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Worlds Religion

A Research
Paper in Values
Education 9

Aileen Shayne S. Addun


Researcher
Large-Sized
Religions
Christianity
A. History

The history of Christianity is really the history of Western civilization. Christianity


has had an all-pervasive influence on society at largeart, language, politics, law,
family life, calendar dates, music, and the very way we think have all been colored by
Christian influence for nearly two millennia. The story of the church, therefore, is an
important one to know.

History of Christianity - The Beginning of the Church


The church began 50 days after Jesus resurrection (c. A.D. 30). Jesus had
promised that He would build His church (Matthew 16:18), and with the coming of the
Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-4), the churchekklesia (the called-out
assembly)officially began. Three thousand people responded to Peters sermon that
day and chose to follow Christ.

The initial converts to Christianity were Jews or proselytes to Judaism, and the
church was centered in Jerusalem. Because of this, Christianity was seen at first as a
Jewish sect, akin to the Pharisees, the Sadducees, or the Essenes. However, what the
apostles preached was radically different from what other Jewish groups were teaching.
Jesus was the Jewish Messiah (the anointed King) who had come to fulfill the Law
(Matthew 5:17) and institute a new covenant based on His death (Mark 14:24). This
message, with its charge that they had killed their own Messiah, infuriated many
Jewish leaders, and some, like Saul of Tarsus, took action to stamp out the Way (Acts
9:1-2).

It is quite proper to say that Christianity has its roots in Judaism. The Old
Testament laid the groundwork for the New, and it is impossible to fully understand
Christianity without a working knowledge of the Old Testament (see the books of
Matthew and Hebrews). The Old Testament explains the necessity of a Messiah,
contains the history of the Messiahs people, and predicts the Messiahs coming. The
New Testament, then, is all about the coming of Messiah and His work to save us from
sin. In His life, Jesus fulfilled over 300 specific prophecies, proving that He was the One
the Old Testament had anticipated.

History of Christianity - The Growth of the Early Church


Not long after Pentecost, the doors to the church were opened to non-Jews. The
evangelist Philip preached to the Samaritans (Acts 8:5), and many of them believed in
Christ. The apostle Peter preached to the Gentile household of Cornelius (Acts 10), and
they, too, received the Holy Spirit. The apostle Paul (the former persecutor of the
church) spread the gospel all over the Greco-Roman world, reaching as far as Rome
itself (Acts 28:16) and possibly all the way to Spain.

By A.D. 70, the year Jerusalem was destroyed, most of the books of the New
Testament had been completed and were circulating among the churches. For the next
240 years, Christians were persecuted by Romesometimes at random, sometimes by
government edict.

In the 2nd and 3rd centuries, the church leadership became more and more
hierarchical as numbers increased. Several heresies were exposed and refuted during
this time, and the New Testament canon was agreed upon. Persecution continued to
intensify.

History of Christianity - The Rise of the Roman Church


In A.D. 312, the Roman Emperor Constantine claimed to have had a conversion
experience. About 70 years later, during the reign of Theodosius, Christianity became
the official religion of the Roman Empire. Bishops were given places of honor in the
government, and by A.D. 400, the terms Roman and Christian were virtually
synonymous.

After Constantine, then, Christians were no longer persecuted. In time, it was


the pagans who came under persecution unless they converted to Christianity. Such
forced conversions led to many people entering the church without a true change of
heart. The pagans brought with them their idols and the practices they were
accustomed to, and the church changed; icons, elaborate architecture, pilgrimages, and
the veneration of saints were added to the simplicity of early church worship. About this
same time, some Christians retreated from Rome, choosing to live in isolation as
monks, and infant baptism was introduced as a means of washing away original sin.

Through the next centuries, various church councils were held in an attempt to
determine the churchs official doctrine, to censure clerical abuses, and to make peace
between warring factions. As the Roman Empire grew weaker, the church became more
powerful, and many disagreements broke out between the churches in the West and
those in the East. The Western (Latin) church, based in Rome, claimed apostolic
authority over all other churches. The bishop of Rome had even begun calling himself
the Pope (the Father). This did not sit well with the Eastern (Greek) church, based in
Constantinople. Theological, political, procedural, and linguistic divides all contributed
to the Great Schism in 1054, in which the Roman Catholic (Universal) Church and the
Eastern Orthodox Church excommunicated each other and broke all ties.

History of Christianity - The Middle Ages


During the Middle Ages in Europe, the Roman Catholic Church continued to
hold power, with the popes claiming authority over all levels of life and living as kings.
Corruption and greed in the church leadership was commonplace. From 1095 to 1204
the popes endorsed a series of bloody and expensive crusades in an effort to repel
Muslim advances and liberate Jerusalem.

History of Christianity - The Reformation


Through the years, several individuals had tried to call attention to the
theological, political, and human rights abuses of the Roman Church. All had been
silenced in one way or another. But in 1517, a German monk named Martin Luther
took a stand against the church, and everyone heard. With Luther came the Protestant
Reformation, and the Middle Ages were brought to a close.

The Reformers, including Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli, differed in many finer
points of theology, but they were consistent in their emphasis on the Bibles supreme
authority over church tradition and the fact that sinners are saved by grace through
faith alone apart from works (Ephesians 2:8-9).

Although Catholicism made a comeback in Europe, and a series of wars between


Protestants and Catholics ensued, the Reformation had successfully dismantled the
power of the Roman Catholic Church and helped open the door to the modern age.

History of Christianity - The Age of Missions


From 1790 to 1900, the church showed an unprecedented interest in missionary
work. Colonization had opened eyes to the need for missions, and industrialization had
provided people with the financial ability to fund the missionaries. Missionaries went
around the world preaching the gospel, and churches were established throughout the
world.

History of Christianity - The Modern Church


Today, the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church have
taken steps to mend their broken relationship, as have Catholics and Lutherans. The
evangelical church is strongly independent and rooted firmly in Reformed theology. The
church has also seen the rise of Pentecostalism, the charismatic movement,
ecumenicalism, and various cults.

History of Christianity - What We Learn from Our History


If we learn nothing else from church history, we should at least recognize the
importance of letting the word of Christ dwell in [us] richly (Colossians 3:16). Each of
us is responsible to know what the Scripture says and to live by it. When the church
forgets what the Bible teaches and ignores what Jesus taught, chaos reigns.

There are many churches today, but only one gospel. It is the faith that was once for
all entrusted to the saints (Jude 3). May we be careful to preserve that faith and pass it
on without alteration, and the Lord will continue to fulfill His promise to build His
church.
B. Religious Practices

The most important Christian rituals are called sacraments, sacred rites that
convey God's sacred power or grace. Baptism and Eucharist are the two most important
sacraments, and are practiced by most Christians. In many Protestant communities,
these two rites are not called sacraments, but ordinances, and are usually understood
not to be channels of grace so much as acts of commemoration and symbolic
identification with Christ.

Baptism, the Christian rite of initiation, is a ritual cleansing with water. Being
observant Jews, the early Christians integrated the ancient Jewish practice of ritual
bathing into Christian practice (e.g., Leviticus 14:8). Baptism was also used to initiate
converts to Judaism, and the Essenes, contemporaries of Jesus, practiced a daily ritual
of bathing. According to accounts in the Gospels, John the Baptizer, who baptized his
followers as a sign of repentance, baptized Jesus as well. Jesus later instructed his
followers to baptize others. For early Christians, baptism was a sign of moral
purification, the beginning of new and eternal life, and an indication of the Christian's
readiness for the coming Kingdom of God.

The first Christians conducted baptisms by total immersion in water. Many


Christian groups still practice this immersive type of baptism, while others adopt a
more symbolic sprinkling of the head with water. In the early years of Christianity,
adults, not children, were baptized, and Christians would sometimes delay baptism
until death, so that the sins of a lifetime could be washed away just prior to the soul's
judgment before God.

The practice of infant baptism emerged sometime within the first few centuries,
and the liturgical churches still practice infant baptism. However, some Protestant
groups teach that baptism should be voluntary and baptize only adult initiates.

The distinctive Christian practice of the Eucharist also dates to the first
Christians. Known also as the Lord's Supper, or Holy Communion, Christians believe
that Jesus instituted the practice during the Passover meal he shared with his followers
just before his arrest and death. As a remembrance of the death and resurrection of
Jesus, early Christians met weekly to share meals of bread and wine, accompanied by
prayer. In his first letter to the Corinthians, Paul instructed this early Christian
congregation on the sharing of the Lord's Supper and explained the reason for the
sacrament:

The Lord Jesus, on the night he was betrayed, took bread, and when he had
given thanks, he broke it and said, "This is my body, which is for you; do this in
remembrance of me." In the same way, after supper he took the cup, saying, "This cup
is the new covenant in my blood; do this, whenever you drink it, in remembrance of me"
(1 Corinthians 11:23-26).

Beliefs about the Eucharist vary greatly among Christians. Some churches, most
notably the Roman Catholic Church and, with less specificity, the Eastern Orthodox
churches, believe that upon blessing the bread and wine in the ritual of the Eucharist,
these food items literally become the body and blood of Jesus or embody his presence in
a special way. Other denominations interpret the rite symbolically, believing that eating
the bread and drinking the wine memorialize the sacrificial action of Christ. In either
case, sharing the bread and wine is held to remember Christ's first coming, anticipate
his second coming, and create a unity, or communion, of believers.

The frequency of the Eucharistic observance varies a great deal as well. The
liturgical churches include the Lord's Supper in all of their weekly services and on holy
days throughout the year. Some liturgical churches share the Lord's Supper daily, with
the exception of Holy Saturday, the day just before Easter Sunday, when Jesus lay dead
in the tomb. Non-liturgical churches prefer to highlight preaching and Bible study at
their Sunday services, and usually share the Lord's Supper monthly. Most churches
use bread or small wafers; many use wine, but some share grape juice or water in its
place.

In addition to these two widely practiced and sacred sacraments, some consider a
handful of other rituals sacramental as well. In some churches, believers receive a
"strengthening" blessing called confirmation at some time following their baptism. The
sacrament of reconciliation, or confession, takes place when a repentant person
confesses his or her sins in the presence of a priest, and is absolved. All denominations
ordain vocational or professional ministers, and for some, ordination is a sacrament.
Marriage is not only a civil contract but a sacrament, performed by the marrying couple
before God, while the minister and congregation act as witnesses.

In the Roman Catholic tradition, a Christian who is close to death may receive
the anointing of the sick, or extreme unction, from a priest who prays with the sick
person while anointing them with oil. This sacrament is both an absolution of sin and a
preparation for departure from this life, giving the sick person a sense of peace and
confidence in God's mercy and salvation.

