 2002) adopted a simple sensitivity grading to help determine
overall management classifications for coastal lakes and lagoons in NSW. The HRC sensitivity
grading was based on two key factors: 1) the potential capability to dilute and transform pollutant

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inputs from the surrounding catchment (dilution and transformation potential), and 2) the
capability to remove such pollutants from its system through flushing (flushing potential) (HRC,
2001). The dilution and transformation potential was estimated for each waterway giving
consideration to its geomorphic structure and the ratio between catchment area and waterway area.
The flushing potential was determined simplistically, based on entrance opening regimes, with
open entrances assuming a high flushing potential, intermittently open entrances assuming a
medium potential, and predominantly closed systems assuming a low flushing potential.
The NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation (DLWC, 2000) investigated NSW far
south coast estuaries to determine their relative vulnerability to long term degradation caused by
the effects of catchment development. DLWC based their assessment on a number of equally
weighted physical parameters, including waterway depth, dilution capacity, flushing period,
trapping efficiency and catchment loads. DLWC found that the more vulnerable estuaries were
shallow intermittently open lakes, lagoons and creeks with larger catchment runoff to estuary
volume ratios and higher nutrient loadings. DLWC also concluded that the simple measure of
waterway depth was a key indicator of vulnerability, with shallower waterways being the more
vulnerable.
In assessing acceptable nutrient loads for coastal receiving waters, the NSW Environment
Protection Authority (Scanes et al., 1997) provided a subjective ranking of perceived degradation
for a number of NSW coastal waterways. The EPA then compared the level of perceived
degradation to predicted pollutant loads from the catchments, as well as actual nutrient
concentrations in the waterways, to identify indicative degradation thresholds for nutrient loadings
and concentrations.
Each classification system discussed above is considered to contain significant shortcomings,

which have mostly become manifest from a lack of data regarding individual systems and/or a
lack of application to the entire NSW coastline. It is considered that morphometry can be used to
provide a robust and universally applicable assessment of natural sensitivity of ICOLLs, as
morphometric parameters can generally be determined without the need for detailed assessments
of individual waterways.
6.2.2 Descriptions of morphometric parameters

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Primary morphometric characteristics include waterway area, waterway volume, waterway
perimeter and catchment area. Secondary morphometric characteristics combine two or more
primary characteristics to yield new parameters, such as average waterway depth, lagoon shape
and volumetric runoff ratios.
The morphometric parameters considered as part of this assessment, comprised:
Waterway area,
Waterway volume,
Waterway shape,
Tidal prism ratio,
Catchment runoff (volume and loads), and
Entrance Closure Index.
6.2.2.1 Waterway area
Waterway areas of NSW ICOLLs have been discussed previously (refer Section 4.3.1). The
impacts of errors in recorded waterway areas (~30%) on the morphometric assessment outcomes
have been considered and are described in Section 6.2.5.
6.2.2.2 Waterway volume
Waterway volumes for NSW ICOLLs have been discussed previously (refer Section 4.3.2). The
impacts of errors in recorded waterway areas (~50%) on the morphometric assessment outcomes
have been considered and are described in Section 6.2.5.
6.2.2.3 Waterway shape
Waterway shapes for NSW ICOLLs have been discussed previously (refer Section 4.3.3).
Previous sensitivity assessments (refer Section 6.2.1) have not considered waterway shape. This
represents a major shortcoming, as the waterway shape has a significant influence on the
hydrodynamics of ICOLLs and the way they respond to external inputs. In recognition of the
influence of waterway shape on ICOLL hydrodynamics, new definitions for waterway shape have
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been established, viz: displacement dominated and mixing dominated waterways, and reflect
the behaviour of the waterway to catchment runoff.
Relative waterway shape has been determined for some 70 ICOLLs throughout NSW, based on a
comparison between waterway perimeter and waterway area (Figure 4-9). The typical shape of
NSW ICOLLs (that is, the typical waterway perimeter for a given waterway area) was defined by
the curve of best fit for this comparison.
A measure of an individual ICOLL shape relative to the typical shape has been given the term
shape function (Sf). ICOLLs with a shape equal to the typical shape are assigned a Sf value of
unity. ICOLLs that are more circular (i.e. have a smaller perimeter compared to the waterway
area) are given Sf values greater than unity, while ICOLLs that are more linear (i.e. have a larger
perimeter compared to the waterway area) are given Sf values less than unity, as defined by the
following equations, which have been derived from an approximation of the curve of best fit
describing typical shape conditions for 70 ICOLLs in NSW using a stepped linear algorithm (see
Figure 6-1). Linearisation of the curve of best fit was adopted to simplify the calculations for Sf
(and thus make it a more usable parameter rather than a complex mathematical adjunct).
4
For ICOLLs with a waterway area of less than 0.15 km2, sf = * Area * Perimeter 1
0.15
For ICOLLs with a waterway area between 0.15 and 0.8 km2,

