1 Date written: 6/04/2016

2 Some new contributions to the behavior of diatomaceous soil in lacustrine

3 deposits
4 Bernardo Caicedo1, Cristhian Mendoza 1, Arcesio Lizcano2, Fernando Lpez3
5 1 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universidad de Los Andes, Bogot,
6 Colombia
7 2 SRK Consulting 1066 West Hastings St., Vancouver, Canada
8 3 Laboratoire MSS-Mat CNRS UMR 8579, Ecole Centrale Paris, France

9 Corresponding author: Bernardo Caicedo

10 University of Los Andes
11 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
12 Carrera 1 Este N19A-40
13 Bogot, Colombia
14 Phone: (571) 3324312
15 E-Mail: bcaicedo@uniandes.edu.co
16 Number of words: 5139 main text only (Not including bibliography)
17 Number of tables: 0
18 Number of figures: 18
19 Abstract:
20 This work show the comprehensive study of the behavior of diatomaceous soils; these soils are
21 poorly studied. However, these soils were identified in Mexico City, in the Japan Sea, in the north-
22 east coast of Australia, in the equatorial Pacific, in the lacustrine deposit of Bogot (Colombia),
23 among others. What makes this special soil and shown in this work is value high of friction angle,
24 initial void ratio, compressibility index, liquid limit, low the density, among other features. Some of
25 the above features are contrary to classical soil mechanics and shown in this work. To understand
26 the geotechnical properties of the diatomaceous soil more than 2400 tests were performed. The tests
27 component of this study were: physical tests such as grain size distribution, Atterberg limits, density
28 of solid particles, and organic matter content; mechanical tests such as oedometric compression
29 tests, unconfined compression, and triaxial tests. Laboratory tests were complemented with SEM
30 observations to evaluate the microstructure of the soil. The results of the above tests showed that the
31 increased liquidity limit with increasing diatomaceous; increasing the friction angle with increasing
32 diatomaceous; the effect of strain rate on the soil response with diatomaceous and this effect is
33 preserved in extension stress (what it is little studied in soil mechanics). In addition, several
34 practical correlations were adapted for this soil type for the shear strength mobilization; the intrinsic
35 compression line. Also correlations found for this work for example relationship between the state
36 consistency and the undrained shear strength, friction angle for the high liquid limit, the void ratio
37 at 100 kPa and the liquid limit, high plasticity indexes and high content of the Diatomaceous,
38 among other.
39 Key words: diatomaceous soil, soft soils, compressibility, friction angle, natural soil.

40
41 Introduction

42 The study of the characteristics of soft soils is a key point in geotechnical engineering because the
43 behaviors of difficult soils affect performance of engineering works constructed on these deposits.
44 The behavior of remolded soils has received a great deal of attention in the last 30 years from
45 Roscoe et al. (1958); Tavenas et al. (1979); Burland (1990); Biarez & Hicher (1994), and
46 Horpibulsuk et al. (2011), among others. Studies of natural clays by Leroueil & Vaughan (1990),
47 Beaumelle (1991), and Tatsuoka et al. (2000) have received less attention. Even less studied are the
48 diatomaceous soils (very soft soils), however, the diatomaceous soils have been identified
49 elsewhere in the world by Diaz-Rodriguez (2011) in Mexico City, Holler (1992) in the Sea of
50 Japan, Ladd et al. (1993) and Chenet et al. (1993) on the north-east coast of Australia, and
51 MacKillop et al. (1995) in the equatorial Pacific. As described by Diaz-Rodriguez (2011). The
52 diatomaceous soils has extreme Atterberg limits (approximately 400 %), water contents
53 (approximately 300 %), void ratios (approximately 8), the coefficient of compressibility
54 (approximately 5) and microfossils in the structure. The present work discusses and concludes on
55 aforementioned issues that are undoubtedly of interest for practical design engineers or researchers
56 in this area.

57 This paper presents a comprehensive study of the geomechanical characteristics of the

58 diatomaceous soils. The soil used in present work is the lacustrine deposit of Bogot (Colombia).
59 The field work consisted of taking high quality samples from 2400 meters of boreholes using the
60 stationary piston technique. Some of these boreholes reach 250 meters deep. The laboratory
61 component of this study includes: (i) physical tests such as grain size distribution, Atterberg limits,
62 density of solid particles, and organic matter content; (ii) mechanical tests such as oedometric
63 compression tests, unconfined compression tests, oedometric compression tests and triaxial tests.
64 Laboratory tests were complemented with SEM observations to evaluate the microstructure of the
65 soil. This is a new contribution to the knowledge of the diatomaceous soils because most of the
66 other studies of diatomaceous soils were in reconstructed samples or shallow samples.

