LITERATURE

Key Facts

full title The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner:
Who lived Eight and Twenty Years, all alone in an uninhabited Island on the Coast of America,
near the Mouth of the Great River of Oroonoque; Having been cast on Shore by Shipwreck,
wherein all the Men perished but himself. With An Account how he was at last as strangely
deliverd by Pyrates
author Daniel Defoe
type of work Novel
genre Adventure story; novel of isolation
language English
time and place written 1719; London, England
date of first publication 1719
publisher William Taylor
narrator Robinson Crusoe is both the narrator and main character of the tale.
point of view Crusoe narrates in both the first and third person, presenting what he observes.
Crusoe occasionally describes his feelings, but only when they are overwhelming. Usually he
favors a more factual narrative style focused on actions and events.
tone Crusoes tone is mostly detached, meticulous, and objective. He displays little rhetorical
grandeur and few poetic or colorful turns of phrase. He generally avoids dramatic storytelling,
preferring an inventorylike approach to the facts as they unfold. He very rarely registers his own
feelings, or those of other characters, and only does so when those feelings affect a situation
directly, such as when he describes the mutineers as tired and confused, indicating that their
fatigue allows them to be defeated.
tense Past
setting (time) From 1659 to 1694
setting (place) York, England; then London; then Sallee, North Africa; then Brazil; then a
deserted island off Trinidad; then England; then Lisbon; then overland from Spain toward
England; then England; and finally the island again

1
protagonist Robinson Crusoe
major conflict Shipwrecked alone, Crusoe struggles against hardship, privation, loneliness,
and cannibals in his attempt to survive on a deserted island.
rising action Crusoe disobeys his father and goes out to sea. Crusoe has a profitable first
merchant voyage, has fantasies of success in Brazil, and prepares for a slave-gathering
expedition.
climax Crusoe becomes shipwrecked on an island near Trinidad, forcing him to fend for
himself and his basic needs.
falling action Crusoe constructs a shelter, secures a food supply, and accepts his stay on the
island as the work of Providence.
themes The ambivalence of mastery; the necessity of repentance; the importance of self-
awareness
motifs Counting and measuring; eating; ordeals at sea
symbols The footprint; the cross; Crusoes bower
foreshadowing Crusoe suffers a storm at sea near Yarmouth, foreshadowing his shipwreck
years later. Crusoe dreams of cannibals arriving, and later they come to kill Friday. Crusoe
invents the idea of a governor of the island to intimidate the mutineers, foreshadowing the actual
governors later arrival.

Key Facts

full title Gullivers Travels, or, Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World, by Lemuel
Gulliver
author Jonathan Swift
type of work Novel
genre Satire
language English
time and place written Approximately 17121726, London and Dublin
date of first publication 1726 (1735 unabridged)
publisher George Faulkner (unabridged 1735 edition)
narrator Lemuel Gulliver

2
point of view Gulliver speaks in the first person. He describes other characters and actions as
they appear to him.
tone Gullivers tone is gullible and nave during the first three voyages; in the fourth, it turns
cynical and bitter. The intention of the author, Jonathan Swift, is satirical and biting throughout.
tense Past
setting (time) Early eighteenth century
setting (place) Primarily England and the imaginary countries of Lilliput, Blefuscu,
Brobdingnag, Laputa, and the land of the Houyhnhnms
protagonist Lemuel Gulliver
major conflict On the surface, Gulliver strives to understand the various societies with which
he comes into contact and to have these societies understand his native England. Below the
surface, Swift is engaged in a conflict with the English society he is satirizing.
rising action Gullivers encounters with other societies eventually lead up to his rejection of
human society in the fourth voyage
climax Gulliver rejects human society in the fourth voyage, specifically when he shuns the
generous Don Pedro as a vulgar Yahoo
falling action Gullivers unhappy return to England accentuates his alienation and compels
him to buy horses, which remind him of Houyhnhnms, to keep him company
themes Might versus right; the individual versus society; the limits of human understanding
motifs Excrement; foreign languages; clothing
symbols Lilliputians; Brobdingnagians; Laputans; Houyhnhnms; England
foreshadowing Gullivers experiences with various flawed societies foreshadow his ultimate
rejection of human society in the fourth voyage.

Key Facts

full title Pride and Prejudice

author Jane Austen
type of work Novel
genre Comedy of manners
language English

3
time and place written England, between 1796 and 1813
date of first publication 1813
publisher Thomas Egerton of London
narrator Third-person omniscient
climax Mr. Darcys proposal to Elizabeth (Volume 3, Chapter 16)
protagonist Elizabeth Bennet
antagonist Snobbish class-consciousness (epitomized by Lady Catherine de Bourgh and Miss
Bingley)
setting (time) Some point during the Napoleonic Wars (17971815)
setting (place) Longbourn, in rural England
point of view The novel is primarily told from Elizabeth Bennets point of view.
falling action The two chapters of the novel after Darcys proposal
tense Past tense
foreshadowing The only notable example of foreshadowing occurs when Elizabeth visits
Pemberley, Darcys estate, in Volume 3, Chapter 1. Her appreciation of the estate foreshadows
her eventual realization of her love for its owner.
tone Comicor, in Jane Austens own words, light and bright, and sparkling
themes Love; Reputation; Class
motifs Courtship; Journeys
symbols The novel is light on symbolism, except on the visit to Pemberley, which is described
as being neither formal, nor falsely adorned, and is clearly meant to symbolize the character of
Mr. Darcy.