sf = 4 + 6 *
( Area 0.15) * Perimeter 1
0.65
For ICOLLs with a waterway area greater than 0.8 km2,

sf = 10 + 40 *
( Area 0.8) * Perimeter 1
9.2
The above equations are presented graphically in Figure 6-2.

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50
As most of the NSW ICOLLs have an area

45 < 5km2, divergence of the two lines in this
area of the graph is inconsequential to the
40 morphometric assessment
35
30
25
20
y = 10 + 40 *
(x 0.8)
15 10 0.8
10
y = 4 + 6*
(x 0.15)
0.8 0.15
5
4x
y=
0
0.15
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Waterway area (km2)
Figure 6-1 Stepped linear approximation of the curve of best fit shown in
Figure 4-9. The vertices represent a change in the equation defining the
relationship that is used to calculate shape function (Sf)
30
25
sf=0.5
20
sf=0.75
15
sf=1.0
10 sf=1.5
sf=2.0
5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Waterway area (km2)

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Figure 6-2 Definition of Shape Function Values for NSW ICOLLs
6.2.2.4 Tidal prism ratio
The tidal prism ratio (TPR) is defined by Dyer (1997) as (V + P ) P , where V is the low tide
volume of the estuary and P is the intertidal volume (i.e. tidal prism), which can be approximated
as the product of the waterway area and the tidal range. The TPR provides a rudimentary
indication of the degree of tidal mixing of an estuary, as it compares the volume of the incoming
marine water (i.e. the tidal prism) with the resident volume of the waterway. Given that estuaries
are not fully mixed during each tide, the TPR can significantly over-estimate the degree of mixing
within an estuary (Dyer, 1997).
For the purposes of this morphometric assessment, an assumed tidal range of 0.2 metres was
adopted for the ICOLLs (for periods when the entrances are open). In reality, the tidal range is
variable and dependent on the condition of the entrance channel and shoals, however, a value of
0.2 approximately equates to the typical tidal range for ICOLLs in NSW (refer Section 4.3,
Table 4-1) and indicates significant tidal attenuation by the flood tide entrance shoals.
Note that for a constant tidal range, the TPR becomes a function of depth, as V can be
approximated by depth * waterway area, and P can be approximated by tidal range * waterway
area.
6.2.2.5 Catchment runoff
Catchment runoff was estimated for the NSW ICOLLs based on the areas of different landuse
types within each ICOLL catchment, and pre-defined runoff parameters for different landuse
types. Discretisation of catchments into forested, rural and urban landuses, and the associated
areas of each landuse, was adopted from existing literature, previous site-specific studies for each
catchment, or from aerial photograph interpretation. Average annual runoff volumes and runoff
pollutant loads were approximated for each landuse within each ICOLL catchment, based on
average annual catchment rainfall, as defined by relevant Bureau of Meteorology gauging stations
along the NSW coast (BoM, 2006).