In the Christian view, death is a passage to the eternal life promised by Christ.
The funeral rite combines the sorrow of loss with the joy and confidence Christians feel
in the promise of the resurrection. At the funeral, Christians recall the brevity of life
and the destiny of the soul, renewing their hope in the promise of resurrection and
eternal life. While burial was the convention among Christians for many centuries,
modern Christians may choose cremation as an alternative. Remembrance rituals
include lighting a candle or saying prayers for the departed soul. Unlike some religions,
Christians have no prescribed period of mourning for the dead.

The sacraments of the Christian churches are believed to be the visible or


physical instruments of the delivery of God's grace, which is divine favor and divine
love. Whether a tradition believes in many sacraments, or only a few, the goal of
connecting the individual or community with God's grace is central to Christian worship
and practice.

C. Pictures
Islam
A. History
With the death of Muhammad, the Muslim community was faced with the problem
of succession. Who would be its leader? There were four persons obviously marked for
leadership: Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, who had not only accompanied Muhammad to Medina
ten years before, but had been appointed to take the place of the Prophet as leader of
public prayer during Muhammad's last illness; 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, an able and
trusted Companion of the Prophet; 'Uthman ibn 'Affan, a respected early convert; and
'Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. To avoid contention among
various groups, 'Umar suddenly grasped Abu Bakr's hand, the traditional sign of
recognition of a new leader. Soon everyone concurred and before dusk Abu Bakr had
been recognized as the khalifah of Muhammad. Khalifah- anglicized as caliph - is a
word meaning "successor" but also suggesting what his historical role would be: to
govern according to the Quran and the practice of the Prophet.

Abu Bakr's caliphate was short but important. An exemplary leader, he lived
simply, assiduously fulfilled his religious obligations, and was accessible and
sympathetic to his people. But he also stood firm when, in the wake of the Prophet's
death, some tribes renounced Islam; in what was a major accomplishment, Abu Bakr
swiftly disciplined them. Later, he consolidated the support of the tribes within the
Arabian Peninsula and subsequently funnelled their energies against the powerful
empires of the East: the Sassanians in Persia and the Byzantines in Syria, Palestine,
and Egypt. In short, he demonstrated the viability of the Muslim state.

The second caliph, 'Umar- appointed by Abu Bakr in a written testament -


continued to demonstrate that viability. Adopting the title Amir al-Muminin,
"Commander of the Believers," 'Umar extended Islam's temporal rule over Syria, Egypt,
Iraq, and Persia in what from a purely military standpoint were astonishing victories.
Within four years after the death of the Prophet the Muslim state had extended its sway
over all of Syria and had, at a famous battle fought during a sandstorm near the River
Yarmuk, blunted the power of the Byzantines - whose ruler Heraclius had shortly before
disdainfully rejected the letter from the unknown Prophet of Arabia.

Even more astonishingly, the Muslim state administered the conquered territories
with a tolerance almost unheard of in that age. At Damascus, for example, the Muslim
leader Khalid ibn al-Walid signed a treaty which read as follows:

This is what Khalid ibn al-Walid would grant to the inhabitants of Damascus if he
enters therein: he promises to give them security for their lives, property and churches.
Their city wall shall not be demolished, neither shall any Muslim be quartered in their
houses. Thereunto we give them the pact of Allah and the protection of His Prophet, the
caliphs and the believers. So long as they pay the poll tax, nothing but good shall befall
them.

This tolerance was typical of Islam. A year after Yarmuk, 'Umar, in the military
camp of al-Jabiyah on the Golan Heights, received word that the Byzantines were ready
to surrender Jerusalem and rode there to accept the surrender in person. According to
one account, he entered the city alone and clad in a simple cloak, astounding a
populace accustomed to the sumptuous garb and court ceremonials of the Byzantines
and Persians. He astounded them still further when he set their fears at rest by
negotiating a generous treaty in which he told them:

In the name of God ... you have complete security for your churches which shall
not be occupied by the Muslims or destroyed.

This policy was to prove successful everywhere. In Syria, for example, many
Christians who had been involved in bitter theological disputes with Byzantine
authorities- and persecuted for it- welcomed the coming of Islam as an end to tyranny.
And in Egypt, which 'Amr ibn al-'As took from the Byzantines after a daring march
across the Sinai Peninsula, the Coptic Christians not only welcomed the Arabs, but
enthusiastically assisted them.
This pattern was repeated throughout the Byzantine Empire. Conflict among Greek
Orthodox, Syrian Monophysites, Copts, and Nestorian Christians contributed to the
failure of the Byzantines - always regarded as intruders - to develop popular support,
while the tolerance which Muslims showed toward Christians and Jews removed the
primary cause for opposing them.

'Umar adopted this attitude in administrative matters as well. Although he assigned


Muslim governors to the new provinces, existing Byzantine and Persian administrations
were retained wherever possible. For fifty years, in fact, Greek remained the chancery
language of Syria, Egypt, and Palestine, while Pahlavi, the chancery language of the
Sassanians, continued to be used in Mesopotamia and Persia.

'Umar, who served as caliph for ten years, ended his rule with a significant victory
over the Persian Empire. The struggle with the Sassanid realm had opened in 687 at al-
Qadisiyah, near Ctesiphon in Iraq, where Muslim cavalry had successfully coped with
elephants used by the Persians as a kind of primitive tank. Now with the Battle of
Nihavand, called the "Conquest of Conquests," 'Umar sealed the fate of Persia;
henceforth it was to be one of the most important provinces in the Muslim Empire.

His caliphate was a high point in early Islamic history. He was noted for his justice,
social ideals, administration, and statesmanship. His innovations left all enduring
imprint on social welfare, taxation, and the financial and administrative fabric of the
growing empire.

After the death of 'Umar an advisory council composed of Companions of the


Prophet selected as the third caliph 'Uthman, during whose rule the first serious strains
on Islamic unity would appear. 'Uthman achieved much during his reign. He pushed
forward with the pacification of Persia, continued to defend the Muslim state against
the Byzantines, added what is now Libya to the empire, and subjugated most of
Armenia. 'Uthman also, through his cousin Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of
Syria, established an Arab navy which fought a series of important engagements with
the Byzantines.

Of much greater importance to Islam, however, was 'Uthman's compilation of the


text of the Quran as revealed to the Prophet. Realizing that the original message from
God might be inadvertently distorted by textual variants, he appointed a committee to
collect the canonical verses and destroy the variant recensions. The result was the text
that is accepted to this day throughout the Muslim world.

These successes, however, were qualified by serious administrative weaknesses.


'Uthman was accused of favoritism to members of his family - the clan of Umayyah.
Negotiations over such grievances were opened by representatives from Egypt but soon
collapsed and 'Uthman was killed - an act that caused a rift in the community of Islam
that has never entirely been closed.

This rift widened almost as soon as 'Ali, cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, was
chosen to be the fourth caliph. At issue, essentially, was the legitimacy of 'Ali's
caliphate. 'Uthman's relatives - in particular Mu'awiyah, the powerful governor of Syria,
where 'Ali's election had not been recognized - believed 'Ali's caliphate was invalid
because his election had been supported by those responsible for 'Uthman's unavenged
death. The conflict came to a climax in 657 at Siffin, near the Euphrates, and
eventually resulted in a major division between the Sunnis or Sunnites and the Shi'is
(also called Shi'ites or Shi'ah), the "Partisans" of 'Ali- a division that was to color the
subsequent history of Islam.

Actually the Sunnis and the Shi'is are agreed upon almost all the essentials of
Islam. Both believe in the Quran and the Prophet, both follow the same principles of
religion and both observe the same rituals. However, there is one prominent difference,
which is essentially political rather than religious, and concerns the choice of the caliph
or successor of Muhammad.

The majority of Muslims support the elective principle which led to the choice of
Abu Bakr as the first caliph. This group is known as ahl alsunnah wa-l-jama'ah, "the
people of custom and community," or Sunnis, who consider the caliph to be
Muhammad's successor only in his capacity as ruler of the community. The main body
of the Shi'is, on the other hand, believes that the caliphate - which they call the
imamate or "leadership" - is nonelective. The caliphate, they say, must remain within
the family of the Prophet - with 'Ali the first valid caliph. And while Sunnis consider the
caliph a guardian of the shari'ah, the religious law, the Shi'is see the imam as a trustee
inheriting and interpreting the Prophet's spiritual knowledge.

After the battle of Siffin, 'Ali - whose chief strength was in Iraq, with his capital at
Kufa - began to lose the support of many of his more uncompromising followers and in
661 he was murdered by a former supporter. His son Hasan was proclaimed caliph at
Kufa but soon afterward deferred to Muiawiyah, who had already been proclaimed
caliph in Jerusalem in the previous year and who now was recognized and accepted as
caliph in all the Muslim territories - thus inaugurating the Umayyad dynasty which
would rule for the next ninety years.

The division between the Sunnis and the Shi'is continued to develop in 680 when
Ali's son Husayn along with his followers was brutally killed at Karbala in Iraq by the
forces of the Umayyad ruler Yazid. His death is still commemorated every year during
the Islamic month of Muharram.

B. Religious Practices

One misunderstanding that some people have about Islam is that they believe
that Islam is simply about practicing a set of rituals. It is common to see and hear
about the outwardly expressions of Islam such as prayers, fasting and the pilgrimage. It
is also common to hear about the various restrictions Islam imposes such as
prohibition of alcohol and pork, and the requirement for women to dress modestly. It is
less common to hear about other aspects, so it may seem as if Islam is solely focused
on rituals and restrictions. However, the reality is that Islam is meant to be a complete
way of life for its followers. It includes a complete and logical set of beliefs, rituals, and
a moral code that covers every action that a Muslim takes in their life. The following is a
summary of some of the most important practices:

1. Prayers: The Muslim prayer is a combination of physical actions, verbal sayings, and
an internal feeling in the heart. Muslims are required to be in a state of calmness,
serenity and humbleness while performing their prayers. Once the prayer is started, a
series of sayings and actions are performed. The sayings include reciting parts of the
holy Qur'an, the holy book of Islam, as well as other sayings glorifying God and
thanking Him for all of His blessings upon us. It also gives Muslims the opportunity to
ask God for anything they desire. This could include asking for help in getting a job,
passing an exam, having a child, asking God for forgiveness of sins or anything else.
Muslims are required to pray at least five times every day, and are encouraged to pray
extra prayers if they can. The required prayers have specific times that they are to be
performed at. These are dawn, noon, mid afternoon, sunset and at night.