Key Facts

full title Great Expectations

author Charles Dickens
type of work Novel
genres Bildungsroman, social criticism, autobiographical fiction
language English
time and place written London, 1860-1861

4
date of first publication Published serially in England from December 1860 to August 1861;
published in book form in England and America in 1861
publisher Serialized in All the Year Round; published in England by Chapman & Hall;
published in America by Harper & Brothers
narrator Pip
climax A sequence of climactic events occurs from Chapter 51 to Chapter 56: Miss
Havishams burning in the fire, Orlicks attempt to murder Pip, and Pips attempt to help
Magwitch escape London.
protagonist Pip
antagonist Great Expectations does not contain a traditional single antagonist. Various
characters serve as figures against whom Pip must struggle at various times: Magwitch, Mrs. Joe,
Miss Havisham, Estella, Orlick, Bentley Drummle, and Compeyson. With the exception of the
last three, each of the novels antagonists is redeemed before the end of the book.
setting (time) Mid-nineteenth century
settings (place) Kent and London, England
point of view First person
falling action The period following Magwitchs capture in Chapter 54, including Magwitchs
death, Pips reconciliation with Joe, and Pips reunion with Estella eleven years later
tense Past
foreshadowing Great Expectations contains a great deal of foreshadowing. The repeated
references to the convict (the man with the file in the pub, the attack on Mrs. Joe) foreshadow his
return; the second convict on the marsh foreshadows the revelation of Magwitchs conflict with
Compeyson; the man in the pub who gives Pip money foreshadows the revelation that Pips
fortune comes from Magwitch; Miss Havishams wedding dress and her bizarre surroundings
foreshadow the revelation of her past and her relationship with Estella; Pips feeling that Estella
reminds him of someone he knows foreshadows his discovery of the truth of her parentage; the
fact that Jaggers is a criminal lawyer foreshadows his involvement in Magwitchs life; and so on.
Moreover, the weather often foreshadows dramatic events: a storm brewing generally means
there will be trouble ahead, as on the night of Magwitchs return.

5
tone Comic, cheerful, satirical, wry, critical, sentimental, dark, dramatic, foreboding, Gothic,
sympathetic
themes Ambition and the desire for self-improvement (social, economic, educational, and
moral); guilt, criminality, and innocence; maturation and the growth from childhood to
adulthood; the importance of affection, loyalty, and sympathy over social advancement and class
superiority; social class; the difficulty of maintaining superficial moral and social categories in a
constantly changing world
motifs Crime and criminality; disappointed expectations; the connection between weather or
atmosphere and dramatic events; doubles (two convicts, two secret benefactors, two invalids,
etc.)
symbols The stopped clocks at Satis House symbolize Miss Havishams attempt to stop time;
the many objects relating to crime and guilt (gallows, prisons, handcuffs, policemen, lawyers,
courts, convicts, chains, files) symbolize the theme of guilt and innocence; Satis House
represents the upper-class world to which Pip longs to belong; Bentley Drummle represents the
grotesque caprice of the upper class; Joe represents conscience, affection, loyalty, and simple
good nature; the marsh mists represent danger and ambiguity.

Key Facts

full title The Personal History and Experience of David Copperfield the Younger
author Charles Dickens
type of work Novel
genre Bildungsroman (coming-of-age novel)
language English
time and place written May 1849November 1850; England
date of first publication May 1849November 1850 (serial publication)
publisher Bradbury and Evans
narrator An older David Copperfield narrates the story of his childhood from his happy home
in London.
point of view David writes in the first person, limiting his viewpoint to what he sees in his
youth and his attitude at that time.

6
tone David reflects upon his youth fondly and remembers his nave youth wistfully.
tense Past
setting (time) 1800s
setting (place) England
protagonist David Copperfield
major conflict David struggles to become a man in a cruel world, with little money and few
people to guide him.
rising action David loses his mother and falls victim to a cruel childhood but then has a
happier youth with Miss Betsey and Agnes.
climax David realizes, while watching the reconciliation between the Strongs, that marriage
cannot be happy unless husband and wife are equal partners. This realization forces David to
contemplate his marriage to Dora in a new light and reconsider most of the values he has held up
to this point.
falling action The various subplots involving secondary characters resolve themselves. David
realizes his love for Agnes, marries her, and comes to grips with the treachery and death of his
good friend Steerforth.
themes The plight of the weak; equality in marriage; wealth and class
motifs The role of mothers; accented speech; physical beauty
symbols The sea; flowers; Mr. Dicks kite
foreshadowing The opening scenes observation that Davids birth is inauspicious; the adult
Davids remark that Little Emly would have been better off if the sea had swallowed her as a
child; Agness distrust of Steerforth; Agness blush when David asks her about her love life

Key Facts

full title Alices Adventures in Wonderland

author Lewis Carroll
type of work Novella
genre Fairy tale; childrens fiction; satire; allegory
language English
time and place written 18621863, Oxford

7
date of first publication 1865
publisher Macmillan & Co.
narrator The narrator is anonymous and does not use many words to describe events in the
story.
point of view The narrator speaks in third person, though occasionally in first and second
person. The narrative follows Alice around on her travels, voicing her thoughts and feelings.
tone Straightforward; avuncular
tense Past
setting (time) Victorian era, circa publication date
setting (place) England, Wonderland
protagonist Alice
major conflict Alice attempts to come to terms with the puzzle of Wonderland as she
undergoes great individual changes while entrenched in Wonderland.
rising action Alice follows the White Rabbit down a well and pursues him through
Wonderland.
climax Alice gains control over her size and enters the garden, where she participates in the
trial of the Knave of Hearts.
falling action Alice realizes that Wonderland is a sham and knocks over the playing card court,
causing her to wake up and dispel the dream of Wonderland.
themes The tragic and inevitable loss of childhood innocence; Life as a meaningless puzzle;
Death as a constant and underlying menace
motifs Dream; subversion; language; curious, nonsense, and confusing
symbols The garden; the mushroom
foreshadowing The Mouses history about Fury and the Mouse foreshadows the trial at the end
of the story.