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Two (2) catchment runoff parameters were used in the morphometric assessment, average annual
volumetric runoff, and average annual pollutant load (using Total Nitrogen as an indicator of
catchment pollutants). Table 6-1 shows average annual volumetric and pollutant runoff
parameters for the different landuse types, which define the proportion of rainfall that is converted
to volumetric runoff and catchment pollutants. These parameters were adapted from research
carried out by the Co-operative Research Centre (CRC) for Catchment Hydrology (Duncan,
1999), and represent the best estimates for catchment runoff when adopted at an annual average
scale.
Table 6-1 Average Annual Volumetric and Pollutant Catchment Runoff

Parameters (adapted from Duncan, 1999)
Landuse type Volume Total Nitrogen

(proportion of rainfall that is concentration
discharged to the ICOLL) (mgL-1)
Forested 0.15 0.2
Rural 0.25 0.6
Urban 0.35 1.0
Average annual volumetric runoff was calculated as follows:

Average annual volumetric runoff = average annual rainfall * [(forested area * forested
volumetric runoff coefficient) + (rural area * rural volumetric runoff coefficient) + (urban area *
urban volumetric runoff coefficient) + waterway area] average annual evaporation * waterway
area
Average annual catchment load was calculated as follows:

Average annual catchment runoff load = average annual rainfall * [(forested area * forested
volumetric runoff coefficient * forested TN concentration) + (rural area * rural volumetric runoff
coefficient * forested TN concentration) + (urban area * urban volumetric runoff coefficient *
urban TN concentration)]
The level of accuracy associated with determination of these morphometric parameters is

considered to be reasonable, given that the catchment area is not variable (unlike the waterway
area and waterway volume). Over time, the relative proportions of different landuses within some
catchments will change, as rural and urban development continues to expand. For the purposes of
this assessment, however, such changes are considered minor.

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6.2.2.6 Entrance closure index
The Entrance Closure Index (ECI) has been described previously (refer Section 5.3), and describes
the typical, long-term averaged condition of the ICOLL entrance. The index reflects the
proportion of time that an entrance is closed.
The ECI is considered to be a critical morphometric parameter, which also has not been included
in previous sensitivity assessments (refer Section 6.2.1).
6.2.3 Definition of morphometric-based sensitivity factors
The morphometric parameters described in the above sections have been used to form the basis of
three (3) fundamental measures of ICOLL sensitivity. These sensitivity measures have been
termed the Evacuation Factor, the Dilution Factor, and the Assimilation Factor. Each factor
provides a measure of a different aspect of the natural sensitivity, or vulnerability, of an ICOLL.
Appendix G provides a listing of each NSW ICOLL and the associated morphometric parameter
values, along with the calculated results of the three sensitivity factors, as described below.
6.2.3.1 Evacuation Factor
The Evacuation Factor is a dimensionless parameter that provides a relative measure of the tidal
flushing efficiency of an ICOLL. The Evacuation Factor is defined as:
Evacuation Factor = [shape function * tidal prism ratio * (1 ECI)]-1
The proportion of time that the entrance is open (i.e. 1 ECI) is required to define the evacuation
factor, as tidal flushing and evacuation of resident waters can only occur when the entrance is
open and oceanic water is exchanged with the ICOLL. The Evacuation Factor also incorporates
the waterway shape function, as the waterway shape is important in defining how well the oceanic
water is mixed and advected around the waterway. It is considered that inclusion of the shape
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function helps to overcome the inaccuracies associated with using the TPR in isolation, as it
accounts for a variable degree of mixing within the estuary.
Evacuation Factors for NSW ICOLLs vary between 2.8 (Candlagan) and 170 (Baragoot) (refer
Appendix G). Relatively large Evacuation Factor values indicate lagoons that have a poor tidal
flushing efficiency, and thus cannot physically evacuate pollutants and other inputs from the water
as well as other lagoon systems. ICOLLs with larger Evacuation Factors are considered to be
more sensitive, or vulnerable to external inputs.
6.2.3.2 Dilution Factor
The Dilution Factor describes the efficiency of an ICOLL to receive and accommodate inputs
from the catchment without significant impact on the resident condition of the waterway. Physical
dilution is the primary mechanism controlling the efficiency of the ICOLL to receive and
accommodate catchment inputs. Therefore, the Dilution Factor is essentially a comparison
between catchment pollutant input loads and the resident volume of the lagoon. It is assumed that
when the entrance is open, much of the catchment load is advected to the ocean. As such, the
Dilution Factor is adjusted to consider only the proportion of time that the entrance is closed. The
Dilution Factor is defined as:
Dilution Factor = catchment runoff pollutant load (av. annual) * waterway volume-1 * Entrance
Closure Index
The Dilution Factor has units of kgML-1 (or mgL-1), and essentially represents the accumulated
pollutant concentration within the ICOLL that is directly attributable to the average annual
catchment runoff load. The Dilution Factor value does not represent a real concentration in the
lagoon, but rather, a hypothetical concentration assuming pollutant loads are retained and
accumulated within the same fixed volume of resident water.
Dilution Factors for NSW ICOLLs vary between 0.002 (Merimbula) and 32.3 (Curl Curl) (refer
Appendix G). ICOLLs with relatively large Dilution Factors represent systems that have smaller
resident volumes and/or larger catchments, and as such, are not as able to dilute inputs as
effectively as lagoons with large volumes and/or small catchments (and are defined by relatively
smaller Dilution Factors). ICOLLs with larger Dilution Factors are considered to be more
sensitive, or vulnerable, to external inputs.