2 Fasting: Fasting means to refrain from having all kinds of food, drink and sexual
intercourse from dawn to sunset. Muslims are required to fast during the month of
Ramadan every year. Ramadan is a month based on the lunar cycle, as opposed to the
solar calendar used today by most people. Therefore, the start and end of the month of
Ramadan change each year according to the lunar cycles. Ramadan can be either 29 or
30 days. Muslims are also encouraged to fast on other optional days. It is viewed as a
way to cleanse the soul of all worldly desires and devout oneself completely to the
obedience of God. It is also an opportunity for wealthy Muslims to experience life
without food and drink for a day, which is meant to remind them of the poor and
encourage them to have sympathy and to be generous in donating to help the poor and
the needy.

3 Pilgrimage: Also known as the Hajj, the pilgrimage is a physical and spiritual
journey that every financially and physically able Muslim is expected to make at least
once in their lifetime. Muslims travel to the holy city of Makkah, located in what is
known today as Saudi Arabia, to perform the required rites of the pilgrimage. There,
they are expected to spend their days in complete devotion to worship and to asking
God for forgiveness and for anything else they wish to ask for. They also perform
specific rituals, such as walking around the Kaaba, the black cube-shaped building
located in Makkah.

4 Charity: A very important aspect of Islam is giving charity to the poor. Muslims are
required to give certain percentages of any type of wealth that they have accumulated.
For example, Muslims must give 2.5% of the money they have saved each year. It is
important to note that this is not based on income, it is based on savings. A small
portion of the money that is sitting in the bank accounts of wealthy people and not
helping anyone is used every year to help the poor. This ensures some re-distribution of
wealth among Muslims. Also, Muslims are strongly encouraged to make charitable
giving a habit. Most Muslims donate to charity on a weekly basis when they attend
Friday prayer services at the Masjid, the Islamic place of worship.

5 Purification: Before performing certain rituals, most importantly before prayers,


Muslims are expected to perform a form of purification, known as ablution or "wudu" in
Arabic. This involves washing the hands, face, arms and feet with water. Since Muslims
are required to pray at least five times every day at various times throughout the day
from dawn until the night, this ensures that Muslims maintain a high level of hygiene.

6 Animal Sacrifice: The term "Animal Sacrifice" may sound weird, unusual or
shocking to some people when they first hear or read it. But the reality is that the
majority of people in the world do eat the meat of many different kinds of animals.
Muslims believe that it is God whom has given us the right to kill these animals and eat
them. Therefore, Muslims are required to mention God at the time the animal is killed.
This reminds us that these animals were created by God and that God gave us the
permission to benefit from them. This is why it is called a "sacrifice", and this is why it
is considered a religious practice. Muslims are encouraged to perform animal sacrifice
at special occasions in the Islamic calendar. In these special occasions, it is expected
that part of the meat of the animal would be donated to the poor.

C. Pictures
Hinduisim
A. History

Unlike other religious traditions, Hinduism does not originate in a single


founder, a single book or a single point in time. It contains many different beliefs,
philosophies and viewpoints, not always consistent with each other. These apparent
contradictions strike only those who are not familiar with this tradition: the Hindu
insight claims that the Oneness expresses itself in many different forms.

Hinduism is often labelled as a religion, but it is actually more than that: it is a


vast and complex socio-religious body which, in a way, reflects the complexity of Indian
society. A rich geography, many languages and dialects, lots of different creeds, racial
diversity, all these elements have shaped Hinduism and made it so heterogenic. The
lack of unifying overall religious authority and the total absence of a book claiming
supreme truth and dogmas have contributed to the diversity of Hinduism as well. It is
fair to mention that even the texts we find in Hinduism that claim some sort of divine
inspiration do not declare their view to be better than any other and they all exist
together in a tolerant fashion. The many manifestations of Hinduism go from highly
intellectual philosophies concerning numerous and puzzling metaphysical concerns,
many rituals, mental and physical exercises such as Yoga to simple, almost childlike,
tales and legends.

This tradition has come down to us from prehistoric times. The foundations of
Hinduism can be found in the teachings of anonymous ancient sages or rishis, which
were originally transmitted orally. We know very little about Hinduim beyond what can
be learned from the Vedas, a collection of hymns and other ritual texts composed in
different periods. These texts contain a lot of material including the teachings of the
early sages. The oldest evidence of religious practices in India date back approximately
to 5500 BCE. It is a mistake to reduce all early Hinduism to Vedic religion: there were
many other non-Vedic religious traditions in early Hinduism which have left no early
texts and that can be known to some extent by archaeological evidence.

Just like Zoroastrianism and Judaism (the other two major world religions also
coming to us from prehistoric times), Hinduism has received numerous shocks that
threatened its foundations and it has resiliently survived all of them. Judaism and
Zoroastrianism also survived the many impacts they received, but Judaism failed to
absorb Christianity, its all-conquering offspring, which after just a couple of centuries
clearly overshadowed it, and there are only around 200,000 Zoroastrian believers left
today. The basis of Hinduism has been hit, sometimes even smashed, by many sects,
movements and systems of thought: in the worst case scenarios it receded for a while,
only to return more powerful than before. Movements challenging the authority of the
priestly orthodoxy, irreligious schools such as the Charvaka, atheist traditions like
Jainism, the Buddhist agnostic approach, nihilists and skeptics denouncing the
cunning behind the sacrificial fees, all of these beliefs weakened Hinduism for some
time and were eventually absorbed, recycled and merged into the enormous body of this
old Indic faith. We read in the Brahmanas, a group of sacred priestly texts attached to
the Vedas:

The eye is the truth. If two persons come disputing with each other [...] we
should believe him who said 'I have seen it', not him who has said 'I have heard it.'

Hinduism attaches a very special value to the the darsn (a sanskrit word
meaning sight), of gurus, leaders, saintly persons and even holy places and holy
images. According to the Hindus, darsn is a two-way flow of vision. While the devotee
sees the god, so too the god sees the devotee, and the two can make contact through
their eyes. When the images of the gods are made, its eyes are the last part to be
completed. It is not until the image is consecrated that its eyes are finally opened with
either the touch of a paintbrush or using a golden needle. Popular gods like Shiva and
Ganesha have a third eye located in their forehead. The god Brahma, the Thousand-
Eyes, often has four heads and looks in all directions at once. This emphasis on the
vision and the image dominates the Hindus relation to the gods, appearing to be just
the opposite of many other religions.
Abrahamanic religions are dominated by the notion that One is better than
many: One God, One Book, One Son, One Church, One Nation of God. In Hinduism, the
more the better: many gods, many books, many sages, many insights. In this ever-
growing community of endless gods and goddesses, the roles of the gods and even their
hierarchy are somehow diffuse. Some gods get more attention than others and different
accounts suggest different hierarchies. Olympian gods, who had a clear hierarchy, may
look greedy and envious compared with the tolerant gods of Hinduism.

Agni, Indra, Shiva, Brahma, Vishnu and Ganesha are just a few examples of
very important Hindu gods that were regarded at different times and by different sects
as the most important gods. Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma were part of a holy Hindu
trinity (trimurti). Shiva is sometimes associated with the destruction process and
Vishnu as the creator who takes the remains destroyed by Shiva in order to regenerate
what has been destroyed. For the Ganapatya Hindu sect, Ganesha is the most
important deity. Ganesha is highly recognizable with his elephant head and human
body, representing the soul (atman) and the physical (maya) respectively. He is also the
patron of writers, travellers, students, commerce, and new projects (for which he
removes obstacles from one's path) and is rather fond of sweets, to the slight detriment
of his figure.

Trying to answer the big questions of life, Hinduism offers several different
accounts for the origin of the universe. Here we also see traces of the complexity of
Hinduism: the question has been approached in so many different ways. One account
says the universe came into existence as a result of the sacrifice of a primeval being,
Purusha, who existed even before time. The gods appear to have been his children.
Purusha is dismembered by the gods. Purushas mind became the Moon, his eyes the
Sun, the Sky came from his head, and the Earth came from his feet.

There is a famous creation quote in the Rig-Veda which suggests a certain


skepticism on whether the origin of the universe is a knowable topic.

Then was not non-existent nor existent: there was no realm of air, no sky
beyond it. What covered in, and where? and what gave shelter? Was water there,
unfathomed depth of water? Who verily knows and who can here declare it, whence it
was born and whence comes this creation? The Gods are later than this world's
production. Who knows then whence it first came into being? He, the first origin of this
creation, whether he formed it all or did not form it Whose eye controls this world in
highest heaven, he verily knows it, or perhaps he knows not.

(Rig-Veda 10.129.1-7)

It seems quite an extraordinary idea that even the gods, even the Highest Seer
in the Highest Sky, could possibly not know it all. There is another account on how the
universe started, which has no equivalent in any other tradition. The universe is
actually the dream of a god who after 100 Brahma years, dissolves himself into a
dreamless sleep, and the universe dissolves with him. After another 100 Brahma years,
he recomposes himself and begins to dream again the great cosmic dream. Meanwhile,
there are infinite other universes elsewhere, each of them being dreamt by its own god.
This idea could actually reverse the cause and the effect, since humans may not be the
result of the dreams of the gods, but rather the gods may be the result of the dreams of
humans.

B. Religious Practices

Customs and traditions have always been an important part of every religion
and culture. Human civilization is incomplete without them. As Hinduism is the oldest
religion on the earth, there are a lot of Hindu customs and traditions observed in India.
Some customs are so important for the people that sometimes, they sacrifice their lives
for them. Mainly, people living in villages in India are very conscious regarding these. It
does not mean that people living in the cities do not observe them but they are not as
staunch as the people in villages are. There are literally thousands of customs and
traditions in Hinduism. They vary from region to region and caste to caste. Many of
them are common in all parts of India. We would try to list down each and every Hindu
custom and tradition here.
When Hindus meet each other, they greet each other by saying Namaste or
Namaskar. They put together the palms of both hands while saying so. Some religious
words like Ram Ram, Jai Mata Di, Jai Ram Ji Ki, Om Namah Shivay are also used
sometimes.

2. Before the start of any good work and social and religious ceremonies, Hindus
worship Lord Ganesha and chant mantra:

:
:

Vakratund Mahakay Suryakoti Samaprabhah Nirvighnam Kurumedevah


Sarvakaryeshu Sarvadah

3. Hindus do not wear footwear inside homes, temples, and other holy places. They do
not enter the temples after consuming alcohol and/or nonvegetarian food.

4. They apply a spot or standing line of kumkum between the eyebrows on the forehead
at the time of worship.

5. They do not eat nonvegetarian food on Mondays, Thursdays, Saturdays, Chaturthis,


Ekadashis, and many other festival days.

6. Most of the marriages are of arranged type with the consent of bride and groom.
Marrying outside the caste is considered as a bad practice.