Key Facts

full title Tess of the dUrbervilles

author Thomas Hardy
type of work Novel

8
genre Victorian, tragic
language English
time and place written 1880s, England
date of first publication 1891
publisher Random House, but also published serially in different periodicals
narrator Anonymous
point of view The narrator speaks in the third person, and looks deep into the characters
minds. The narrator is objective but has an omniscient understanding of future implications of
characters actions as they happen.
tone Realistic, pessimistic
tense Past
setting (time) The 1880s and 1890s
setting (place) Wessex, the southwest of England
protagonist Tess Durbeyfield
major conflict Tess is seduced, impregnated, and abandoned by the son of her upper-class
patroness, making her unacceptable to her true love Angel later in life.
rising action Tesss familys discovery that they are ancient English aristocracy, giving them
all fantasies of a higher station in life; Tesss accidental killing of the family horse, which drives
her to seek help from the dUrbervilles, where she is seduced and dishonored.
climax Tesss new husband discovers her earlier seduction by Alec and decides to leave her,
going off to Brazil and not answering her letters, and bringing Tess to despair.
falling action Tesss last-ditch decision to marry Alec, who claims to love her; Angels return
from Brazil to discover Tess marriage to her former seducer, and his meeting with Tess; Tesss
murder of Alec and short-lived escape with Angel before being apprehended and executed
themes The injustice of existence; changing ideas of social class in Victorian England; men
dominating women
motifs Birds; the Book of Genesis; variant names
symbols Prince; the dUrberville family vault; Brazil
foreshadowing Tesss killing of the pheasants foreshadows her own death by hanging; Alecs
assertion that he will master Tess again foreshadows his reemergence in her life

9
Key Facts
full title The Scarlet Letter
author Nathaniel Hawthorne
type of work Novel
genre Symbolic; semi-allegorical; historical fiction; romance (in the sense that it rejects
realism in favor of symbols and ideas)
language English
time and place written Salem and Concord, Massachusetts; late 1840s
date of first publication 1850
publisher Ticknor, Reed, and Fields
narrator The narrator is an unnamed customhouse surveyor who writes some two hundred
years after the events he describes took place. He has much in common with Hawthorne but
should not be taken as a direct mouthpiece for the authors opinions.
point of view The narrator is omniscient, because he analyzes the characters and tells the story
in a way that shows that he knows more about the characters than they know about themselves.
Yet, he is also a subjective narrator, because he voices his own interpretations and opinions of
things. He is clearly sympathetic to Hester and Dimmesdale.
tone Variescontemplative and somewhat bitter in the introduction; thoughtful, fairly
straightforward, yet occasionally tinged with irony in the body of the narrative
tense The narrator employs the past tense to recount events that happened some two hundred
years before his time, but he occasionally uses the present tense when he addresses his audience.
setting (time) Middle of the seventeenth century
setting (place) Boston, Massachusetts
protagonist Hester Prynne
major conflict Her husband having inexplicably failed to join her in Boston following their
emigration from Europe, Hester Prynne engages in an extramarital affair with Arthur
Dimmesdale. When she gives birth to a child, Hester invokes the condemnation of her
communitya condemnation they manifest by forcing her to wear a letter A for adulteror
as well as the vengeful wrath of her husband, who has appeared just in time to witness her public
shaming.

10
rising action Dimmesdale stands by in silence as Hester suffers for the sin he helped to
commit, though his conscience plagues him and affects his health. Hesters husband,
Chillingworth, hides his true identity and, posing as a doctor to the ailing minister, tests his
suspicions that Dimmesdale is the father of his wifes child, effectively exacerbating
Dimmesdales feelings of shame and thus reaping revenge.
climax There are at least two points in The Scarlet Letter that could be identified as the books
climax. The first is in Chapter 12, at the exact center of the book. As Dimmesdale watches a
meteor trace a letter A in the sky, he confronts his role in Hesters sin and realizes that he can
no longer deny his deed and its consequences. The key characters confront one another when
Hester and Pearl join Dimmesdale in an electric chain as he holds his vigil on the marketplace
scaffold, the location of Hesters original public shaming. Chillingworth appears in this scene as
well. The other climactic scene occurs in Chapter 23, at the end of the book. Here, the characters
secrets are publicly exposed and their fates sealed. Dimmesdale, Hester, and Chillingworth not
only acknowledge their secrets to themselves and to each other; they push these revelations to
such extremes that they all must leave the community in one way or another.
falling action Depending on ones interpretation of which scene constitutes the books
climax, the falling action is either the course of events that follow Chapter 12 or the final
reports on Hesters and Pearls lives after the deaths of Dimmesdale and Chillingworth.
themes Sin, experience, and the human condition; the nature of evil; identity and society
motifs Civilization versus the wilderness; night versus day; evocative names
symbols The scarlet letter; the town scaffold; the meteor; Pearl; the rosebush next to the prison
door
foreshadowing Foreshadowing is minimal, because the symbols tend to coincide temporally
with events, enriching their meaning rather than anticipating their occurrence.

Key Facts

full title The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

author Mark Twain (pseudonym for Samuel Clemens)
type of work Novel

11
genre Picaresque novel (episodic, colorful story often in the form of a quest or journey); satire
of popular adventure and romance novels; bildungsroman (novel of education or moral
development)
language English; frequently makes use of Southern and black dialects of the time
time and place written 18761883; Hartford, Connecticut, and Elmira, New York
date of first publication 1884
publisher Charles L. Webster & Co.
narrator Huckleberry Finn
point of view Hucks point of view, although Twain occasionally indulges in digressions in
which he shows off his own ironic wit
tone Frequently ironic or mocking, particularly concerning adventure novels and romances;
also contemplative, as Huck seeks to decipher the world around him; sometimes boyish
and exuberant
tense Immediate past
setting (time) Before the Civil War; roughly 18351845; Twain said the novel was set forty to
fifty years before the time of its publication
setting (place) The Mississippi River town of St. Petersburg, Missouri; various locations along
the river through Arkansas
protagonist Huck Finn
major conflict At the beginning of the novel, Huck struggles against society and its attempts to
civilize him, represented by the Widow Douglas, Miss Watson, and other adults. Later, this
conflict gains greater focus in Hucks dealings with Jim, as Huck must decide whether to turn
Jim in, as society demands, or to protect and help his friend instead.
rising action Miss Watson and the Widow Douglas attempt to civilize Huck until Pap reappears
in town, demands Hucks money, and kidnaps Huck. Huck escapes society by faking his own
death and retreating to Jacksons Island, where he meets Jim and sets out on the river with him.
Huck gradually begins to question the rules society has taught him, as when, in order to protect
Jim, he lies and makes up a story to scare off some men searching for escaped slaves. Although
Huck and Jim live a relatively peaceful life on the raft, they are ultimately unable to escape the
evils and hypocrisies of the outside world. The most notable representatives of these outside evils