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ICOLLs with smaller resident volumes relative to their catchments are considered to be in a more
evolved geomorphological state (refer Section 4.3.2). Increasing geomorphological maturity of an
ICOLL therefore results in increasing Dilution Factor values, indicating that the overall
sensitivity, or vulnerability, of an ICOLL is related prima facie to its geo-evolutionary state. A
similar conclusion was drawn from the DLWC (2000) assessment, which found that the most
naturally vulnerable systems were the geomorphologically mature shallow lakes, lagoons and
creeks.
6.2.3.3 Assimilation (Water Level Variance) Factor
The Assimilation Factor is a de facto measure of the average annual water level variation of an
ICOLL. The Assimilation Factor is similar to the Dilution Factor, but addresses the volumetric
contribution of catchment inputs rather than pollutant loads, and compares the runoff volume to
the waterway area rather than the resident volume of the lagoon.
The Assimilation Factor is defined as:
Assimilation Factor = catchment runoff volume (av. annual) * Waterway Area-1 * Entrance
Closure Index
The Assimilation Factor has dimensions of metres, and represents the effective total average
annual water level rise in the ICOLL. As water levels in ICOLLs only rise when the entrance is
closed to the ocean, the Assimilation Factor has been adjusted to consider only the proportion of
volumetric catchment runoff that occurs when the entrance is closed. ICOLLs with larger
Assimilation Factors have a more variable water level, which results in a less stable physical
environment. Therefore, ICOLLs with larger Assimilation Factors are considered to be more
sensitive, or vulnerable, to external inputs.
It should be noted that continuous water level rise within most NSW ICOLLs cannot exceed
approximately two to three metres, as the entrance sand berm would become overtopped and the
entrance sand plug scoured and opened to the ocean. ICOLLs that have Assimilation Factors
greater than a value of about 2 - 3 essentially represent systems that, on average, would break out
naturally more than once per year.

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The Assimilation Factor has been named as such, as biological productivity within ICOLLs (and
thus its capacity to biologically assimilate external inputs) is somewhat dependent on the
hydraulic characteristics of the lagoon (Roy et al., 2001), including the relative physical stability
of the lagoon hydraulics (i.e. water level variations). As the biological communities that occur
within ICOLL environments are diverse and complex, the biological assimilation capacity of a
lagoon would be difficult to quantify. Therefore, water level variability has been adopted as a
proxy for biological productivity.
The relationship between water level variability and biological productivity within NSW ICOLLs
can be demonstrated by consideration of seagrass coverage. ICOLLs that have highly variable
water levels (and thus high Assimilation Factors) do not generally contain seagrass beds (Figure
6-3).
90.0%
80.0%
70.0%
Seagrass coverage of ICOLL bed
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
Essentially zero seagrass cover for
20.0% ICOLLs with AF > 10
10.0%
0.0%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Assimilation Factor
Figure 6-3 Relationship between the Assimilation Factor (AF) and

seagrass coverage for most NSW ICOLLs
Assimilation Factors for NSW ICOLLs vary between 0.007 (Merimbula) 74.5 (Corindi [Pipe
Clay]) (refer Appendix G). ICOLLs with high Assimilation Factors would tend to have relatively
rapid water level rises and would breakout often, which in some respects is considered to reset
the aquatic biological environment (as pelagic organisms can be flushed from the system, while
epiphytes, macrophytes and benthos can become exposed to the atmosphere). The rate of water