67 The lacustrine deposit of Bogot city (Colombia) is located on a high plateau of the Andes
68 mountains at 2550 meters above sea level. More than 60% of the area of this city of 9 million of
69 inhabitants is located on soft soil deposits. At some sites of the plateau, the depth of the lacustrine
70 deposit can reach 586 meters (Torres et al. 2005). Shallow deposits of soil from five to ten meters
71 deep are overconsolidated, but in deeper layers the soil can reach extreme values for some
72 geotechnical properties: consistency indices lower than 0.5, water contents higher than 200%, liquid
73 limits up to 400%, void ratios as high as five and diatomaceous high percentage.

74 The results of the above tests showed that the increased liquidity limit with increasing
75 diatomaceous; increasing the friction angle with increasing diatomaceous; activity of clay. In
76 addition, several practical correlations were adapted for this type of soil as found by Verdanega and
77 Bolton (2011) for the shear strength mobilization; the intrinsic compression line proposed by
78 Burland (1990). Moreover, correlations found for this work for example a relationship between the
79 Atterberg limits and the undrained shear strength, friction angle for the high liquid limit, the void
80 ratio at 100 kPa and the liquid limit, high plasticity indexes and high content of the diatomaceous,
81 among other.

82 2 Geological framework

83 The high plain of Bogot is located at c. 48N and c. 748W at an altitude of 2550. Its origins lie in a
84 Pliocene and Pleistocene lake that filled over time. The deep deposits of soils is explained by
85 subsidence of the bottom of the basin and the gradual accumulation of mainly lacustrine sediments
86 during the last 3 million years, Hooghiemstra and Sarmiento (1991). The chronostratigraphy of the
87 deposit was studied by Andriessen et al. (1993) using the fission track-dated method. They
88 estimated the soils age at 3.2 Ma at a depth of 586 m. In addition, Chronostratigraphical data was
89 established by Torres et al. (2005) based on pollen analysis.

90 Figure 1 depicts some of the deposition processes that have taken place in the basin of Bogot. As
91 shown in Figures 1a to 1d, the main deposition mechanism was controlled by the level of the water
92 table which was controlled by the differential rate between the subsidence of the bottom of the
93 deposit and sedimentation. Possible deposition mechanisms were (i) sedimentation of
94 predominantly fine grained materials in a low energy regime taking place under deep water, Figure
95 1a; (ii) sedimentation of predominantly silt and sand in a high energy regime occurring in low water
96 tables near river mouths, Figure 1(b); and (iii) swamp and fluvio-lacustrine deposits with high
97 proportions of organic matter in shallow water tables, Figure 1c.

98 Chronostratigraphical and geological studies by Torres et al. (2005) at the deepest site of the
99 deposit, which is in the city of Funza near Bogot, proposed the following stratigraphy of the
100 deepest deposits:
101 (i) The bottom of the deposit was found at 586 m deep. From 568 m to 586 m there is a mix
102 of clay and sand deposited in a fluvio-lacustrine environment. Then, the water table rose,
103 and from 530 m to 568m lacustrine deposits become dominant.

104 (ii) From 460 to 530 m, there are deposits with high contents of organic matter which
105 suggests lacustrine and swamp deposits. Sandy deposits resulting from a high energy
106 fluvial environment appear at the Funza site from 445 to 460 m.

107 (iii) From 325 to 445 m, overlying the fluvial deposit, once again there are deep lacustrine
108 and swamp deposits.

109 (iv) From 250 to 325 m subsidence predominates. This creates a deep basin with a true
110 lacustrine deposit.

111 The geotechnical study of the basin presented in this research concerns the upper 250 m of the
112 deposit corresponding chronologically to the last 1 MA, Figure 1h. Figures 1e to 1g present the
113 mean value of the results for organic matter including loss on ignition (LOI), liquid limit and the
114 percentage of grains lower than 2 m calculated from the whole geotechnical investigation
115 described in section 3. These results complement the stratigraphy proposed in Torres et al. (2005)
116 with the following geotechnical data:

117 (i) From 180 to 250 m, the lacustrine deposit proper continues with soils having less than
118 10% of organic matter and liquid limits of around 50%.