12
are the con men the duke and the dauphin, who engage in a series of increasingly serious scams
that culminate in their sale of Jim, who ends up at the Phelps farm.
climax Huck considers but then decides against writing Miss Watson to tell her the Phelps
family is holding Jim, following his conscience rather than the prevailing morality of the day.
Instead,Tom and Huck try to free Jim, and Tom is shot in the leg during the attempt.
falling action When Aunt Polly arrives at the Phelps farm and correctly identifies Tom and
Huck, Tom reveals that Miss Watson died two months earlier and freed Jim in her will.
Afterward, Tom recovers from his wound, while Huck decides he is done with civilized society
and makes plans to travel to the West.
themes Racism and slavery; intellectual and moral education; the hypocrisy of civilized
society
motifs Childhood; lies and cons; superstitions and folk beliefs; parodies of popular romance
novels
symbols The Mississippi River; floods; shipwrecks; the natural world
foreshadowing Twain uses parallels and juxtapositions more so than explicit foreshadowing,
especially in his frequent comparisons between Hucks plight and eventual escape and Jims
plight and eventual escape.

Key Facts

full title Moby-Dick; or The Whale

author Herman Melville
type of work Novel
genre Epic, adventure story, quest tale, allegory, tragedy
language English
time and place written Between 1850 and 1851, in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, and New York
City
date of first publication 1851
publisher Harper & Brothers in America (simultaneously published in England by Richard
Bentley as The Whale )

13
narrator Ishmael, a junior member of the Pequods crew, casts himself as the author,
recounting the events of the voyage after he has acquired more experience and studied the whale
extensively.
point of view Ishmael narrates in a combination of first and third person, describing events as
he saw them and providing his own thoughts. He presents the thoughts and feelings of the other
characters only as an outside observer might infer them.
tone Ironic, celebratory, philosophical, dramatic, hyperbolic
tense Past
setting (time) 1830s or 1840s
setting (place) Aboard the whaling ship the Pequod, in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian
Oceans
major conflict Ahab dedicates his ship and crew to destroying Moby Dick, a white sperm
whale, because he sees this whale as the living embodiment of all that is evil and malignant in
the universe. By ignoring the physical dangers that this quest entails, setting himself against
other men, and presuming to understand and fight evil on a cosmic scale, Ahab arrogantly defies
the limitations imposed upon human beings.
rising action Ahab announces his quest to the other sailors and nails the doubloon to the mast;
the Pequod encounters various ships with news and stories about Moby Dick.
climax In Chapter 132, The Symphony, Ahab interrogates himself and his quest in front of
Starbuck, and realizes that he does not have the will to turn aside from his purpose.
falling action The death of Ahab and the destruction of the Pequodby Moby Dick; Ishmael,
the only survivor of the Pequods sinking, floats on a coffin and is rescued by another whaling
ship, the Rachel.
themes The limits of knowledge; the deceptiveness of fate; the exploitative nature of whaling
motifs Whiteness; surfaces and depths
symbols The Pequod symbolizes doom; Moby Dick, on an objective level, symbolizes
humankinds inability to understand the world; Queequegs coffin symbolizes both life and death
foreshadowing Foreshadowing in Moby-Dick is extensive and inescapable: everything from
the Pequods ornamentation to the behavior of schools of fish to the appearance of a giant squid
is read as an omen of the eventual catastrophic encounter with Moby Dick.

14
Key Facts

full title Heart of Darkness

author Joseph Conrad
type of work Novella (between a novel and a short story in length and scope)
genre Symbolism, colonial literature, adventure tale, frame story, almost a romance in its
insistence on heroism and the supernatural and its preference for the symbolic over the realistic
language English
time and place written England, 18981899; inspired by Conrads journey to the Congo in
1890
date of first publication Serialized in Blackwoods magazine in 1899; published in 1902 in the
volume Youth: A Narrative; and Two Other Stories
publisher J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd.
narrator There are two narrators: an anonymous passenger on a pleasure ship, who listens
to Marlows story, and Marlow himself, a middle-aged ships captain.
point of view The first narrator speaks in the first-person plural, on behalf of four other
passengers who listen to Marlows tale. Marlow narrates his story in the first person, describing
only what he witnessed and experienced, and providing his own commentary on the story.
tone Ambivalent: Marlow is disgusted at the brutality of the Company and horrified by Kurtzs
degeneration, but he claims that any thinking man would be tempted into similar behavior.
tense Past
setting (time) Latter part of the nineteenth century, probably sometime between 1876 and
1892
setting (place) Opens on the Thames River outside London, where Marlow is telling the story
that makes up Heart of Darkness. Events of the story take place in Brussels, at the Companys
offices, and in the Congo, then a Belgian territory.
protagonist Marlow
major conflict Both Marlow and Kurtz confront a conflict between their images of themselves
as civilized Europeans and the temptation to abandon morality completely once they leave the
context of European society.

15
rising action The brutality Marlow witnesses in the Companys employees, the rumors he
hears that Kurtz is a remarkable and humane man, and the numerous examples of Europeans
breaking down mentally or physically in the environment of Africa.
climax Marlows discovery, upon reaching the Inner Station, that Kurtz has completely
abandoned European morals and norms of behavior
falling action Marlows acceptance of responsibility for Kurtzs legacy, Marlows encounters
with Company officials and Kurtzs family and friends, Marlows visit to Kurtzs Intended
themes The hypocrisy of imperialism, madness as a result of imperialism, the absurdity of evil
motifs Darkness (very seldom opposed by light), interiors vs. surfaces (kernel/shell,
coast/inland, station/forest, etc.), ironic understatement, hyperbolic language, inability to find
words to describe situation adequately, images of ridiculous waste, upriver versus
downriver/toward and away from Kurtz/away from and back toward civilization (quest or
journey structure)
symbols Rivers, fog, women (Kurtzs Intended, his African mistress), French warship shelling
forested coast, grove of death, severed heads on fence posts, Kurtzs Report, dead helmsman,
maps, whited sepulchre of Brussels, knitting women in Company offices, man trying to fill
bucket with hole in it
foreshadowing Permeates every moment of the narrativemostly operates on the level of
imagery, which is consistently dark, gloomy, and threatening