9/10/06 15:10
level rise in these ICOLLs is likely to exceed a critical rate for the establishment of seagrass,
which may be defined by an Assimilation Factor value of about 10 (Figure 6-3).
6.2.4 Sensitivity classification
For each of the morphometric-based sensitivity factors described above, the NSW ICOLLs were
assigned a classification (A to D) to describe their relative natural sensitivity. An A classification
represents ICOLLs with a high natural sensitivity to external inputs, while a D classification
represents the least sensitive (or most robust) ICOLLs. In defining numerical values for each
factor representing the different classifications, consideration has been given to the full range of
values describing all of the ICOLLs in NSW.
As shown in Appendix G, Evacuation Factors for all ICOLLs in NSW were found to range
between 2.8 and 170, while Dilution Factors ranged between 0.002 and 32.3, and Assimilation
Factors ranged between 0.01 and 48. Assignment of classifications (A to D) for each factor was
based on an equal division of the approximate maximum numerical value for that factor measured
within the NSW ICOLL dataset (Table 6-2). This approach was adopted instead of a standard
quartile division with an equal number of lagoons in each classification to emphasise the
significance of the relative sensitivity between the ICOLLs.
Table 6-2 Definition of sensitivity classifications for NSW ICOLL

sensitivity
Evacuation Dilution Factor Assimilation

Factor Factor
A 120 + 24 + 30 +
B 80 120 16 24 20 30
C 40 80 8 16 10 20
D 0 40 08 0 10
In giving consideration to the results for all three morphometric factors, the highest calculated
classification of the three factors was adopted as the overall classification for each ICOLL (Table
6-3). Note that critical morphometric information was not available for some ICOLLs, so a total
of only 57 ICOLLs have been classified at this stage.

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Table 6-3 Results of overall sensitivity classification for most NSW ICOLLs
A B C D
most sensitive ICOLLs least sensitive ICOLLs
Corindi (Pipe Clay) Oyster* Hearns* Arragan*
Woolgoolga Coila Dalhousie* Cakora*
Wamberal Corunna Terrigal Deep*
Curl Curl Tilba Tilba Avoca Saltwater (SWR)*
Congo Bunga Cockrone Smiths
Brou Wallagoot Dee Why Narrabeen
Baragoot Wollumboola Swan*
Meringo Conjola*
Middle (Tanja) Narrawallee*
Bournda* Burrill*
Tabourie*
Termeil*
Meroo*
Willinga*
Durras
Candlagan
Tuross*
Brunderee
Tarourga
Mummuga
Kianga
Nangudga
Little (Wallaga)
Wallaga
Cuttagee
Murrah
Wapengo
Nelson
Back
Merimbula
Pambula
Curalo
Wonboyn
Nadgee
9/10/06 15:10
* Classification may increase once all morphometric parameters are calculated
From the results of the overall sensitivity assessment (Table 6-3), seven (7) ICOLLs were found to
be the most sensitive, with an A classification, seven (7) ICOLLs had a B classification, ten
(10) ICOLLs had a C classification, and 33 ICOLLs were found to be the least sensitive, with a
D classification. Based on this distribution, any
NSW ICOLL with a classification other than D
could be considered as more sensitive than the
typical (median) NSW ICOLL. It was also found
that any ICOLL that has an ECI value of 0.2 or less
had a D classification, thus emphasizing the
importance of long-term typical entrance conditions
Wamberal Lagoon one of the most
to the overall sensitivity, or vulnerability, of sensitive (A class) ICOLLs (Image: DNR)
ICOLLs.
Whilst all morphometric parameters are considered important, the results of the classification
suggest that the Evacuation Factor is possibly the most critical. Further, it is considered that the
ECI value is the most important determinant to the morphometric classification. For the 21
ICOLLs that have an ECI value of 90% or higher, 15 have a morphometric classification higher
than D, and a further four have not been classified for all parameters. Only two ICOLLs with an
ECI of > 90% have a classification of D, where all parameters have been calculated. For both of
these ICOLLs, waterway depths are very shallow (< 0.5 metres), and the waterway shape is
circular (mixing-dominated, see Figure 4-10), resulting in effective evacuation of waters when the
entrance is open (and thus low EF values).
6.2.5 Consideration of errors in morphometric parameter