119 (ii) From 155 to 170 m, there is a swamp deposit with a large proportion of organic matter
120 and a mean liquid limit approaching 100%.

121 (iii) Then, from 155 to 80 m deep the lacustrine deposit dominates again.

122 (iv) From 5 to 80 m which corresponds to the last 250.000 years, there are some sporadic
123 episodes of swamp deposits with high proportions of organic matter. This corresponds to
124 alternating rises and falls of the water table. At the same time, the mean value of the
125 liquid limit increases from 50% to 200%. In this deposit the mean percentage of particles
126 with sizes lower than 2m fluctuates from 0% to 20%. From 50 m deep to the surface
127 the chronological measures carried out by Torres et al. (2005), Figure 1h, show a
128 deposition rate of 3440 years/m.
129 (v) In the first 5 m of the deposit the amount of organic matter and the liquid limit decrease
130 while in contrast the content of particles smaller than 2 m increases.

131

132 Figure 1. Deposition of lacustrine soils in the Paleolithic lake at the location of Bogot: (a) low
133 energy sedimentation in a proper lacustrine deposit, (b) high energy fluvial deposit, (c) swamp
134 deposit, (d) schematic drawing of deposition mechanisms, (e) mean value of the organic matter
135 content, (f) mean value of the liquid limit, (g) mean content of particles with size less than 2mm,
136 and (h) chronostratigraphy from Torres et al. (2005).
137 2.1 Microscopic characterization

138 SEM images taken from a sample at 16 m depth in the lacustrine zone. Figure 2a shows an open
139 structure which is similar to that the observed by Sides and Barden (1970). This open structure
140 could be the result of a lacustrine deposit from calm (low energy) lake water as described above.
141 Moreover, in the case of Bogots soil there are fossils in these deposits as shown in Figures 2b and
142 2c. A detailed examination of the previous images reveals the high content of frustules from
143 diatoms, Figures 2d to 2f. Diatomaceous soils have been identified elsewhere in the world by Diaz-
144 Rodriguez (2011) in Mexico City, Holler (1992) in the Sea of Japan, Ladd et al. (1993) and Chenet
145 et al. (1993) on the north-east coast of Australia, and MacKillop et al. (1995) in the equatorial
146 Pacific. As described by Diaz-Rodriguez (2011), sedimentary diatomaceous soils have silica
147 contents of 90% and only 10% of iron and aluminum oxides. With their low unit weights and large
148 specific surface areas, the presence of diatoms gives specific mechanical and hydraulic
149 characteristics to these soils.

150

151

152
153 Figure 2. SEM images of a sample of soil from Bogot taken at a depth of 16 m in the lacustrine
154 deposit.
155 The mineralogical composition of Bogots soil includes as much as 50% quartz, 15% to 42%
156 feldspars, and 15% and 30% clay, predominantly smectite. Other minerals such as mica and
157 vermiculite appear in lesser proportions.

158 3. Field exploration and geotechnical framework

159 3.1 Field exploration and testing program

160 A total of 52 boreholes with a total length of 2400 m were drilled for this study. Six boreholes
161 reached depths greater than 100 m, and two reached depths of 240 m (Figure 3). The sampling
162 protocol depended on the depth the sample was taken from: samples were taken every 2 m for the
163 first 20 m; samples were taken every 5 m from 20 m to 50 m. Below 50 m samples were taken
164 every 8 m.

165 Samples were taken with a stationary piston sampler to obtain high quality samples. Original
166 samples were 75 mm in diameter but were trimmed to 50 mm for triaxial and oedometric
167 compression tests samples to avoid any alteration due to internal friction within the sampler.

168
169 Figure 3. Locations of the deepest boreholes.

170 This studys testing program consisted of 1024 tests of Atterberg limits and water content, 113 tests
171 of organic matter content using the ignition method of measurement, 113 tests of specific density of
172 soil particles, 654 unit weight tests, 76 grain size tests, 448 unconfined compression tests, 82
173 oedometric compression tests and 101 triaxial tests.