Key Facts

full title Ulysses

author James Joyce
type of work Novel
genre Modernist novel; comic novel; quest novel
language English
time and place written Trieste, Italy; Zurich, Switzerland; Paris; 19141921
date of first publication Individual episodes were published serially starting in 1918; as a
novel, it was first published in 1922
publisher First serially in The Little Review; as a novel by Shakespeare & Company

16
narrator Episodes One, Two, FourTwelve, Sixteen, and Seventeen feature anonymous
narrators. Episode Three features Stephens thoughts. Episode Thirteen features an amalgamation
of anonymous narrator, Gerty MacDowell, and Bloom. Episode Fourteen features a variety of
narrators, meant to be representative of the prose styles of historical English authors. Episode
Fifteen has no narrator. Molly Bloom is the first-person narrator of Episode Eighteen.
point of view Episodes One, Two, FourEleven, Sixteen, and Seventeen are told from the
third-person viewpoint. Episode Three features interior monologue. Episode Twelve is told from
the first-person. Episode Thirteen is told from the third and first person. Episode Fourteen is told
variously in the third-person and first-person. Episode Fifteen is in play-script form. Episode
Eighteen features an interior monologue.
tone The narratives of Episodes One through Eight have a straightforward tone. Episodes Nine
through Eleven have a self-conscious, playful tone. Episode Twelve has a hyperbolic, belligerent
tone. Episode Thirteen has a sentimental tone. Episode Fourteen has an extreme variety of tones,
including pious, sensational, and satiric. Episode Fifteen has no narrator and therefore no
dominant narrative tone. Episode Sixteen has a tired tone. Episode Seventeen has a scientific
tone.
tense Present
setting (time) 8:00 A.M., June 16, 1904approximately 3 A.M., June 17, 1904
setting (place) Dublin, Ireland, and its surrounding suburbs
protagonist Stephen Dedalus, Leopold Bloom, Molly Bloom
major conflict Molly Blooms infidelity with Blazes Boylan; Stephen Dedaluss search for a
symbolic father; Leopold Blooms desire for a son (his only son died eleven years ago several
days after his birth)
rising action Bloom leaves his house for the day, sees Blazes Boylan on the street several
times, and becomes anxious about Blazes and Mollys four oclock rendezvous. Bloom is
convinced they are going to have sex. Stephen and Bloom go about their day. They pass by each
other several times and coincidentally meet at Holles St. Maternity Hospital.
climax The first climax could be when Bloom looks after Stephen during Stephens argument
with Private Carr (at the end of Episode Fifteen). The second climax is Blooms return home to

17
his bedroom to discover evidence of Mollys infidelity and to mentally overcome the threat of
Blazes Boylan (Episode Seventeen).
falling action Bloom and Stephen rest at a cabmans shelter (Episode Sixteen), then return to
the Bloom residence and have cocoa and talk (Episode Seventeen). Bloom tells Molly about his
day and asks her to serve him breakfast in bed (Episode Seventeen). Molly lies awake
considering the events of the day and a happy memory from her and Blooms past.
themes The quest for paternity; the remorse of conscience; compassion as heroic; parallax or
the necessity of multiple perspectives
motifs Lightness and darkness; the home usurped; the East
symbols Plumtrees Potted Meat; the Gold Cup horserace; Stephens Latin Quarter hat;
Blooms potato talisman
foreshadowing Stephens and Blooms compatible dreams set in an Eastern marketplace
street.

Key Facts

full title A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

author James Joyce
type of work Novel
genre Bildungsroman, autobiographical novel
language English
time and place written 19071915; Trieste, Dublin, Zurich
date of first publication 1916
publisher B. W. Huebsch, New York
narrator The narrator is anonymous, and speaks with the same voice and tone
that Stephen might.
point of view Although most of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is in the third person,
the point of view is Stephen's: as Stephen develops as a person, the language and perspective of
the narration develop with him. We see everything in the manner in which he thinks and feels it.
At the very end of the novel, there is a brief section in which the story is told through Stephen's
diary entries. This section is in the first person.

18
tone The tone is generally serious and introspective, especially during Stephen's several
heartfelt epiphanies.
tense Past
setting (time) 18821903
setting (place) Primarily Dublin and the surrounding area
protagonist Stephen Dedalus
major conflict Stephen struggles to decide whether he should be loyal to his family, his church,
his nation, or his vocation as an artist.
rising action Stephen's encounters with prostitutes; his emotional reaction to Father Arnall's
hellfire sermons; his temporary devotion to religious life; his realization that he must confront
the decision of whether to center his life around religion or art
climax Stephen's decision in Chapter 4 to reject the religious life in favor of the life of an artist
falling action Stephen's enrollment in University College, where he gradually forms his
aesthetic theory; Stephen's distancing of himself from his family, church, and nation
themes The development of individual consciousness; the pitfalls of religious extremism; the
role of the artist; the need for Irish autonomy
motifs Music; flight; prayers, secular songs, and Latin phrases
symbols Green and maroon; Emma; the girl on the beach
foreshadowing Stephen's heartfelt emotional and aesthetic experiences foreshadow his ultimate
acceptance of the life of an artist. Additionally, Joyce often refers to Stephen's vague sense, even
very early in his life, that a great destiny awaits him.

Key Facts

full title Mrs. Dalloway

author Virginia Woolf
type of work Novel
genre Modernist; formalist; feminist
language English
time and place written Woolf began Mrs. Dalloway in Sussex in 1922 and completed the
novel in London in 1924.