7. Arranged marriages generally take place within the respective castes only.

8. Marriage is a big ceremony for them and they do not hesitate to take loan for that. It
is like a prestige issue.

9. They do not kill snakes on Mondays and on the festival day of Nagpanchami.

10. Hindus pierce the ears of babies and put golden earrings in them.

12. Hindu girls and women pierce their nose also.

13. A married Hindu woman wears a Mangalsutra around her neck, bangles in her
hand, and toe rings, which indicate that she is married. She also applies a Kumkum
spot or sticks a bindi between her two eyebrows.

14. Showing respect to elders is an integral part of Hindu culture. A son must take care
of his parents in their old age. Younger people touch the feet of their elders to show
respect and take blessings from them. Mother, Father, and Teacher are considered as
next to god and are highly respected.

15. Hindus worship many deities. It is believed that there are 33 crore deities in
Hinduism.

16. Many festivals are celebrated throughout the year. There are different festivals for
different deities. Ganesha, Shiva, Vishnu, Laxmi, Parvati, Hanuman, Shri Ram, Shri
Krishna, and Kartikeya are the most popular deities.

17. Hindus believe that Lord Vishnu incarnates on the earth from time to time to
restore Dharma.

18. Lord Brahma is not worshiped separately as he is cursed. There is only one temple
of Brahma in India which is in Pushkar, Rajasthan.

19. Laxmi Pujan in Diwali is considered as the biggest festival of Hindus. On that day,
they worship Goddess Laxmi, the goddess of money.

20. Generally, Hindu women and girls wear clothes, which would cover all the body
except face such as Sari, Lehengas, Salwar Kameez, Ghagra choli, etc.
21. A married Hindu woman considers her husband as God and the husband considers
her as his Ardhangini (Half Body).

22. Before going for a long travel, they put lemons under the wheels of vehicles. They
believe that it would save them from perils. They also break coconut and light incense
stick in front of the vehicle for the same purpose.

23. Many people tie seven chillis and a lemon woven in a thread or wire to the vehicle as
they believe it saves them from negative energies.

24. They tie a black doll over the front door of the house to stop bad powers from
entering the house.

25. A ceremony called Vastushanti is performed before going to live in a new house. The
yagya performed during the ceremony is supposed to wipe out ghosts and other types of
negative energies from the house.

26. You would find an altar in every house which contains miniature idols of many
Hindu deities. They clean and worship them everyday.

27. The idols or pictures of Hindu deities are kept in such a way that they do not face
South. The practice is observed in temples as well as homes also. It is believed that hell
is located at South and paradise at North.

C. Pictures
Buddhism
A. History

Buddhism is one of the most important Asian spiritual traditions. During


its roughly 2.5 millennia of history, Buddhism has shown a flexible approach, adapting
itself to different conditions and local ideas while maintaining its core teachings. As a
result of its wide geographical expansion, coupled with its tolerant spirit, Buddhism
today encompasses a number of different traditions, beliefs, and practices.
During the last decades, Buddhism has also gained a significant presence outside
Asia. With the number of adherents estimated to be almost 400 million people,
Buddhism in our day has expanded worldwide, and it is no longer culturally specific.
For many centuries, this tradition has been a powerful force in Asia, which has touched
nearly every aspect of the eastern world: arts, morals, lore, mythology, social
institutions, etc. Today, Buddhism influences these same areas outside of Asia, as well.

The origin of Buddhism points to one man, Siddhartha Gautama, the historical
Buddha, who was born in Lumbini (in present-day Nepal) during the 5th century BCE.
Rather than the founder of a new religion, Siddhartha Gautama was the founder and
leader of a sect of wanderer ascetics (Sramanas), one of many sects that existed at that
time all over India. This sect came to be known as Sangha to distinguish it from other
similar communities.

The Sramanas movement, which originated in the culture of world renunciation


that emerged in India from about the 7th century BCE, was the common origin of many
religious and philosophical traditions in India, including the Charvaka school,
Buddhism, and its sister religion, Jainism. The Sramanas were renunciants who
rejected the Vedic teachings, which was the traditional religious order in India, and
renounced conventional society. Siddhartha Gautama lived during a time of profound
social changes in India. The authority of the Vedic religion was being challenged by a
number of new religious and philosophical views. This religion had been developed by a
nomadic society roughly a millennium before Siddharthas time, and it gradually gained
hegemony over most of north India, especially in the Gangetic plain. But things were
different in the 5th BCE, as society was no longer nomadic: agrarian settlements had
replaced the old nomad caravans and evolved into villages, then into towns and finally
into cities. Under the new urban context, a considerable sector of Indian society was no
longer satisfied with the old Vedic faith. Siddhartha Gautama was one of the many
critics of the religious establishment.

After Siddhartha Gautama passed away, the community he founded slowly


evolved into a religion-like movement and the teachings of Siddhartha became the basis
of Buddhism. The historical evidence suggests that Buddhism had a humble beginning.
Apparently, it was a relatively minor tradition in India, and some scholars have
proposed that the impact of the Buddha in his own day was relatively limited due to the
scarcity of written documents, inscriptions, and archaeological evidence from that time.
By the 3rd century BCE, the picture we have of Buddhism is very different. The
Mauryan Indian emperor Ashoka the Great (304232 BCE), who ruled from 268 to 232
BCE, turned Buddhism into the state religion of India. He provided a favourable social
and political climate for the acceptance of Buddhist ideas, encouraged Buddhist
missionary activity, and even generated among Buddhist monks certain expectations of
patronage and influence on the machinery of political decision making. Archaeological
evidence for Buddhism between the death of the Buddha and the time of Ashoka is
scarce; after the time of Ashoka it is abundant.

There are many stories about disagreements among the Buddha's disciples
during his lifetime and also accounts about disputes among his followers during the
First Buddhist Council held soon after the Buddhas death, suggesting that dissent was
present in the Buddhist community from an early stage. After the death of the Buddha,
those who followed his teachings had formed settled communities in different locations.
Language differences, doctrinal disagreements, the influence of non-Buddhist schools,
loyalties to specific teachers, and the absence of a recognized overall authority or
unifying organizational structure are just some examples of factors that contributed to
sectarian fragmentation.
About a century after the death of Buddha, during the Second Buddhist
Council, we find the first major schism ever recorded in Buddhism: The Mahasanghika
school. Many different schools of Buddhism had developed at that time. Buddhist
tradition speaks about 18 schools of early Buddhism, although we know that there were
more than that, probably around 25. A Buddhist school named Sthaviravada (in
Sanskrit school of the elders) was the most powerful of the early schools of Buddhism.
Traditionally, it is held that the Mahasanghika school came into existence as a result of
a dispute over monastic practice. They also seem to have emphasized the
supramundane nature of the Buddha, so they were accused of preaching that the
Buddha had the attributes of a god. As a result of the conflict over monastic discipline,
coupled with their controversial views on the nature of the Buddha, the Mahasanghikas
were expelled, thus forming two separate Buddhist lines: the Sthaviravada and the
Mahasanghika.

During the course of several centuries, both the Sthaviravada and the
Mahasanghika schools underwent many transformations, originating different schools.
The Theravada school, which still lives in our day, emerged from the Sthaviravada line,
and is the dominant form of Buddhism in Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka, and
Thailand. The Mahasanghika school eventually disappeared as an ordination tradition.
During the 1st century CE, while the oldest Buddhist groups were growing in south and
south-east Asia, a new Buddhist school named Mahayana (Great Vehicle) originated
in northern India. This school had a more adaptable approach and was open to
doctrinal innovations. Mahayama Buddhism is today the dominant form of Buddhism
in Nepal, Tibet, China, Japan, Mongolia, Korea, and Vietnam.

During the time of Ashokas reign, trade routes were opened through southern
India. Some of the merchants using these roads were Buddhists who took their religion
with them. Buddhist monks also used these roads for missionary activity. Buddhism
entered Sri Lanka during this time. A Buddhist chronicle known as the Mahavamsa
claims that the ruler of Sri Lanka, Devanampiya Tissa, was converted to Buddhism by
Mahinda, Ashokas son, who was a Buddhist missionary, and Buddhism became
associated with Sri Lankas kingship: The tight relationship between the Buddhist
community and Lankans rulers was sustained for more than two millennia until the
dethroning of the last Lankan king by the British in 1815 CE.

After reaching Sri Lanka, Buddhism crossed the sea into Myanmar (Burma):
Despite the fact that some Burmese accounts say that the Buddha himself converted
the inhabitants of Lower and Upper Myanmar, historical evidence suggests otherwise.
Buddhism co-existed in Myanmar with other traditions such as Brahmanism and
various locals animists cults. The records of a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim named
Xuanzang (Hsan-tsang, 602-664 CE) state that in the ancient city of Pyu (the capital of
the Kingdom of Sri Ksetra, present day Myanmar), a number of early Buddhist schools
were active. After Myanmar, Buddhism travelled into Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam,
and Laos, around 200 CE. The presence of Buddhism in Indonesia and the Malay
peninsula is supported by archaeological records from about the 5th century CE.
While Buddhism was flourishing all over the rest of Asia, its importance in India
gradually diminished. Two important factors contributed to this process: a number of
Muslim invasions, and the advancement of Hinduism, which incorporated the Buddha
as part of the pantheon of endless gods; he came to be regarded as one of the many
manifestations of the god Vishnu. In the end, the Buddha was swallowed up by the
realm of Hindu gods, his importance diminished, and in the very land where it was
born, Buddhism dwindled to be practiced by very few.

Buddhism entered China during the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE): The first
Buddhist missionaries accompanied merchant caravans that travelled using the Silk
Road, probably during the 1st century BCE. The majority of these missionaries
belonged to the Mahayana school. The initial stage of Buddhism is China was not very
promising. Chinese culture had a long-established intellectual and religious tradition
and a strong sense of cultural superiority that did not help the reception of Buddhist
ideas. Many of the Buddhist ways were considered alien by the Chinese and even
contrary to the Confucian ideals that dominated the ruling aristocracy. The monastic
order received a serious set of critiques: It was considered unproductive and therefore
was seen as placing an unnecessary economic burden on the population, and the
independence from secular authority emphasized by the monks was seen as an attempt
to undermine the traditional authority of the emperor. Despite its difficult beginning,
Buddhism managed to build a solid presence in China towards the fall of the Han
dynasty on 220 CE, and its growth accelerated during the time of disunion and political
chaos that dominated China during the Six Dynasties period (220-589 CE). The
collapse of the imperial order made many Chinese skeptical about the Confucian
ideologies and more open to foreign ideas. Also, the universal spirit of Buddhist
teachings made it attractive to many non-Chinese ruler in the north who were looking
to legitimate political power. Eventually, Buddhism in China grew strong, deeply
influencing virtually every aspect of its culture.