174 3.2 Geotechnical Framework

175 Figure 4 presents the Atterberg limits and water content measurements from the deepest boreholes.
176 Water contents are persistently above 100% from 5 meters to 50 meters deep. In addition, the
177 Atterberg limits in this zone exhibit high variability due to the extremely slow pace of deposition of
178 lacustrine deposits of one meter every 3,440 years as shown in Figure 1h. Below fifty meters deep,
179 the Atterberg limits decrease leading to a plasticity index below 30% at lower depths. However,
180 small layers with very high liquid limits which can reach 400% can appear at any depth. These
181 layers may be associated with shallow lacustrine deposits in which diatoms are present. In fact, the
182 following section shows, high plasticity indexes are associated with low clay contents and with the
183 presence of large numbers of diatoms.

184

185 Figure 4. Atterberg limits and water content throughout the seven deepest boreholes.

186 Figure 5 shows other basic geomechanical properties measured in samples taken from the seven
187 deepest boreholes. These properties include organic matter content measured by the loss on ignition
188 method, LOI, the proportion of grains with sizes smaller than 2 m, the unit weight, and the
189 undrained shear strength calculated from the results of unconfined compression tests, qu/2.
190 The LOI results presented in Figure 5a show peat deposits at depths of approximately 30 m, 60m
191 and 160 m. These peat deposits appear unambiguously for boreholes B2, B3, B6 and B7 that
192 corresponded to the limit of the ancient lake as shown in the topographic scheme presented in
193 Figure 3. These peat deposits may correspond to the deposition scheme presented in Figure 1a.

194 Excluding the peat deposits, Figure 5a shows organic matter content from 6% to 10% for the first
195 five meters below the surface. It then increases to around 25% at 30 m deep. Afterwards the organic
196 matter content decreases gradually to under 10% at 70 m deep. The organic matter content in the
197 deepest layers of the deposit is between 2% and 8%.

198

199 Figure 5. Loss on Ignition, proportion of particles less than 2mm, unit weight and undrained shear
200 strength of boreholes B1 to B7.

201 The proportion of clay, measured as the fraction of particles with sizes less than 2m, can reach
202 50% in the first 20 meters below the surface. It then decreases to about 10% although in some cases
203 it is less than 5%. It is important to note that the lowest percentages of clay shown in Figure 5b
204 occur at depths where the liquid limit is very high as shown in Figure 4. This suggest that the high
205 liquid limits are not related to the percentage of clay in the soil but may rather depend on the
206 proportion of diatoms as presented in the analysis in the next section.

207 Figure 5c presents the unit weight of the soil. This figure suggests the presence of a
208 overconsolidated crust in the first layer between 5m and 10m below the surface. This may have
209 formed because of desiccation of more recently deposited soils combined with the lowering of the
210 water table due to anthropic activities. In the zone of high liquid limits, the soil presents low unit
211 weights that range from 11 kN/m3 to 15 kN/m3. These low unit weights indicate normally
212 consolidated soils. Despite the highly dispersed results, it is possible to observe an approximately
213 linear increase in unit weight between depths of 10m and 70m. This is characteristic of normally
214 consolidated deposits.

215 Figure 5d presents measurements of undrained shear strength calculated as half of unconfined
216 compression strength. Undrained shear strength is low for the first 50 meters of the deposit. In this
217 depth range, the characteristic mean value is 25 kPa. Nevertheless, there are high measurements of
218 undrained shear strength in places within the overconsolidated crust. Deeper layers of the deposit
219 present highly dispersed shear strength measurements with some measurements of this property as
220 high as 200 kPa.

221 4. Relationships between basic characteristics

222 4.1 Grain size, plasticity index and Loss on Ignition

223 The activity of Bogota soils is presented in Figure 6 for the depth ranges observed in Figure 4. To
224 highlight differences between common fine-grained soils and Bogot soil, Figure 6 includes activity
225 ranges of the most common clayey soils as suggested by Holtz et al. (2011). The shallowest
226 deposits (< 7.5 m depth) in which the Bogota soils have lower liquid limits are compared with the
227 thick intermediate deposits between depths of 7.5 and 70 m. Within these deposits the liquid limit
228 reaches values of 400% in some locations. At lower depths, between 70 m and 125 m, the liquid
229 limit decreases again.