19
date of first publication May 14, 1925
publisher Hogarth Press, the publishing house created by Leonard and Virginia Woolf in 1917
narrator Anonymous. The omniscient narrator is a commenting voice who knows everything
about the characters. This voice appears occasionally among the subjective thoughts of
characters. The critique of Sir William Bradshaws reverence of proportion and conversion is the
narrators most sustained appearance.
point of view Point of view changes constantly, often shifting from one characters stream of
consciousness (subjective interior thoughts) to anothers within a single paragraph. Woolf most
often uses free indirect discourse, a literary technique that describes the interior thoughts of
characters using third-person singular pronouns (he and she). This technique ensures that
transitions between the thoughts of a large number of characters are subtle and smooth.
tone The narrator is against the oppression of the human soul and for the celebration of
diversity, as are the books major characters. Sometimes the mood is humorous, but an
underlying sadness is always present.
tense Though mainly in the immediate past, Peters dream of the solitary traveler is in the
present tense.
setting (time) A day in mid-June, 1923. There are many flashbacks to a summer at Bourton in
the early 1890s, when Clarissa was eighteen.
setting (place) London, England. The novel takes place largely in the affluent neighborhood of
Westminster, where the Dalloways live.
protagonist Clarissa Dalloway
major conflict Clarissa and other characters try to preserve their souls and communicate in an
oppressive and fragmentary postWorld War I England.
rising action Clarissa spends the day organizing a party that will bring people together, while
her double, Septimus Warren Smith, eventually commits suicide due to the social pressures that
oppress his soul.
climax At her party, Clarissa goes to a small room to contemplate Septimuss suicide. She
identifies with him and is glad he did it, believing that he preserved his soul.
falling action Clarissa returns to her party and is viewed from the outside. We do not know
whether she will change due to her moment of clarity, but we do know that she will endure.

20
themes Communication vs. privacy; disillusionment with the British Empire; the fear of death;
the threat of oppression
motifs Time; Shakespeare; trees and flowers; waves and water
symbols The prime minister; Peter Walshs pocketknife and other weapons; the old woman in
the window; the old woman singing an ancient song

Key Facts

full title The Great Gatsby

author F. Scott Fitzgerald
type of work Novel
genre Modernist novel, Jazz Age novel, novel of manners
language English
time and place written 19231924, America and France
date of first publication 1925
publisher Charles Scribners Sons
narrator Nick Carraway; Carraway not only narrates the story but implies that he is the books
author
point of view Nick Carraway narrates in both first and third person, presenting only what he
himself observes. Nick alternates sections where he presents events objectively, as they appeared
to him at the time, with sections where he gives his own interpretations of the storys meaning
and of the motivations of the other characters.
tone Nicks attitudes toward Gatsby and Gatsbys story are ambivalent and contradictory. At
times he seems to disapprove of Gatsbys excesses and breaches of manners and ethics, but he
also romanticizes and admires Gatsby, describing the events of the novel in a nostalgic and
elegiac tone.
tense Past
setting (time) Summer 1922
settings (place) Long Island and New York City
protagonist Gatsby and/or Nick

21
major conflict Gatsby has amassed a vast fortune in order to win the affections of the upper-
class Daisy Buchanan, but his mysterious past stands in the way of his being accepted by her.
rising action Gatsbys lavish parties, Gatsbys arrangement of a meeting with Daisy at Nicks
climax There are two possible climaxes: Gatsbys reunion with Daisy in Chapters 56; the
confrontation between Gatsby and Tom in the Plaza Hotel in Chapter 7.
falling action Daisys rejection of Gatsby, Myrtles death, Gatsbys murder
themes The decline of the American dream, the spirit of the 1920s, the difference between
social classes, the role of symbols in the human conception of meaning, the role of the past in
dreams of the future
motifs The connection between events and weather, the connection between geographical
location and social values, images of time, extravagant parties, the quest for wealth
symbols The green light on Daisys dock, the eyes of Doctor T. J. Eckleburg, the valley of
ashes, Gatsbys parties, East Egg, West Egg
foreshadowing The car wreck after Gatsbys party in Chapter 3, Owl Eyess comments about
the theatricality of Gatsbys life, the mysterious telephone calls Gatsby receives from Chicago
and Philadelphia

Key Facts

full title The Old Man and the Sea

author Ernest Hemingway
type of work Novella
genre Parable; tragedy
language English
time and place written 1951, Cuba
date of first publication 1952
publisher Scribners
narrator The novella is narrated by an anonymous narrator.
point of view Sometimes the narrator describes the characters and events objectively, that is, as
they would appear to an outside observer. However, the narrator frequently provides details
about Santiagos inner thoughts and dreams.

22
tone Despite the narrators journalistic, matter-of-fact tone, his reverence for Santiago and his
struggle is apparent. The text affirms its hero to a degree unusual even for Hemingway.
tense Past
setting (time) Late 1940s
setting (place) A small fishing village near Havana, Cuba; the waters of the Gulf of Mexico
protagonist Santiago
major conflict For three days, Santiago struggles against the greatest fish of his long career.
rising action After eighty-four successive days without catching a fish, Santiago promises his
former assistant, Manolin, that he will go far out into the ocean. The marlin takes the bait, but
Santiago is unable to reel him in, which leads to a three-day struggle between the fisherman and
the fish.
climax The marlin circles the skiff while Santiago slowly reels him in. Santiago nearly passes
out from exhaustion but gathers enough strength to harpoon the marlin through the heart, causing
him to lurch in an almost sexual climax of vitality before dying.
falling action Santiago sails back to shore with the marlin tied to his boat. Sharks follow the
marlins trail of blood and destroy it. Santiago arrives home toting only the fishs skeletal
carcass. The village fishermen respect their formerly ridiculed peer, and Manolin pledges to
return to fishing with Santiago. Santiago falls into a deep sleep and dreams of lions.
themes The honor in struggle, defeat, and death; pride as the source of greatness and
determination
motifs Crucifixion imagery; life from death; the lions on the beach
symbols The marlin; the shovel-nosed sharks
foreshadowing Santiagos insistence that he will sail out farther than ever before foreshadows
his destruction; because the marlin is linked to Santiago, the marlins death foreshadows
Santiagos own destruction by the sharks.