determination
Some of the morphometric parameters discussed above have been determined using methods that
contain various degrees of error, which primarily relate to unknown water level conditions.
A cursory sensitivity analysis was carried out on example ICOLLs (comprising Wamberal, Curl
Curl, Wollumboola, Durras, Coila, Murrah, Bunga and Nelson) to assess the potential for the
errors to significantly influence the outcomes of the overall morphometric assessment.

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Evacuation Factor, Dilution Factor and Assimilation Factor values were recalculated for the
example ICOLLs based on the anticipated errors for waterway areas and waterway volumes.
Given the significant variation in morphometric factor values for the example ICOLLs (i.e. more
than one order of magnitude difference in most cases), the sensitivity analyses showed that the
ICOLLs retained the same approximate ranking relative to each other regardless of error
variations in waterway size and waterway volume. The lack of sensitivity to the relativity
between the morphometric parameter values of the example ICOLLs indicated that the outcomes
of the overall morphometric assessment were reasonably robust, despite the approximations made
in calculating some of the parameter values.
6.2.6 Comparison of morphometric results with previous sensitivity

assessments
6.2.6.1 Comparison with results from HRC (2002)
A comparison of the morphometric classification results with the sensitivity classification

presented by the HRC (2002) shows relatively little consistency between the two approaches
(Table 6-4). Only three of the 14 ICOLLs with an overall classification of A or B were defined
as extreme natural sensitivity by the HRC, however, the results are reasonably consistent in
defining less sensitive ICOLLs, with 12 of the 14 ICOLLs defined by HRC as high sensitivity
(being the lowest level of sensitivity) having a matching morphometric classification of D. As
some of the morphometric parameters are currently unavailable for a number of ICOLLs, it is
possible that correlation may improve with the collection of additional data (particularly waterway
volume).
Although HRC (2002) attempted to include some morphometric parameters (e.g. catchment area /
waterway area and entrance opening regime) in their classification, these parameters were limited
by data availability. Consequently, the morphometric-based classification is considered to be an
improvement on the previous HRC (2002) classification.

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Table 6-4 Comparison between HRC (2002) classification and the

morphometric-based classification results for natural sensitivity of NSW ICOLLs
HRC extreme HRC very high HRC high