230
231 Figure 6. Activity plot of clay content (grains with sizes smaller than 2m) and plasticity index for
232 the clays of Bogot.
233 As observed in Figure 6, most soils from shallow and deep deposits have activity values that match
234 with the range of kaolinite, illite and smectites which are common clays. However, in the thick
235 intermediate deposit, a significant number of tests show soils that have high plasticity indexes and
236 low clay contents leading to very high activity values. These high activity values can be explained
237 by the presence of diatoms as reported by Diaz-Rodriguez (2003) in the clays of Mexico City.

238 Figure 7 shows a relationship between activity, A, and LOI that is related to the organic matter
239 content within the soil. It can be seen that as LOI increases, activity also tends to increase.
240 Nevertheless, the amount of scatter in the results creates a degree of uncertainty for this
241 relationship. Figures 6 and 7 support the proposal that LOI could be an indirect indicator of the
242 diatom contents of the clays of Bogot. The reason for this is that high activity values are related to
243 the presence of diatoms, and in these soils when there are high activity values there are also high
244 LOI test results.

245
246 Figure 7. Relationship between Activity and loss of ignition for the clays of Bogot.

247 4.2 Plasticity index and liquid limit

248 In geotechnical engineering it is well known that soils of the same origin are located in the
249 Casagrande plot in a well-defined band leading to a relationship between the plasticity index and
250 liquid limit. This empirical statement is also valid for the clays of Bogot as shows in Figure 8
251 which plots 1,024 liquid limit and plasticity index results For the clays of Bogot, the following
252 linear equation represents the relationship between the plasticity index and the liquid limit:

253 PI 0.78 * wL 14.5 (1)

254
255 Figure 8. Plasticity index and liquid limit of the clays of Bogot represented in the Casagrande
256 plasticity chart.
257
258 It is important to note that results represented in Figure 8 indicate a clear predominance of clays
259 even though Figure 6 shows that the clay content as defined by the size of the particles is less than
260 50% for most of the soils in Bogot. These results represent a disagreement between the Unified
261 Soil Classification System (USCS) based on the plasticity chart and the soil classification based on
262 particle size. This disagreement is probably related to the high diatom content of Bogots soil.

263 4.3 Density of soil particles and Loss on Ignition

264 Figure 9 presents the density of soil particles, s, and Loss on Ignition. From this figure it is clear
265 that the density of soil particles decreases as the organic matter content, represented by the LOI,
266 increases.

267 Results presented in Figure 9 were adjusted using a linear relationship between the density of soil
268 particles and Loss on Ignition. Proposing a linear relationship is reasonable because the density of
269 particles in a mixture of two materials is the result of the density of each component and the
270 proportion of each material in the mixture. As shown in Figures 9a and 9b, two linear relationships
271 are feasible in the case of Bogots soil depending on the LOI. However these two relationships
272 have a discontinuity for LOI=20% suggesting that this value separates soils with two different
273 origins: organic soils for LOI<20% and soils approaching peat for LOI>20%.
274
275 Figure 9. Relationships between density of soil particles, s, and Loss on Ignition, LOI, for
276 different LOI ranges.
277
278 5. Compressibility of the lacustrine deposit with diatomaceous

279 Classical oedometric compression tests were carried out to characterize soil compressibility. Figure
280 10 presents the results of 82 oedometric compression tests performed following ASTM D2435-90.

281
282 Figure 10. Results of 82 oedometric compression tests carried out on the soil of Bogot.
283
284 There are two ways to analyze compressibility curves. One way is to look at their slopes in both the
285 normally consolidated state and in overconsolidated states. The other way is to look at their position
286 in the e-v plot. Regarding the slope in the normally consolidated domain, Skempon (1944)
287 proposed a relationship between the coefficient of compressibility, Cc, and the liquid limit wL. On
288 the other hand, in the overconsolidated domain, the recompression coefficient, Cs, is usually related
289 to the coefficient of compressibility Cc. Figure 11 shows the good agreement of the following
290 relationships for Bogots soil. Equations 2 and 3 are our proposals for Bogots soil.

291 Cc 0.01 wL 0.58 (2)

Cc
292 Cs (3)
7.6

293

294 Figure 11. (a) Relationship between the compressibility coefficient and the liquid limit, and (b)
295 relationship between the compressibility and recompression coefficients for Bogots soil.