From China, Buddhism entered Korea in 372 CE, during the reign of King
Sosurim, the ruler of the Kingdom of Koguryo, or so it is stated in official records. There
is archaeological evidence that suggests that Buddhism was known in Korea from an
earlier time. The official introduction of Buddhism in Tibet (according to Tibetan
records) took place during the reign of the first Tibetan emperor Srong btsan sgam po
(Songtsen gampo, 617-649/650 CE), although we know that the proto-Tibetan people
had been in touch with Buddhism from an earlier time, through Buddhist merchants
and missionaries. Buddhism grew powerful in Tibet, absorbing the local pre-Buddhist
Tibetan religions. Caught between China and India, Tibet received monks from both
sides and tension between Chinese and Indian Buddhist practice and ideology turned
out to be inevitable. From 792 to 794 CE a number of debates were held in the Bsam
yas monastery between Chinese and Indian Buddhists. The debate was decided in
favour of the Indians: Buddhists translations from Chinese sources were abandoned
and the Indian Buddhist influence became predominant.

The Buddha was not concerned with satisfying human curiosity related to
metaphysical speculations. Topics like the existence of god, the afterlife, or creation
stories were ignored by him. During the centuries, Buddhism has evolved into different
branches, and many of them have incorporated a number of diverse metaphysical
systems, deities, astrology and other elements that the Buddha did not consider. In
spite of this diversity, Buddhism has a relative unity and stability in its moral code. The
most important teaching of the Buddha is known as The Four Noble Truths, which is
shared with varying adjustments by all Buddhist schools. In general, the Four Noble
Truths are explained as follows:

1 The First Noble Truth is generally translated as all life is suffering, which can be
easily understood when it comes to painful situations like death, illness, abuse,
poverty, and so forth. But suffering also may arise from good things because nothing
is permanent, everything is changing, and whatever gives us happiness will sooner or
later come to an end. It seems that all pleasures are temporary and the more we
enjoy them, the more we will miss them when they end. Nothing lasts forever, is
one of the insights of the Buddha.
2 The cause of suffering is desire. Suffering comes from desire, also referred as thirst
or greed. Our desires will always exceed our resources and leave us unhappy and
unsatisfied. All suffering originates in desire, but not all desire generates suffering.
Only selfish desire generates suffering: desire directed to the advantage of the part
rather than to the good of the whole.
3 By stopping desire, suffering also stops. The idea is not to get too attached to
material goods, places, ideas, or even people. Non-attachment to anything is the
main idea behind the third noble truth. It means that since all changes if our
attachment is too strong, we will inevitably suffer at some point. After all, we will all
get old, decay, and die; this is a natural cycle, and there is nothing wrong with it.
The problem comes when, by attaching too much, we do not accept the changes.
4 By following The Eightfold Path, desire stops. The Eightfold Path is composed of:
right views, right intentions, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort,
right mindfulness and right concentration.

In some religions, sin is the origin of human suffering. In Buddhism there is no


sin; the root cause of human suffering is avidy ignorance. In the entrance area of
some Buddhist monasteries, sometimes the images of four scary-looking deities are
displayed, the four protectors whose purpose is to scare away the ignorance of those
who enter. Buddhism does not require faith or belief. If faith can be understood as
believing something which is unsupported by evidence, and ignorance is overcome by
understanding, then faith is not enough to overcome ignorance and therefore suffering.
And belief, as understood by other religions, is not necessary in Buddhism:

The question of belief arises when there is no seeing - seeing in every sense of
the word. The moment you see, the question of belief disappears. If I tell you that I have
a gem hidden in the folded palm of my hand, the question of belief arises because
you do not see it yourself. But if I unclench my fist and show you the gem, then you see
it for yourself, and the question of belief does not arise. So the phrase in ancient
Buddhist texts reads 'Realizing, as one sees a gem in the palm'
(Rahula W., p.9)

In its most basic form, Buddhism does not include the concept of a god. The
existence of god is neither confirmed, nor denied; it is a non-theistic system. The
Buddha is seen as an extraordinary man, not a deity. Some Buddhist schools have
incorporated supernatural entities into their traditions, but even in these cases, the role
of human choice and responsibility remains supreme, far above the deeds of the
supernatural.In some Chinese and Japanese Buddhist monasteries, they go even
further by performing a curious exercise: The monks are requested to think that the
Buddha did not even existed. There is a good reason for this: the core of Buddhism is
not the Buddha, but his teachings or dharma. It is said that those who wish to
understand Buddhism and are interested in the Buddha are as mistaken as a person
who wishes to study mathematics by studying the life of Pythagoras or Newton. By
imagining the Buddha never existed, they avoid focusing on the idol so that they can
embrace the ideal.

B. Religious Practices

Buddhism has changed and adapted to every culture it encountered after it


began in the north of India. As such, Buddhism practices change depending upon the
tradition and society. Tolerance is a key Buddhist virtue, whilst maintaining integrity to
ones core beliefs. Some rituals are important if only to define ones motivation and give
expression and definition to ones religion. There is even a growing western Buddhism,
which can be said to encourage environmental acts, respect for human rights, and
social equality. However, below we will outline some of the more well known Buddhism
practices from traditionally Buddhist cultures.

Most Buddhist practices have the central aim of avoiding future karmic
problems (by avoiding harming others), karmic benefit (through helping others), as well
as various practices and ritualized activities that focus the mind, help to purify it and to
assist in ones attainment of enlightenment and ridding of suffering for oneself and
others.

Meditation
Perhaps the key Buddhist practice, it is central to most traditions, and the only
means to enlightenment for some. An excellent introduction to Buddhist meditation
practices is available at MeditationInstructions.com (coming soon). The benefits of
meditation are many, including physical and mental health, relaxation, improved
relaxation and mental ability, and happiness. It is primarily the ability to understand
and control the mind and its use for practices that lead to enlightenment that is
considered the most important.

Prayers
The position of prayer in Buddhism varies from tradition to tradition. A
Buddhist solution to this may be to try each approach, and see which not only makes
intellectual sense, but which leads to a better understanding of oneself and benefits to
ones well being. In Tibet particularly, prayer to various deities (influenced by the
indigenous religion Bon, as well as various Indian practices) featured prominently, with
prayer focusing the mind. With the merit of a prayer affecting ones future reality, and
the number of times a prayer is said being important, Tibetans have developed
machinery to magnify the quantity of prayers. Prayer wheels can contain a prayer
written down many thousands of times turning a wheel thus has a magnified
physical or mental effect. Similarly, prayer flags activate their written prayers with
each flapping of the wind, sending their good wishes far and wide.

In contrast, Therevada emphasizes the fact that Buddhism does not posit the
existence of a separate creator god, and that the Buddha himself discouraged his own
worship. Indeed, Therevada believes the Buddha is outside of any call of prayer and it is
wrong practice to pray to the Buddha (Tibetan Buddhism, by contrast, equates
enlightenment with a heightened, intimate awareness of all beings). In both traditions,
various rituals allows one to reflect on the qualities of the Buddha, and all of these
practices are mutually reinforcing in internalizing true Buddhist beliefs. Rituals have a
cumulative affect of training ones mind and systematizing ones practice. The act of
bowing and prostrating is a challenge to ones egoism itself and may be beneficial
merely on that level.
Chanting
Chanting is a common sound in Buddhist communities from Zen monasteries in
Japan, to communities in Laos, Thailand, and elsewhere in Southeast Asia. Originating
in India, where writing was rare, chanting enabled important texts to be passed from
person to person. Later, the ritual of chanting was found to be a useful way to focus the
mind, and remember and internalize key Buddhist ideas. In some communities it may
even be said to have a protective aspect, with Buddhists chanting during important life
events, or during or before times of danger or otherwise personal importance.
As with all of these rituals, the benefit is seen as less the result of an external agent,
and more in the personal effort and resulting benefits from focusing ones good
intentions, motivations, and purifying the mind from wrong views and understandings.

Vegetarianism
Many Buddhists are vegetarian, however it must be said that the Buddha
himself did not prohibit the eating of meat. Many monasteries still serve meat today,
and in Tibet, a high protein and fat diet was important in such a cold, often snow-
covered environment. Buddhism acknowledges that rigid rules are often
counterproductive, individual medical situations mean that vegetarianism may not
always be the best course of action for ones spiritual practice. However one is not
immune from the karmic consequences of eating meat, particularly if it is killed for you.
Some choose to eat only ethically raised and well treated animals, offer prayers and
thanks to the deceased creature, or limit meat eating to a minimum. As always,
Buddhas teachings leave ultimate responsibility with the individual, and so do not
remove the obligation of finding ones own answer to the wisest course of action for a
person to follow.

C. Pictures
Folk Religion
A. History
Folk religion is basically made up of certain ethnic or regional religious
traditions that practice under the guise of an established religion, but is outside the
boundaries of official doctrine and practices. Folk religions indigenous or native beliefs
are held all over the world, particularly in parts of South America, Africa, China, and
Southeast Asia. The largest folk religion in the world is the Chinese folk religion which
has an estimated 400 million followers worldwide or about 6.6 percent of the worlds
population. All folk religions combined have more followers than Buddhism or Judaism,
claiming about 10 percent of the world population in total. Only Christianity, Islam, and
Hinduism have more followers.

Despite being separated by many thousands of miles, several aspects of folk


religion have certain features in common. Folk religion is heavily infused with magic
and superstition, in particular what is called sympathetic magicthe belief that like
forces influence like forces. This holds true even if they are not causally linked in any
way directly or even obviously. An example of sympathetic magic is the idea that the
movements of the stars and planets somehow influence or portend events or tendencies
in the human experience. The popularity of astrology and psychics demonstrates that
folk religion still exists, even in the Western world.

Interestingly, many components of folk religion have found their way into
modern mega-religions including Christianity and Islam. For example, some of our
Christmas traditions can be traced back to pagan origins, including a pagan feast
preceding the advent of the birth of Jesus. At that time it was called the winter solstice.
Further, the symbolic consumption of Jesus body and blood during the Catholic mass
is considered by some as an example of sympathetic magic, whereby he who consumes
the magical substance is imbued with some of the sanctity that comes from the divine
persona.

Folk religion is employed also by combining some of its practices with those of
mega religions. And in so doing, these practices are labeled as folk Christianity among
Christian countries and folk Islam in those of Islamic nations. Without question, folk
religion is considered a distorted, if not meaningless, practice of religion by lay people
outside of the control of clergy or the supervision of theologians. As one would imagine,
there is a certain amount of acrimony between the two.