Morphometric Morphometric Morphometric
classif. classif. classif.
Cakora D Corindi A Arragan D
Woolgoolga A Hearns C Smiths D
Saltwater (SWR) D Oyster B Narrabeen D
Bellambi - Wamberal A Wollumboola C
Werri - Terrigal C Swan D
Congo A Avoca C Conjola D
Meringo C Cockrone C Burrill D
Kianga D Dee Why C Tabourie D
Little (Wallaga) D Curl Curl A Candlagan D
Cuttagee D Narrawallee D Wapengo D
Bunga B Termeil D Nelson D
Middle (Tanja) C Meroo D Wallagoot B
Bournda C Willinga D Merimbula D
Back Lagoon D Kioloa - Nadgee D
Durras D
Mullimburra -
Coila B
Tuross D
Brunderee D
Tarourga D
Brou A
Mummuga D
Bullengella -
Nangudga D
Corunna B
Tilba Tilba B
Wallaga D
Baragoot A
Murrah B
Pambula D
Curalo D
Wonboyn D
9/10/06 15:10
6.2.6.2 Comparison with results from DLWC (2000)
A comparison between the morphometric-based classification and the DLWC (2000) assessment
of far south coast estuaries also shows little correlation between the two approaches (Figure 6-4).
This is surprising given that they are based on similar philosophies and parameters. One of the
main differences between the two systems, however, is the fact that DLWC used a simple
subjective scoring system (from 1 5) for each of the five parameters considered, which were
then added (with equal weighting) to give a final score, whereas the morphometric-based
classification system actually quantified the morphometric parameters. It is therefore considered
that the morphometric classification also provides a better measure of relative difference in natural
sensitivity between the ICOLLs than the DLWC (2000) assessment.
10 12 14 16 18 20 22
DLW C (draft 2000) sensitivity score
Figure 6-4 Comparison between DLWC (draft 2000) classification and the
morphometric-based classification results for natural sensitivity of NSW ICOLLs
6.2.6.3 Comparison of results with EPA assessment (Scanes et al., 1997)
Despite the high degree of subjectivity employed in the EPA classification (refer Section 6.2.1),
the results of the morphometric-based classification were found to be somewhat consistent with
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the results of the EPA (Scanes et al., 1997) classification system regarding perceived degradation
(Figure 6-5).
y = -0.7143x + 5.0714
R 2 = 0.3861
0 1 2 3 4 5
Scanes et al. (1997) grading
Figure 6-5 Comparison between EPA (Scanes et al, 1997) classification of

existing degradation and the morphometric-based classification results
for natural sensitivity
One of the interesting differences between the two approaches is that the EPA classification is a
measure of the existing degree of degradation of a waterway, while the morphometric
classification is a measure of the natural sensitivity, or potential for degradation.
6.3 Potential for application of morphometry to the future

management of NSW ICOLLs
This Chapter has illustrated how morphometry can be used to highlight the relative sensitivity of
ICOLLs to external (and particularly anthropogenic) loadings, as calculated from basic physical
and topographic characteristics of the waterway and associated catchment. On this basis, it is
considered that morphometry can be used to help direct future management of ICOLLs,
particularly in areas where there are many ICOLLs that need management and prioritisation of
works and funding. Morphometry would be particularly useful for natural resource and landuse
planning at regional and state levels, as previously espoused by HRC (2002).
In general, a high Evacuation Factor means that when the entrance is open, tidal flushing of the
ICOLL is relatively ineffective. Therefore, there is very limited opportunity for evacuation of

9/10/06 15:10
pollutants and other inputs from these ICOLLs and especially from the most upstream sections of
the waterway, some distance from the ocean entrance.
A high Dilution Factor generally implies that the condition of an ICOLL can quickly become
reflective of the quality of runoff into the waterway following rainfall, rather than remaining
residual from antecedent conditions. This means that the desired quality in the ICOLL should be
the specific targets for general catchment runoff quality (although some allowance for chemical
and biological processes within the waterway could also be considered).
A high Assimilation Factor means that water levels in the ICOLL are highly variable, which limits
opportunities for diverse and more complex biological communities to establish. Primary
production in ICOLLs with high assimilation factors would typically be dominated by
phytoplankton, which can respond quickly to input loads and is unaffected by gross changes in
hydrology (i.e. water levels). Macroalgae, and to an even greater extent, seagrass, is less able to
accommodate significant and rapid variations in water level when entrances are closed. The
Assimilation Factor considered in this assessment is very simplistic in nature and does not
incorporate any allowance for biogeochemical assimilation and recycling of inputs within an
ICOLL. As such, it represents a somewhat conservative approach to assimilation.
From a management perspective, ICOLLs with an overall A, B or C classification may be ear-

tagged as being particularly naturally sensitive environments, with proposed future development
around these waterways and within their catchments reconsidered carefully (refer Section 10). It
should be noted that for some ICOLLs with a D classification (Table 6-3), there may be
insufficient data regarding key morphometric parameters to document greater natural sensitivity.
The morphometric assessment could also be used retrospectively to demonstrate how the natural
sensitivity of a system has been altered by changes that have already occurred within the
catchment, such as urban development. To illustrate this point, the morphometric parameters for
Curl Curl Lagoon, located within the urban environment of the city of Sydney with a 95%
urbanised catchment, were recalculated based on natural (bushland) catchment conditions. The
results showed that for pre-European conditions, the Dilution Factor for Curl Curl Lagoon would
have been 3 (compared to 32 at present), while the Assimilation Factor would have been 9
(compared to 23 at present). Consequently, prior to European settlement, Curl Curl Lagoon would
have had a D classification rather than the current A classification. This example is somewhat
simplistic, as it assumes that the ECI value is the same in the past as it is in the present. In reality,
the ECI may have been different given the changes to catchment runoff associated with