296

297 Biarez and Favre, 1975, and Burland 1990 proposed models to predict the position of the
298 compression curve based on Atterberg limits. For this purpose, the Biarez and Favre model uses the
299 liquidity index IL, although the Burland model introduces a parameter, Iv, which is a normalized
300 void index based on two characteristic void ratios (e100* and e1000*) corresponding to the void ratios
301 on the oedometric curve at two stresses (v=100 kPa, and v=1000 kPa). These models were
302 developed for reconstituted normally consolidated clays submitted to oedometric loading. However,
303 Hong et al. 2012 demonstrates that the Burland model can be used for natural soils. In this case the
304 normalized void index becomes

e e100
305 I vn (4)
Cc

306 where e is the void ratio, e100 is the void ratio for v=100 kPa and Cc is the compression index of
307 natural soil.

308 Figure 12a shows the results of the oedometric compression tests and the intrinsic compression line
309 proposed by Burland (1990). Figure 12b presents the very good agreement of the proposal given in
310 Equation 5, with the results of the void ratio in the normal consolidated range.

311
I vn 2.45 1.285 log v' 0.015 log v'
3
(5)

312

313

314 Figure 12. Normalized compressibility curves: (a) complete compression results, and (b) post yield
315 results.

316 Figure 13 shows the good agreement of the linear relationship presented in Equation 6 that relates
317 the void ratio e100 with the liquid limit. By using equations 5 and 6, it is possible to obtain the
318 normal consolidation line if the liquid limit of the soil is known.

319

320 e100 0.0158wL 35 (6)

321

322

323 Figure 13. Relationship between the void ratio at 100 kPa and the liquid limit.

324 6. Shear strength of lacustrine deposit with diatomaceous

325 6.1 Undrained shear strength

326 As mentioned in Verdanega and Bolton 2011, undrained shear strength can be analyzed from two
327 perspectives: (i) empirical correlations which are useful for practical estimations of shear strengths,
328 and (ii) relationships coming from critical state soil mechanics that allow calculation of undrained
329 shear strength but which require information about the overconsolidation ratio. Although the second
330 approach is more theoretically rigorous, the information needed about the overconsolidation ratio is
331 not always available.

332 Most of the empirical relationships are based on the intrinsic properties of the soil given by the
333 Atterberg limits, and a parameter relating the state of the soil such as the water content or the void
334 ratio. This is the case for the relationships proposed by Muir Wood (1983), Leroueil (1983), and
335 and others. However, in the case of Bogots soil, fitting these relationships with the experimental
336 results leaves considerable scatter. For this reason, a new relationship upon which to fit the results
337 of 448 unconfined compression tests is proposed. It is based on using the plasticity index as the
338 intrinsic parameter and the water content as the state parameter. This relationship leads to a better
339 fit than the relationships cited above. It is presented in Figure 14 and Equation 7.

340 Cu 14 Pa PIw 1.8 (7)

341

342 Figure 14. Relationship between the plasticity index, undrained shear strength and the water
343 content.

344 6.2 Effective shear strength

345 The shear strength of Bogots soil was studied using undrained triaxial tests (CIU) with pore
346 pressure measurements. Figure 15 shows one example of a result of a triaxial test. This particular
347 test, carried out on a soil having a liquid limit of 186%, leads to a friction angle of 35. This result is
348 in disagreement with the classical literature in soil mechanics that suggests lower friction angles for
349 soils having high levels of plasticity (Lambe, 1979; Whitlow, 1990).

350

351 Figure 15. Result of a triaxial test performed on highly plastic soil.

352 In this study, 101 triaxial compression tests covering a broad range of liquid limits were performed,
353 and an attempt to define relationship between friction angles and liquid limits was made. Figure 16
354 shows that a linear relationship could describe the effect of the liquid limit and the friction angle, as
355 shown in the Equation 8. It is important to remark that the friction angle increases as the liquid limit
356 grows and can reach values as high as 47, the high value of the friction angle can be explained by
357 the presence of diatoms as has been reported by Daz-Rodrguez et al. 1992; Daz-Rodrguez, 2011
358 and Shiwakoti et al. 2002. On the other hand, the liquid limits of Bogots soils increase as the
359 diatom contents increases, as suggested in Figure 6. These results could explain the increases in the
360 friction angle as the liquid limit increases.