B. Religious Practices

Folk religion attempts in its own way to answer human needs for reassurance in
times of trouble, and many of its rituals are aimed at mundane goals like seeking
healing or averting misfortune. Several aspects or practices of folk religion are born
from certain animistic or fetishistic rituals or ceremonies. This is inevitable simply
because of folk religions ritualistic nature. Actually, the line is often blurry between the
practice of folk religion and the practice of magic. Remarkably, those who hold to the
practices of folk religion are not even aware that their beliefs are distinctive from those
of major official religions. Here are some examples that can be considered aspects of
folk religion doctrine:

belief in the Evil Eye


rituals to ward off evil, curses, demons, witchcraft
blessing of animals, crops, beer, wine, cheese
fertility rites
belief in traditional magic systems
thanksgiving prayers, grace before meals and other domestic rituals
veneration of ancestors and deceased family members, esp. in Christian, Jewish, or
Islamic households
some aspects of the veneration of various saints and the Blessed Virgin Mary in
Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy; Marian apparitions
hoodoo, voodoo, pow-wow and Santera
snake handling
hex signs
religious jewelry
religious art in the home
use of Bible, crucifix, other objects as talismans
systems of interpretation of prophecy as it relates to the end times

Some of these practices are consistent with biblical Christianity, such as prayers
of thanksgiving and systematic interpretation of biblical prophecy. Where folk religion
departs from the Bible as the revealed Word of God, it should be rejected, and that
would seem to be the vast majority of its doctrine and practices.

C. Pictures
Medium-Sized
Religions
Taoism
A. History

Taoism, also known as Daoism, is an indigenous Chinese religion often


associated with the Daode jing (Tao Te Ching), a philosophical and political text
purportedly written by Laozi (Lao Tzu) sometime in the 3rd or 4th centuries B.C.E. The
Daode jing focuses on dao as a "way" or "path" that is, the appropriate way to behave
and to lead others but the Daode jing also refers to Tao as something that existed
"before Heaven and Earth," a primal and chaotic matrix from which all forms emerged.
Taoism did not exist as an organized religion until the Way of the Celestial Masters sect
was founded in 142 C.E. by Zhang Daoling, who based the sect on spiritual
communications from the deified Laozi.

The Way of the Celestial Masters and other later sects of Taoism engaged in
complex ritual practices, including devotion to a wide range of celestial divinities and
immortals, and thousands of Taoist religious texts were produced over the centuries.
Taoists also engaged with Chinese politics in a variety of ways throughout Chinese
history. At one time, scholars in both China and the West distinguished philosophical
from religious Taoism, but more recently a continuity of belief and practice between
these has been recognized.

In both, a harmonious relationship between nature, humanity, and the divine is


emphasized, and both are concerned with appropriate behavior and ways of leading and
governing others. The term "Tao" has a number of meanings. Taoist religious sects were
persecuted in China during the 19th and 20th centuries, but are currently undergoing
a revival. Western interest in Taoism has, for the most part, been confined to the Daode
jing, but in both the West and in the East, there is considerable interest in practices
which, while not "Taoist" per se, are often associated with Taoism, ranging from
fengshui to taiji quan to acupuncture and herbal medicine.

B. Religious Practices

At the heart of Taoist ritual is the concept of bringing order and harmony to many
layers of the cosmos: the cosmos as a whole (the world of nature), the world or human
society, and the inner world of human individuals. Taoist rituals involve purification,
meditation and offerings to deities. The details of Taoist rituals are often highly complex
and technical and therefore left to the priests, with the congregation playing little part.
The rituals involve the priest (and assistants) in chanting and playing instruments
(particularly wind and percussion), and also dancing. One major Taoist ritual is the
chiao (jiao), a rite of cosmic renewal, which is itself made up of several rituals.

A shortened version of the chiao is a ritual in which each household in a village brings
an offering for the local deities. In the ceremony a Taoist priest dedicates the offerings in
the names of the families, performs a ritual to restore order to the universe, and asks
the gods to bring peace and prosperity to the village.

Temple rituals can be used to regulate ch'i and balance the flow of yin and yang both
for individuals and the wider community. Other rituals involve prayers to various Taoist
deities, meditations on talismans, and reciting and chanting prayers and texts.

C. Pictures

D.
Shinto
A. History

Shinto ("the way of the Kami") is the name of the formal state religion of Japan
that was first used in the 6th century C.E., although the roots of the religion go back
to at least the 6th century B.C.E. Shinto has no founder, no official sacred texts, and
no formalized system of doctrine. Shinto has been formative in developing uniquely
Japanese attitudes and sensitivities, creating a distinct Japanese consciousness.
Belief in kamisacred or divine beings, although also understood to be spiritual
essencesis one of the foundations of Shinto. Shinto understands that the kami not
only exist as spiritual beings, but also in nature; they are within mountains, trees,
rivers, and even geographical regions. In this sense, the kami are not like the all-
powerful divine beings found in Western religion, but the abstract creative forces in
nature. Related to the kami is the understanding that the Shinto followers are
supposed to live in harmony and peaceful coexistence with both nature and other
human beings. This has enabled Shinto to exist in harmony with other religious
traditions. As the foundation for Japanese culture, Shinto has also played a
significant role in the political realm. For centuries, Shinto religious festivals and
ceremonies have become indistinguishable from the affairs of the government.

B. Religious Practices

Shinto rituals are a central component of most of the national festivals in Japan,
as well as of the more specialized events at particular shrines and other sacred sites.
Most often they are performed by male priests who are assisted by a female shrine
functionary called a miko, who often is a shaman. The most common type of ritual
involves purification - symbolically purifying oneself or an object before interacting with
the kami (Shinto gods). Purification is done with water (rinsing, washing, bathing) or
with the priest's wand. Other common rituals include the formal reading of prayers
from ancient collections, and making food and drink offerings to the kami (which is
later shared in a communal meal). Again, these are done by priests. Shinto rituals are
usually just one part of a type of large public festival called a matsuri, which is the main
kind of celebration in Shinto. Hundreds and thousands of them fill the calendar
thought the year. They are community-oriented festival which mark all sorts of things:
seasons in nature, the New Year, chrysanthemum blooms, cherry blossoms, events
from the Shinto mythologies, Japanese history, agricultural traditions and more.

Other Shinto rituals are performed during smaller, more local or even private
festivals. These mark stages of life, such as births, rites of passage in the early years of
a child's life, marriages, and funerals. Finally, there are common rituals performed by
individuals when they visit shrines - ritual washing, making offerings, clapping hands,
and bowing. An important thing to remember here is that all these rituals are designed
for communication with the gods, or kami. Sometimes that communication is one-way
(from the human to the kami) in which people express thanks, make requests and offer
praise to the kami. At other times, that communication is two-way (from human to
kami and from kami to human) in which people use the priest or miko as a mediator
between them and the kami to get answers to important questions or to learn solutions
to problems in their lives.

C. Pictures
Falun Gong
A. History

Falun Gong is a religious movement founded by Li Hongzhi in China in 1992.


Falun Gong adopts elements from a variety of Asian religious traditions including
Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, ancient indigenous Chinese religions, as well as
Western New Age movements. Falun Gong followers do not consider it to be a religion,
but a "cultivation practice" which aims to bring inner peace and health to individuals
and society. Based on meditation techniques of Qi Gong, this cultivation occurs through
practices which guide one to improvement and renewal of the heart and mind through
the study of the three universal principles of benevolence, truthfulness, and
forbearance. The specific practice of Falun Gong includes five exercises of meditation
and slow movements called Xiu Lian, of which four are standing and one is sitting. It is
believed that the practice of Xiu Lian can awaken the spiritual energy within a person
and can thus serve as an alternative to traditional medicine. Falun Gong's primary text
is Li Hongzhi's book, Zhuan Falun ("Turning the Law Wheel"); but a basic book, Falun
Gong, also covers the fundamental concepts and practices of the tradition. The tradition
was officially banned in China in 1999 following a decade during which Falun Gong
members were harassed, beaten, and imprisoned by the government. The tradition has
spread throughout the world from its birthplace in China.

B. Religious Practices

Followers of Falun Gong believe that the falun can be awakened (or "installed")
through a set of exercises called Xiu Lian ("Cultivating and Practicing"). This dispels
karma that causes illness, and thus can cure and prevent disease. Falun Gong has its
origins in Qi Gong (Chinese: "Energy Working"), the use of meditation techniques and
physical exercise to achieve good health and peace of mind, which has a long history in
Chinese culture and religion.

Unlike other Qi Gong groups, Falun Gong insists that its founder is the only
authoritative source for determining the correct exercises and that a spiritual discipline,
the "cultivation of the Xinxing" ("Mind-Nature"), is essential to the success of the
exercises. The practice of Falun Gong consists of five exercises, four standing and one
sitting, which involve meditation and slow movements. Falun Gong practitioners also
"study the universal principles of truthfulness, benevolence, and tolerance."

Critics of the movement regard its reliance on Xiu Lian as an alternative to


official medicine as hazardous to the members' health. The Chinese government claims
that 1,400 Falun Gong devotees have died as a result of this alleged rejection of
modern medicine.

C. Pictures
Sikhism
A. History

The Sikh tradition was founded by Guru Nanak in the late 15th century C.E. in
the Punjab region of what are today India and Pakistan. According to Sikh beliefs, the
same revelatory spirit inhabited Guru Nanak and his nine successors. Today, this spirit
can be found in the teachings of the Guru Granth Sahib, the foundational scripture of
the Sikh tradition. The Guru Granth Sahib's hymns describe and praise God, and
provide moral guidance for all Sikhs. Sikhs reject ideas of divine incarnations, and hold
that liberation results from being absorbed into God. Sikhs also reject the social
doctrine of caste, and adhere to practices of equality in worship and life. The centers of
Sikh worship are known as gurdwaras ("house of the Guru") and langar (communal
refectory). All Sikhs must enter a gurdwara with bare feet and a covered head. A Sikh
worship service includes prayer and singing hymns from scripture. The service is
concluded by the distribution of karah prasad, a sacramental food made of flour,
butter, and raw sugar that is shared by all to demonstrate equality and the rejection of
caste. Sikhs attempt to live balanced lives of worship, work, and charity centered on
community. Besides gurdwara worship, festivals are also important community
activities.

B. Religious Practices

In addition to worship, there are other important rites and rituals within
Sikhism. The Sikh Rehat Maryada is the Sikh Code of Conduct, giving instructions for
all ceremonies.