Key Facts

full title The Sound and the Fury

23
author William Faulkner
type of work Novel
genre Modernist novel
language English
time and place written 1928; Oxford, Mississippi
date of first publication 1929
publisher Jonathan Cape and Harrison Smith
narrator The story is told in four chapters by four different narrators: Benjy, the youngest
Compson son; Quentin, the oldest son; Jason, the middle son; and Faulkner himself, acting as an
omniscient, third-person narrator who focuses on Dilsey, the Compsons servant.
point of view Benjy, Quentin, and Jason narrate in the first person, as participants. They
narrate in a stream of consciousness style, attentive to events going on around them in the
present, but frequently returning to memories from the past. The final section is narrated in third-
person omniscient.
tone The world outside the minds of the narrators slowly unravels through personal thoughts,
memories, and observations. The tone differs in each chapter, depending on the narrator.
tense Present and past
setting (time) Three of the chapters are set during Easter weekend, 1928, while Quentins
section is set in June, 1910. However, the memories the narrators recall within these sections
cover the period from 1898 to 1928.
setting (place) Jefferson, Mississippi, and Cambridge, Massachusetts (Harvard University)
protagonist The four Compson children: Caddy, Quentin, Benjy, and Jason
major conflict The aristocratic Compson familys long fall from grace and struggle to
maintain its distinguished legacy. This conflict is manifest in Caddys promiscuity, her out-of-
wedlock pregnancy, her short marriage, and the ensuing setbacks and deaths that her family
members suffer.
rising action Caddys climbing of a tree with muddy drawers; Benjys name change; Caddys
pregnancy and wedding; Quentins suicide; Benjys castration; Mr. Compsons death from
alcoholism
climax Miss Quentins theft of Jasons money, and her elopement with the man with the red tie

24
falling action Dilseys taking Benjy to Easter Sunday service and Benjys trip to the cemetery
themes The corruption of Southern aristocratic values; resurrection and renewal; the failure of
language and narrative
motifs Time; order and chaos; shadows; objectivity and subjectivity
symbols Water; Quentins watch; Caddys muddy underclothes; Caddys perfume
foreshadowing Caddys muddy drawers when she climbs the pear tree foretell an inevitable
dirtying of the Compson name that will never wash away.

Key Facts

full title Lord of the Flies

author William Golding
type of work Novel
genre Allegory; adventure story; castaway fiction; loss-of-innocence fiction
language English
time and place written Early 1950s; Salisbury, England
date of first publication 1954
publisher Faber and Faber
narrator The story is told by an anonymous third-person narrator who conveys the events of
the novel without commenting on the action or intruding into the story.
point of view The narrator speaks in the third person, primarily focusing on Ralphs point of
view but following Jack and Simon in certain episodes. The narrator is omniscient and gives us
access to the characters inner thoughts.
tone Dark; violent; pessimistic; tragic; unsparing
tense Immediate past
setting (time) Near future
setting (place) A deserted tropical island
protagonist Ralph
major conflict Free from the rules that adult society formerly imposed on them, the boys
marooned on the island struggle with the conflicting human instincts that exist within each of

25
themthe instinct to work toward civilization and order and the instinct to descend into
savagery, violence, and chaos.
rising action The boys assemble on the beach. In the election for leader, Ralph defeats Jack,
who is furious when he loses. As the boys explore the island, tension grows between Jack, who is
interested only in hunting, and Ralph, who believes most of the boys efforts should go toward
building shelters and maintaining a signal fire. When rumors surface that there is some sort of
beast living on the island, the boys grow fearful, and the group begins to divide into two camps
supporting Ralph and Jack, respectively. Ultimately, Jack forms a new tribe altogether, fully
immersing himself in the savagery of the hunt.
climax Simon encounters the Lord of the Flies in the forest glade and realizes that the beast is
not a physical entity but rather something that exists within each boy on the island. When Simon
tries to approach the other boys and convey this message to them, they fall on him and kill him
savagely.
falling action Virtually all the boys on the island abandon Ralph and Piggy and descend further
into savagery and chaos. When the other boys kill Piggy and destroy the conch shell, Ralph flees
from Jacks tribe and encounters the naval officer on the beach.
themes Civilization vs. savagery; the loss of innocence; innate human evil
motifs Biblical parallels; natural beauty; the bullying of the weak by the strong; the outward
trappings of savagery (face paint, spears, totems, chants)
symbols The conch shell; Piggys glasses; the signal fire; the beast; the Lord of the Flies;
Ralph, Piggy, Jack, Simon, and Roger
foreshadowing The rolling of the boulders off the Castle Rock in Chapter 6 foreshadows
Piggys death; the Lord of the Fliess promise to have some fun with Simon foreshadows
Simons death

Key Facts

full title A Passage to India

author E.M. Forster
type of work Novel
genre Modernist novel; psychological novel

26
language English
time and place written 19121924; India, England
date of first publication 1924
publisher Edward Arnold
narrator Forster uses an unnamed third-person narrator
point of view The third-person narrator is omniscient, attuned both to the physical world and
the inner states of the characters
tone Forsters tone is often poetic and sometimes ironic or philosophical
tense Immediate past
setting (time) 1910s or 1920s
setting (place) India, specifically the cities of Chandrapore and Mau
protagonist Dr. Aziz
major conflict Adela Quested accuses Dr. Aziz of attempting to sexually assault her in one of
the Marabar Caves. Aziz suspects Fielding has plotted against him with the English.
rising action Adela Quested and Mrs. Moores arrival in India; the womens befriending of
Aziz; Adelas reluctant engagement to Ronny Heaslop; Ronny and the other Englishmens
disapproval of the womens interaction with Indians; Azizs organization of an outing to the
Marabar Caves for his English friends; Adelas and Mrs. Moores harrowing experiences in the
caves; Adelas public insinuation that Aziz assaulted her in the caves; the inflammation of racial
tensions between the Indians and English in Chandrapore
climax Azizs trial; Adelas final admission that she is mistaken in her accusations and that
Aziz is innocent; the courtrooms eruption; Azizs release; the English communitys rejection of
Adela
falling action Fieldings conversations with Adela; Fielding and Azizs bickering over Azizs
desire for reparations from Adela; Azizs assumption that Fielding has betrayed him and will
marry Adela; Azizs increasingly anti-British sentiment; Fieldings visit to Aziz with his new
wife, Stella; Azizs befriending of Ralph and forgiveness of Fielding
themes The difficulty of English-Indian friendship; the unity of all living things; the muddle
of India; the negligence of British colonial government
motifs The echo; Eastern and Western architecture; Godboles song

27
symbols The Marabar Caves; the green bird; the wasp
foreshadowing Adelas concern about breaking down during the trial; Fieldings interest in
Hinduism at the end of Part II

About The French Lieutenant's Woman

This novel is based on the nineteenth-century romantic or gothic novel, a literary genre which
can trace its origins back to the eighteenth century. Although Fowles perfectly reproduces typical
characters, situations, and even dialogue, the reader should always be aware of the irony inherent
in Fowles' perception; for his perspective, however cleverly disguised, is that of the twentieth
century. We see this both in the authorial intrusions, which comment on the mores of people in
Victorian England, and in his choice of opening quotations, which are drawn from the writings of
people whose observations belie the assumptions that most Victorians held about their world.