361

362 Figure 16. Friction angle at the critical state for different liquid limits.

363 crit 18.5 0.1112wL (8)

364 6.3 Shear strength mobilization

365 Stressstrain relationships during undrained loading are useful for engineering practice. For this
366 purpose Verdanega and Bolton 2011 proposed a model for predicting the mobilized shear stress on
367 the basis of the shear strain of saturated soils submitted to undrained compression. The mobilized
368 shear stress, mob, and the shear strain, , are given by the following equations:

369 mob 0.5q (9)

370 1.5 a (10)

371 The relationship between mobilized shear stress and undrained shear strength, cu, was defined in
372 BSI (1994) as the mobilization factor M which can be associated with a safety factor:

mob
373 M (11)
cu

374 Power relationships have been proposed to relate mobilized shear stress with shear strain. To better
375 fit stress strain curves, Verdanega and Bolton 2011 proposed to normalize the shear strain by the
376 shear strain when the mobilization factor is 2: M=2, M=2.
377 Figure 17a presents the normalized stress strain curves of 101 triaxial compression tests.
378 Experimental data are restricted to relationships between mobilized shear stress and undrained shear
379 strength in the range of 0.2 to 0.8 (0.2<mob/cu<0.8). This limitation is in agreement with the
380 suggestion of Jardine (1992). Figure 17b is plotted on a bilogarithmic scale to obtain a power
381 relationship between normalized stresses and strains from which the following equation results.

382 (12)
ln mob 0.455ln 0.71
u
c M 2

383

384

385 Figure 17. Normalized shear stress and shear strain based on the results of undrained triaxial tests.

386

387 A complete description of the stress-strain relationship requires knowledge of the value of strain
388 when the mobilization factor is M=2, M=2. Verdanega and Bolton (2011) proposed calculation of
389 M=2 based on the plasticity index, the undrained shear strength, and the mean effective stress p0,
390 but this particular relationship presents a large amount of scatter for the results of Bogots soil. As
391 shown in Figure 18a, for Bogots soil the value of M=2 fluctuates around a constant value. For this
392 reason, this study has attempt to find a probability distribution function of M=2 covering results for
393 all plasticity indexes and shear strengths. Figure 18b presents the experimental values of M=2 in a
394 histogram, and Figure 18c presents cumulative values. These figures also present the density
395 probability function and the cumulative probability of a log normal function that adjust the
396 experimental results. This adjustment leads to mean values of M=2=1.16% and M=2=0.52%.

397

398 Figure 18. (a) Example of experimental results of M=2; (b) and (c) show adjustment of the
399 experimental results to a log normal probability distribution function.

400

401 14. Conclusions

402 This paper presents a comprehensive study of diatomaceous soil of Bogot about which knowledge
403 is still incipient. The results confirm several features that have been found in difficult diatomaceous
404 soils elsewhere in the world. The main features of Bogots soil found in this study are:

405 As a result of lacustrine deposits, Bogots soil contains diatoms which increase the soils
406 plasticity absent clay sized particles. This characteristic creates a disagreement between the
407 classification system based on Atterberg limits and the classification system based on grain
408 size.

409 For Bogots soil, the presence of high percentages diatoms could be associated with very
410 high values of the activity index. In addition, the high activity values are related to high soil
411 percentages of organic matter and low densities of soil particles.

412 Regarding compressibility, Bogots soil presents high void ratios and high compressibility
413 that are well related to the liquid limits. In addition the intrinsic compression line proposed
414 by Burland (1990) describes the normal consolidated behavior of this soil with great
415 accuracy.

416 Concerning strength, we propose a relationship for the undrained shear strength based on
417 the plasticity index as the intrinsic parameter and water content as the state parameter. On
418 the other hand, the friction angle presents high values for high liquid limits which is
419 probably the result of the large content of diatoms. The relationship between the friction
420 angle and the liquid limit can be described with a linear function.

421 The stress-strain curve is described in two domains of strains: intermediate strains for
422 0.2<mob/cu<0.8 and small strains. The proposal of Verdanega and Bolton (2011) was used
423 for the range of intermediate strains. Although this approach leads to a function relating the
424 normalized mobilized shear strain and shear strains, for Bogots soil the value of the shear
425 strain tends to a constant value when the mobilization factor is 2: M=2, M=2.

426

427 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

428 The authors express their gratitude to Colciencias and the Tiempo de Volver program for
429 sponsorship of this work. The authors want to express their gratitude to Los Andes University in
430 Colombia for its technical and financial support for the study of the deep foundations of residual
431 soils.

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