The ceremony of initiation into the Sikh religion is called the Amrit ceremony.
Sikhs undertake the Amrit ceremony when they are ready to do so and understand the
commitment that they are making to the religion. The ceremony is held in the presence
of the Guru Granth Sahib. The ceremony is conducted by five baptized Sikhs, called
Panj Pyare, who wear the five Sikh symbols. The five Sikhs prepare the Amrit (holy
water) in a round iron-vessel containing fresh water and sweets called Patasas. They
recite the five Banis (Japji Sahib, Jaap Sahib, Ten Swayyas, Chaupai Sahib and Anand
Sahib) and stir the water with a double-edged sword, called a Khanda. After
preparation, the Amrit is drunk by the initiation candidates and then sprinkled on their
eyes and hair. The ceremony concludes with the eating of the ceremonial karah
parshad.

The Sikh marriage is called Anand Karaj meaning 'blissful union'. Sikh weddings
take place in the presence of the Guru Granth Sahib. Anand Karaj consists of the
couple revolving around Guru Granth Sahib four times as the Lavan (Marriage hymns)
are being recited. The marriage ceremony may be performed by any Sikh, male or
female, who has undergone the Amrit initiation. Sikhs practice monogamy. Widows or
widowers may remarry. Child marriage is forbidden. After a child is born, the baby is
often taken to a Gurdwara for a naming ceremony. Prayers (ardas) are recited for the
newborn child. After reciting ardas, the Guru Granth Sahib is opened at random. The
hymn on the opened page is recited. The first letter of the first word of the hymn is
selected as the first letter of the child's name. The word Kaur meaning 'princess' is
added after a girl's name, and the name Singh meaning 'lion' after a boy's.

C. Pictures
Judaism
A. History

Judaism is a religious tradition with origins dating


back nearly four thousand years, rooted in the ancient near
eastern region of Canaan (which is now Israel and Palestinian
territories). Originating as the beliefs and practices of the people known
as "Israel," classical, or rabbinic, Judaism did not emerge until the 1st century C.E.
Judaism traces its heritage to the covenant God made with Abraham and his lineage
that God would make them a sacred people and give them a holy land. The primary
figures of Israelite culture include the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and the
prophet Moses, who received God's law at Mt. Sinai. Judaism is a tradition grounded in
the religious, ethical, and social laws as they are articulated in the Torah the first five
books of the Hebrew Bible. Jews refer to the Bible as the Tanakh, an acronym for the
texts of the Torah, Prophets, and Writings. Other sacred texts include the Talmud and
Midrash, the rabbinic, legal, and narrative interpretations of the Torah. The
contemporary branches of Judaism differ in their interpretations and applications of
these texts. The four main movements within Judaism today are Orthodox,
Conservative, Reform, and Reconstructionist, respectively ranging from traditional to
liberal to religiously progressive in their application of Torah. While diverse in their
views, Jews continue to be unified on the basis of their common connection to a set of
sacred narratives expressing their relationship with God as a holy people. Jewish
religious leaders are called rabbis, who oversee the many rituals and ceremonies
essential to Jewish religious practice.

B. Religious Practices

A devout Jew is required to pray three times a day morning, afternoon, and
evening. Although preferably with a quorum [Minyan] of at least ten adult Jewish men
in a synagogue setting (if one is available), prayers can alternately be recited
individually at home or wherever else one may be located. An additional morning
worship service is included on the Sabbath and Festivals, along with special prayers for
specific holy days. Hebrew or Hebrew/English (or Hebrew/other local language) books
containing structured liturgies are used during prayers. For all male Orthodox,
Conservative, Reconstructionist and some Reform Jews the head is covered during
prayer with a skull cap [yarmulke] or ordinary hat. Note: most Orthodox men will cover
their heads at all times as a sign of reverence to G-d. During morning prayers, a prayer
shawl [Tallit] which as fringes at the four corners (in obedience to a command found in
the Torah), is worn by adult males. On non-Sabbath/Festival days, two small leather
phylacteries [Tefillin] boxes are attached to the forehead and arm with leather straps by
adult Orthodox males and by some adherents of other branches. Also, whenever
possible, a Jewish inmate should not be required to pray in a room/cell that contains
either a toilet or symbols of any other religions.

Jews also affix a Mezuzah, a small parchment scroll (on which is written the
opening paragraphs of the Shema which prescribes this practice) within a protective
container to the upper right-hand corner of the doorpost of the front door of their home
and synagogues. In the homes of more observant Jews, Mezuzahs are also placed on
the doorposts of every other living room (except bathrooms). Though inmates may
request a Mezuzah for their living area and/or chapel, a prison is not considered an
appropriate place to post a Mezuzah.
C. Pictures
Korean
Shamanism
A. History

Korean shamanism covers


magic-religious rituals, both communal and private ones. In these rituals the focus is
on both the shamans (mudang) individual experience as well as on the shamans
hereditary abilities to contact the spirit world, inhabited by various shamanistic gods.

With its history of some five thousand years, shamanism is the oldest belief
system in Korea. The Koreans agree that their shamanistic tradition stems from Central
Asia and is connected with the above-mentioned Northern Shamanistic Belt, connecting
Korea with Central Asia, Siberia and northern Scandinavia. Although during certain
periods shamanism has been regarded as a form of low folk culture, it has never
completely disappeared in Korea. After the re-evaluation of Korean cultural identity in
the mid-20th century, it was agreed that shamanism formed the earliest stratum of
Korean culture.

Nowadays shamanistic rituals are still part of everyday life, both in agrarian and
more urban surroundings. The construction works of modern skyscrapers, for example,
are inaugurated with shamanistic rituals, while several of the classical music and
dance traditions clearly reveal their origins in shamanism. Furthermore, many
contemporary artists come from old shaman families.

B. Religious Practices

The nuclear of Korean shamanism is the gut ceremony. It can be a private,


individual ceremony, which, for example, is aimed at curing a disease, ensuring
longevity or paving the way to the after-world. This kind of ceremony can also be
addressed to a deceased person.

A gut ceremony can also be a grandiose, communal happening. A village gut


may, for example, aim to ensure a good harvest, or luck for the fishermen, or to cure an
epidemic illness. Serious, ritualistic sections are combined with more entertaining
dance and music numbers.

The audience also participates in the ceremony. The shaman often addresses
her comments directly to the audience, which, every now and then, takes part in the
dancing and singing.

In principle a Korean shamanistic ritual is divided into 12 sections. Most of the


rituals share, more or less, the same structure and functions. However, there are many
regional variants of the gut ritual. They are usually named after the village or the region
in which they are practised.
C. Pictures
Caodaism
A. History

Cao Dai (also known as Caodaism


or Dao Cao Dai) is a modern, pluralistic,
syncretistic Vietnamese religious tradition
with strong nationalistic components. Cao
Dai - which means "High Tower" -
incorporates characteristics from a variety
of religious and philosophical traditions,
including theories of karma and the
afterlife from Buddhism, moral and
ethical codes from Confucianism,
hierarchical structure from Roman Catholicism (including a pope, cardinals, and
archbishops), as well as rituals and practices from Taoism. Cao Dai saints include
religious and political leaders from various traditions and civilizations, including the
Buddha, Jesus Christ, Julius Caesar, Confucius, Muhammad, Victor Hugo, and Joan of
Arc. Formally established as a religion in 1926 under the leadership of the prophet Ngo
Van Chieu, Cao Dai took on a political role (including forming an army) with Japan's
invasion of Indochina. After a conflict with the Vietnamese Premier, the Cao Dai army
was disbanded and the religious leaders were exiled. The Cao Dai religious movement
survived in Vietnamese refugee communities and has since spread throughout Vietnam,
the United States, France, and Cambodia. Cao Dai is proudly syncretistic and
pluralistic, maintaining that its purpose is to bring harmony between the great diversity
of individuals and religions through a common vision of the Supreme Being. The
Supreme Being is represented as the Divine Eye (an eye within a triangle). Cao Dai
worship includes many elaborate rituals and festivals as well as honoring Cao Dai
saints and ancestors at temples.

B. Religious Practices

Believers worship God the Father, Holy Mother and the Divine Beings with all
their heart. They also venerate the Great Religious Prophets of history and honour the
ancestors. There are four daily ceremonies, that is, at 06:00, Midday, 18:00 and
midnight, either at the temple or in front of the home altar. Monthly rituals take place
on midnight of the 1st and 15th days of the lunar month. There is also a special
anniversary ceremony once a year for God the Father, the Holy Mother, the five
founders of the worlds major religions, and the founders of the Cao Dai religion. The
rituals differ between places, depending on who they pray to. At the Holy See: Prayers
include incense offering, ceremony opening, prayer to the Jade Emperor (God the
Father), prayer to Dipankara Buddha (Buddhism), prayer to Thi Thng Lo Qun or
Taishang Laojun (Taoism), prayer to Confucius (Confucianism), one of the three jewel
offering prayers (flower, wine, and tea), and the five pledges.

At the Holy Mother temple: Prayers include incense offering, ceremony opening,
prayer describing the role of the Holy Mother, prayer to express gratitude to the Holy
Mother, one the three jewel offering prayers (flower, wine, and tea), and the five pledges.
There are also differences between monthly rituals, and anniversary ones. Ceremonial
prescriptions such as actions, dress and music were organized in detail by God the
Father. These include ceremonies for initiations, marriages and funerals. Particular
attention is paid to death, and it has been revealed to the religion how the soul journeys
towards heaven and how, on earth, co-religionists can pray for souls to help them on
their way.

C. Pictures
Bah Faith
A. History

The Baha'i faith was founded in the mid-19th century C.E. in Iran. In 1844
Siyyid Ali Mohammad, a Shiite Muslim, proclaimed that he was "the Bab," "the Gate,"
a special sort of interpreter of the Quran with special religious insight and prophetic
abilities; he was the "Hidden Imam." The Bab's prophetic message spread in Iran,
which angered both the government and the Shiite leadership. He was arrested and
then executed. One of the Bab's disciples, Mirza Hoseyn Ali Nuri, known as
Baha'u'llah, spread the Bab's teachings; these teachings eventually evolved into the
Baha'i faith, and it is Baha'u'llah who is most typically known as the founder of the
tradition. Baha'i propounds that God is utterly transcendent and ultimately
unknowable to humanity. God's manifestation is understood in Baha'i to come not just
through the Bab and Baha'u'llah, but also through the world's religious prophets,
including Abraham, Moses, the Buddha, Krishna, and Muhammad. Baha'i sacred
literature includes the writings and oral history of the Bab and Baha'u'llah. The Baha'i
do not have any clergy; all spiritual authority is held by local and national councils
called "Spiritual Assemblies." Baha'i is open to all who accept the teachings of
Baha'u'llah. Baha'i religious practices and rituals include daily prayer and devotions.
Baha'i followers are expected to fast for nineteen days a year and participate in the
Nineteen Day Feast. Essential Baha'i theological tenets include the unity of humanity
and the unity of all religions with the ultimate goal of creating a unified humanity
without racial, ethnic, class, or religious prejudice. Baha'i has spread to virtually every
country in the world, and Baha'i temples can be found on every continent except
Antartica.