Fowles is concerned in this novel with the effects of society on the individual's awareness of
himself or herself and how that awareness dominates and distorts his or her entire life, including
relationships with other people. All the main characters in this novel are molded by what they
believe to be true about themselves and others. In this case, their lives are governed by what the
Victorian Age thought was true about the nature of men and women and their relationships to
each other. The French Lieutenant's Woman of the title, for example, is the dark, mysterious
woman of the typical Victorian romantic novel.

Key Facts

full title MS. Found in a Bottle (1833); Ligeia (1838); The Fall of the House of Usher
(1839); William Wilson (1839); The Murders in the Rue Morgue (1841); The Tell-Tale
Heart (1843); The Pit and the Pendulum (1843); The Black Cat (1843); The Purloined
Letter (1844); The Masque of the Red Death (1845); The Cask of Amontillado (1846)
author Edgar Allan Poe
type of work Short story
genre Gothic short story; detective story; science fiction
language English
time and place written 18301846; Baltimore, Richmond, Philadelphia, New York
publisher Saturday Visiter (Baltimore); Southern Literary Messenger (Richmond); Burtons
Gentlemans Magazine (Philadelphia); Grahams (Philadelphia); Evening Mirror (New York)

28
narrator In the tales of criminal insanity, Poes narrators are unnamed and often unreliable.
They claim their sanity and then proceed to detail their pathological madness. In the detective
stories, the narrator is a loyal friend of Dupin and is in awe of the crime solvers brilliance.
point of view In the tales of criminal insanity, Poes first-person narrators produce unreliable
confessions. They control the narrative, and we see only through their eyes. However, they
describe their own pathological actions so meticulously that they demonstrate that they are
actually insane. They are unable to step back from their narratives to discern their own madness.
In the detective stories, Poe employs a third-person narrator, a friend of Dupin, and while the
narrator tries to convey the tale fairly, his loyalty to Dupin prevents him from questioning or
doubting Dupins actions and strategies.
tone In the tales of criminal insanity, the narrators diction, which is precise and often ornate,
suggests a serious investment in confession as a defense of sanity. In the detective stories, Poes
narrator attempts a dispassionate and fair account of the events, but he often humbly defers to
Dupin at moments of confusion or complexity.
tense The tales of criminal insanity often begin in the present tense as confessions and then
flash back to recount past crimes. The detective stories also feature little action in the present and
instead convey the important events as flashbacks.
protagonist The tales of criminal insanity establish the first-person narrators as protagonists
by focusing on their struggles with madness and the law. The detective stories feature Dupin as
the protagonist by focusing on his ability to save the Paris police with crime-solving brilliance.
themes The similarity of love and hate; the rivalry between self and alter ego; the
personification of memory after death
motifs The revenant; the doppelganger; the masquerade
symbols Eyes; the whirlpool; Fortunato

Key Facts

full title Slaughterhouse-Five; or, The Childrens Crusade: A Duty-Dance with Death
author Kurt Vonnegut
type of work Novel
genre Antiwar novel; historical fiction; science fiction; semi-autobiographical fiction

29
language English
time and place written Approximately 19451968, United States
date of first publication 1969
publisher Dell Publishing
narrator The author; or arguably, sometimes an anonymous narrator with a similar point of
view
point of view The author narrates in both first and third person. The first-person sections are
confined mainly to the first and last chapters. The narration is omniscient: it reveals the thoughts
and motives of several characters, and provides details about their lives and some analysis of
their motivations. The narrator primarily follows Billy Pilgrim but also presents the point of view
of other characters whom Billy encounters.
tone The narrators tone is familiar and ironic, and he uncovers touches of dark humor and
absurdity that do not diminish the lyrical and emotional power of the material. His portrayal of
Billy is intimate but ambivalent, and he occasionally emphasizes the diction of reported speech
(prefacing a passage with He says that or Billy says) to draw a distinction between reality
and Billys interpretation of events.
tense The majority of the book is written in the past tense, but the narrator occasionally uses
the present tenseespecially in the first and last chapterswhen speaking from a personal point
of view as Kurt Vonnegut. The reporting of Billys speech is in the present tense (for example:
Billy Pilgrim has come unstuck in time. Or so he says.) Occasionally the tense switches to
future, as when Billy describes his future death.
setting (time) The narrative provides a detailed account of Billys war experiences in 1944
1945, but it skips around his entire life, from his early childhood in the 1920s to his death in
1976. The authors narration is set in 1968.
setting (place) The narrative thread of 19441945 concerns Billys army service in Germany
and briefly in Luxembourg, where he is captured after the Battle of the Bulge. Most of the rest of
Billys life takes place in Ilium, New York. He also travels to the planet Tralfamadore and lives
there in a zoo.
protagonist Billy Pilgrim

30
major conflict Billy struggles to make sense out of a life forever marked by the firsthand
experience of wars tragedy.
rising action Billy and his fellow prisoners are transported across Germany and begin living in
a slaughterhouse prison and working in the city of Dresden.
climax Dresden is incinerated in a deadly firebomb attack. But Billy misses the moment of
destruction, waiting out the attack in a well-protected meat locker. Psychologically, Billy does
not come to terms with this event until nearly twenty years later, when the sight of a barbershop
quartet on his wedding anniversary triggers his suppressed sense of grief.
falling action The falling action occurs in the realm of Billys later life as he progresses
toward a newfound consciousness and an increasingly tenuous mental state. Billy experiences
alien abduction and prepares to share his new insights with the world.
themes The destructiveness of war; the illusion of free will; the importance of sight
motifs So it goes; the presence of the narrator as a character
symbols The bird who says Poo-tee-weet?; the colors blue and ivory
foreshadowing The narrative convention that Vonnegut dispenses with most thoroughly in this
book is foreshadowing. He outlines all the events of Billys life before proceeding with the story.

31