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development, however, the extent of the ECI change is difficult to hypothesise (as reduced runoff
would result in less frequent berm breaches, however, it is likely that berm breaches would have
occurred at higher levels, which may have resulted in prolonged periods of open entrance
conditions following the breaches).
The morphometric parameters considered are not presumed to be the only measures of natural
sensitivity to external inputs. Rather, the morphometric assessment discussed hitherto simply
highlights a valid approach of applying morphometry to such sensitivity assessments. A range of
additional or alternative morphometric parameters could be developed and applied, including, for
example, the potential for stratification, which has been identified by Spooner and Spigel (2005)
as a worthy determinant for future management (the potential for stratification may be defined by
consideration of the waterway shape, waterway depth, and entrance condition).

9/10/06 15:10

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Physical and chemical behaviour and

management of Intermittently Closed and

Philip Edward Haines

Griffith Centre for Coastal Management

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

IRP Independent Review Panel (Lake Illawarra Entrance)

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO RESEARCH TOPIC 1

2 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING ESTUARY MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS 25

2.2 Specific legislative and policy framework for estuary management in

3 A CONCEPTUAL SYSTEMS-BASED APPROACH TO ICOLL PROCESSES AND

4 GEOMORPHOLOGY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ICOLLS 70

4.1 Geomorphic evolution of ICOLLs 70

5 PHYSICAL BEHAVIOUR OF ICOLLS 100

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

6 MORPHOMETRIC ASSESSMENT OF ICOLLS 138

7 CHEMICAL BEHAVIOUR OF NSW ICOLLS 158

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

7.3.3 Wollongong University data 173

8 IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON ICOLLS 187

8.2.4.2 Dilution Factor 207

9 EXISTING ENTRANCE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF NSW ICOLLS 215

10 MODELS FOR THE FUTURE MANAGEMENT OF NSW ICOLLS 237

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

10.2.6 Consideration of anticipated future climate change 256

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

10.4.2.8 Strategy 8: Prohibit dredging within ICOLLs 306

11 CONCLUDING REMARKS 324

APPENDIX A: SATELLITE IMAGERY OF ICOLLS WATERWAYS (RED LINE) AND

APPENDIX B: REVIEW OF OTHER RELEVANT ACTS, POLICIES AND PLANNING

APPENDIX C: ESTUARY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM STATUS FOR NSW

APPENDIX D: REVIEW OF EXISTING CONCEPTUAL MODELS OF ICOLLS AND

APPENDIX E: FUNCTIONALITY OF ICOLLS VS PERMANENTLY OPEN

APPENDIX F: WATERWAY AND CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS FOR NSW

APPENDIX G: MORPHOMETRIC ASSESSMENT RESULTS 375

APPENDIX H: REVIEW OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS OF CHEMICAL AND

APPENDIX I: WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT RESULTS 390

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

APPENDIX J: ENTRANCE MANAGEMENT QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS 398

APPENDIX K: JOURNAL MANUSCRIPT: HAINES ET AL., ECSS 67(1-2) 321-

Figure 1-1 Location of ICOLLs in NSW 5

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO RESEARCH TOPIC

1.1 What is an ICOLL?

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

Figure 1-1 Location of ICOLLs in NSW

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

Local Government Area ICOLLs, as defined in Section 1.1

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

1.3 Problems to be managed at NSW ICOLLs

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

Region 2001 population 2031 population Population

Physical and chemical behaviour and management of ICOLLs in NSW

Local Govt Susceptible ICOLLs within LGA