B. Religious Practices

Service and worship are at the heart of the pattern of community life that
Bahs around the world are trying to bring into being. They are two distinct, yet
inseparable elements that propel the life of the community forward. Abdul-Bah writes
that, Success and prosperity depend upon service to and worship of God.

Prayer is integral to Bah life, whether at the level of the individual, the
community, or the institutions. Bahs turn their hearts in prayer to God repeatedly
throughout the dayimploring His assistance, supplicating Him on behalf of loved
ones, offering praise and gratitude, and seeking divine confirmations and guidance. In
addition, meetings of consultation and gatherings where friends have come together to
undertake one or another project commonly begin and end with prayers.

Bahs also host gatherings in which friends, Bahs and others alike, unite
together in prayer, often in one anothers homes. Devotional meetings such as these
serve to awaken spiritual susceptibilities within the participants, and in concert with
the acts of service they perform, lead to a pattern of community life that is infused with
the spirit of devotion and focused on the attainment of spiritual and material prosperity.

C. Pictures
Tenriism
A. History

Tenriism, or Tenrikyo, is one of the growing


religious faiths in Japan, and in the world as a
whole. Having been originated by Japanese woman
named Nakayama Miki in the 19th Century, the
religion now has over 1.75 million followers in Japan
and over 2 million worldwide.

The story of the origins of the religion is dated back to 1838 when Nakayama
Miki, or Oyasama as she is called by her followers, was possessed by the One god
(Tenri-O-no-Mikoto), who demanded her husband that Miki be given to him as a human
shrine. After three days, her husband accepted the proposal and Miki then turned to a
shrine of god through whom God himself spoke. The sacred texts of Tenrikyo are
Ofudesaki, Mikagura-Uta and and Oshashizu. All these books contain either poems or
songs regarding the words of the god told through the possession of the religion's
founder, Nakayam Miki.The primary book is considered to be Ofudesaki. The religion is
neither strictly monotheistic nor pantheistic.. The adherents believe that one can
control his mind but not the body. The religion does not tell negative behaviors as sins
but rather as "dust" which can be cleansed off through proper service. The ultimate aim
of Tenrikyo is the salvation of all human beings through proper service to humankind
itself and the attainment of "The Joyous Life" . "The Joyous Life" in Tenrikyo is
considered of charity and free from greed,selfishness,arrogance,anger and hatred.

B. Religious Practices

The Otsutome or daily service consists of the performance of the seated service
and, optionally, the practice of a chapter or two of the 12 chapters of Teodori (lit. hand
dance) or Yorozuyo. The daily service is performed twice a day; once in the morning
and then in the evening. The service times are adjusted according to the time of sun
rise and sun set but may vary from church to church. Service times at the Jiba in
Tenri City go by this time schedule and adjust in the changing of seasons. Hinokishin
(lit. daily service) is a spontaneous action that is an expression of gratitude and joy for
being allowed to "borrow" his or her body from God the Parent. Doing the work that
others want to do least are considered sincere in the eyes of God. Hinokishin is a
method of "sweeping" the "mental dusts" that accumulate in our minds. The "mental
dusts" are referring to the Eight Mental Dusts. The Tenrikyo Young Men's Association
and Tenrikyo Women's Association are Tenrikyo-based groups that perform group
activities as public service. To participate in such groups may be considered
Hinokishin. Tsukinamisai or the monthly service is a performance of the entire
Mikagura-Uta, the sacred songs of the service, which is the service for world salvation.
Generally, mission headquarters and grand churches (churches with 100 or more
others under them) have monthly services performed on the third Sunday of every
month; other churches perform on any other Sunday of the month. The monthly
service at the Jiba is performed on the 26th of every month, the day of the month in
which Tenrikyo was first conceived October 26, 1838.

C. Pictures
Jainism
A. History

Jainism dates to the 6th century B.C.E. in India. The religion derives its name
from the jinas ("conquerors"), a title given to twenty-four great teachers (tirthankaras or
"ford-makers"), through whom their faith was revealed. Mahavira, the last of the
tirthankaras, is considered the founder of Jainism. The ultimate goal of Jainism the
liberation of the self (jiva) from rebirth, which is attained through the elimination of
accumulated karma (the consequences of previous actions). This occurs through both
the disciplined cultivation of knowledge and control of bodily passions. When the
passions have been utterly conquered and all karma has been removed, one becomes a
Jina ("conqueror"), and is no longer subject to rebirth. Jainism conceives of a multi-
layered universe containing both heavens and hells. Movement through these levels of
the universe requires adherence to the Jainism doctrines emphasizing a peaceful and
disciplined life. These principles include non-violence in all parts of life (verbal,
physical, and mental), speaking truth, sexual monogamy, and the detachment from
material things. As part of the disciplined and non-violent lifestyle, Jains typically are
strict vegetarians and often adhere to a quite arduous practice of non-violence, which
restricts the sorts of occupations the may follow (no farming, for instance, since insects
are inadvertently harmed in plowing). Jainism's ethical system is based on the idea that
right faith, knowledge, and conduct must be cultivated simultaneously.

B. Religious Practices
The rituals are not monotonous, senseless activities, but each one has deep
meaning behind them. Virtues like non-violence, forbearance, simplicity and
straightforwardness are cultivated during religious rituals. Rituals are performed on
daily bases and on certain occasions. The rituals which are must, are called Essentals
(Awashyak), meant for Sadhus and Shravaks. It is believed these essentials were
revealed through Tirthankers vani and then, gandhar bhagvan composed in 48 minutes
for Sangh. Another view about origin is that these were prepared after
Sudharmaswamis time. Whatever the origin, considering its importance, Acharya Shri
Bhadrabahuswami narrated and further, Shri Haribhadrasuri described in detail. Later
on, also many Acharys and Sadhus have Written commentaries, every now and then
and made it very acceptable and Practicable.

Six Essentials:

1. Samayik.
2. Chaturvimsati.
3. Vandan.
4. Pratikraman.
5. Kayotsarg.
6. Prtyakhan.

C. Pictures
Cheondoism
A. History

Cheondoism, also known as Chondoism, is a relatively young religious


movement that surfaced in Korea during the 1900s. It has its roots in the 1860s
Donghak movement which focused on Eastern learning as a way of rebelling against
Western learning. This particular teaching appealed mainly to peasant farmers who
began liberation rebellions at the beginning of the 20th century. It was then that
Cheondoism took shape. This move toward Cheondoism was an attempt to formalize the
religion and avoid persecution from the Korean Empire.

Followers of this religion believe that all life was generated by a God that is in all
things. This God-like presence within all living beings is also compared to Heaven, the
ultimate in goodness. The sacred text is called the Great Sacred Scripture and contains
the commandments in the word of the Hanulnim (the Master Heaven within all living
things). Followers believe that improving the self, brings one closer to Heaven and that
this earthly existence can be converted into a paradise. The religion has, over time,
adopted some of the central ideas from Taoism, Buddhism, and Christianity.

B. Religious Practices

The Korean god "Haneullim" meaning "Lord of Heaven" was stemmed by ancient
Korean Shamanic beliefs, later adopted by Donghak. Donghak believed that man is not
created by a supernatural god, but by an innate gods. The god has beem a god believed
in from ancient times from ancient times, and so therefore Donghak was seen as a true
Korean religion unlike Buddhism, or Christianity.

From Christianity, they gained the idea of creating a paradise on earth, the idea
of democracy, and human rights idea's. Donghak, impimented these ideas. Cheondoists
took this and although they were unsure what paradise meant, understood it would
mean equal rights to all people. With the advocacy of democracy, and human rights, it
brought a lot of nationalism.

When writing their religious songs, it was a mix, of elements from the relgions of
Confucianism, Buddhism, and Songyo added with their own modern ideas. They also
believed in Exclusionism which was a result of nationalism, and rejected alien people.

Choendoists believe in the god Haneullium resides in everybody. The goal is to


change our earthly society into a paradise on earth. Cheondoists also believe in
transforming believers into intellegent moral beings with high social consciousness.
Most people would view this as a humanistic and/or socialist religion.

C. Pictures
Hoahaoism
A. History

Hoahaoism was founded in southern Vietnam in 1939. Huynh Phu So, the
founder, based this belief on principles of Buddhism. Believers consider Huynh Phu So
to be a prophet and destined to protect Vietnam and save humans from suffering. This
belief system was promoted by So during the time of French colonialism in the country;
he promoted the idea of Vietnamese nationalism which was unpopular with French
authorities. According to stories, So was placed in a mental institution for his ideas
where he converted his doctor to Hoahaoism.

This religion gained popularity with the masses because it was focused on
indigenous farmers, those considered lower class by the French colonialists. In
Buddhism, oftentimes, the practice is centered on attending temple, worshipping within
the temple, and receiving blessings from the Buddhist clergy. So came along with his
ideology that Buddhism could be practiced in the home or on farms which allowed
peasants to become involved in the religion. His teachings focused on providing
assistance to the poor rather than partaking in expensive rituals. The practices were
encouraged to be simplistic in nature, to avoid the cost of elaborate ceremonies, and to
use the money saved to help those in need.

B. Religious Practices

The modernization of the methods of self-improvement by discarding all futile


rites and superstitious practices. This is made to show the essence of Buddhism in
accordance with genuine Buddha's teachings. Here are some modifications advocated
by Hoa-Hao Buddhism:

Pagodas. Neither pagodas nor statues should be built besides the existing ones.
Hoa-Hao Buddhist followers reserve their money to come to the assistance of the poor
and the needy. That is a really beneficial act unlike building a large pagoda or casting
the tall and expensive statues.

Services. Hoa-Hao Buddhism followers do not require the services of sorcerers,


magicians, astrologers, and fortune-tellers. They do not offer food as offerings to
Buddha because they believe that Buddha never accept such bribery. They do also not
use flags, banners or streamers. They do not burn votive paper because this is a waste
of money.

Marriage. Hoa-Hao Buddhist followers do not compel their children to marry the
one they do not like or love. They do not demand matrimonial deposit money from the
groom or organize big wedding parties, because this will result in impoverishing
themselves.

Funerals. Hoa-Hao Buddhist Followers do not cry or conduct expensive funerals;


instead they pray quietly for the deliverance of the deceased's soul.
In short, the reform advocated by Hoa-Hao Buddhism is aimed at bringing us back to
the original teachings of Buddha. He taught: "Our belief must come from our heart." It
is only a matter of heart and not a matter of rite and ceremony.

C. Pictures

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