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INDIAN HIGHWAYS PUBLISHED ON 24 APRIL, 2017 May, 2017
MAY, 2017
ISSN 0376-7256 Newspaper Regd. No. 25597/73

INDIAN HIGHWAYS
Volume: 45 Number: 5 Total Pages: 64

Tunnel of Hope:
Chenani - Nashri Road Project, J&K, India

`20
Edited and Published by Shri S.K. Nirmal, Secretary General, Indian Road Congress, IRC HQ, Sector-6, R.K. Puram, Kama Koti Marg,
New Delhi - 110 022. Printed by Shri S.K. Nirmal on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress at M/s. I G Printers Pvt Ltd, 104, DSIDC Complex,
Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-I, New Delhi-110020
https://www.irc.nic.in
 INDIAN HIGHWAYS
Volume : 45 Number : 5 MAY, 2017 ISSN 0376-2756
Indian Roads Congress
Founded : On 10th December 1934

C O N T E N T S
FROM THE EDITORS DESK 4-5
MEET THE DIRECTOR GENERAL (ROAD DEVELOPMENT) &

SPECIAL SECRETARY, MoRT&H 6-7
MEET THE NEW SECRETARY GENERAL, IRC 8
NEWS BOX 9
SCHEDULE OF IRC COMMITEE MEETINGS 9
IMPORTANT ANNOUNCEMENT 10

TECHNICAL PAPERS

Laboratory Study on Performance of Various Agricultural
and Industrial Waste Materials in Road Construction 13
Dr Aditya Kumar Anupam, Dr Praveen Kumar and Dr G. D. Ransinchung R. N.


DEVELOPMENT OF CORRELATION BETWEEN ROUGHNESS INDEX AND
INTERNATIONAL ROUGHNESS INDEX FOR INDIAN CONDITION 29
Amal Raj, Pradeep Kumar and K. Sitaramanjanayulu

Highway Cost Allocation Study in India Ways and Means 35
Sasanka Bhushan Pulipati, NitinTiruttani, Sankalp Jahagirdar
User Fee Vs. Vehicular Operation Cost 46
M.N. Dekate, Dr. P.S. Pajgade
circular 54-56
tender notices 57-62
Publisher & Editor : S. K. Nirmal Secretary General, IRC
Email: secygen.irc@gov.in/publicaiton.irc@gov.in
Headquarter: Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress, Kama Koti Marg, Sector-6, R K Puram,
New Delhi-110022.
Phone No. +91-11 26185303, Fax: +91-11 26183669.
No part of this publicaiton may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC.
The responsibility of the contents and the opinoins expressed in Indian Highways is exclusively of the author(s) concerned. IRC and
the Editor disclaim responsiblity and liability for any statements or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations
by the authors. The opinion expressed in the papers and contents published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the
views of the Editor or IRC.
Printed at : I G Printers Pvt. Ltd., 104, DSIDC Complex, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-I, New Delhi-110020

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 3

 FROM THE EDTIORS DESK

ROAD TUNNEL: ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY OPTION

Last month Indian press media praised the engineering marvellous environment-friendly road
structure, a tunnel built on National Highway in J&K, inaugurated by Honble Prime Minister of
India, Shri Narendra Modi. Speaking on the occasion the PM said that this tunnel will not only
reduce the distance between Jammu and Srinagar, but will also promote tourism in the valley,
open up employment opportunities for the youth and give a boost to development in the state and
a boon against the fight with global warming.
This tunnel is a world-class structure, and matches the best standards, which is an ideal example
of the governments Make in India and Skill India initiative.This ChenaniNashri Tunnel
is Asias longest bi-directional highway tunnel spaning about 9.2 km. Touted as the Tunnel of
Hope in Kashmir, the structure ensures all-weather connectivity.
A tunnel is an underground passageway, dug through the surrounding soil/earth/rock and enclosed
except for entrance and exit, commonly at each end. A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road
traffic, for rail traffic, or for both rail-road or for a canal or utility tunnel. Special tunnels, such as
wildlife crossings, are built to allow wildlife to cross human made barriers.
Modern tunnel construction in India has its origin mainly in the Nineteenth century when a
number of railway tunnels were constructed for extension of rail network in the various parts
of the country for crossing of hill ranges - in Western Ghats, Vindhayas and in the foothills of
Himalayas for connecting few hill stations like Shimla and Darjeeling. Barring few tunnels in the
soft rock formations of Himalayan foothills in the North, most of the tunnel is werebored in hard
rock strata in Peninsular India.
As per road sector is concerned, tunnels are introduced into the road system in mountainous terrain
to negotiate mountain range and reduce the road length. The tunnels may be also introduced to
avoid passage through snow bound areas or pass below sea, creeks and rivers or even to cross
thickly populated urban areas etc. A road tunnel may also be considered in open country on
environmental ground to protect areas of ecological interests. The fundamental objective of road
tunnel is to ensure safe transit of road traffic in difficult terrain. The road tunnels have certain
advantages compared with other alternate mode;
Provision of tunnels with easy gradients, help in reducing the cost of hauling and travel time
Tunnels provides all weather connectivity at time of snowfall, rain and also grant greater
protection in aerial warfare and bombing conditions
Surface and air interference is restricted for tunnels
Reduces Noise Pollution
The surface life or ground activities like transportation are not disturbed when tunnelling is
undergone
The decision to introduce tunnel in road system largely depends upon the cost benefit ratio,
traffic volume, category of road, aesthetics, environment & wild-life consideration, etc. For
Expressways, National Highways and high density corridors passing through mountain ranges the
option of tunnel is generally more economical considering life-cycle cost, environmental & wild-
life consideration and overall saving for the traffic using the shorter route. The planning, design,

4 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017

 FROM THE EDTIORS DESK

and construction of a road tunnel is a complex inter disciplinary task and requires expertise in
different fields. The planning and design involves site investigation, physical planning, conceptual
design and detailed design with due consideration for construction methods. In addition to this
focus is needed for safety during construction; ventilation & lighting; operation & maintenance,
etc.
Tunnels are dug in types of materials varying from soft clay to hard rock. The method of tunnel
construction depends on such factors as the ground conditions, the ground water conditions,
the length and diameter of the tunnel drive, the depth of the tunnel, the logistics of supporting
the tunnel excavation, the final use and shape of the tunnel and appropriate risk management.
Construction activities inside the tunnel are required to be carried out in restricted space. Due
to space restriction and for working underground, specially designed plant and equipment are
required along with adequate artificial ventilation and lighting arrangement.
Ventilation is one of the most important features for providing a functional, comfortable and safe
tunnel environment for road tunnel. The method for providing the required ventilation during
normal, congested or emergency operation depends on the actual condition ( tunnel length,
alignment, cross-section, traffic condition, intermediate ventilation shafts, etc) Ventilation
should be precisely designed as well as operated to make or provide a user friendly atmosphere
inside the tunnel i.e. clean, healthy and pleasant for the user keeping in mind that the surrounding
of the tunnel should not be overlooked and the environmental conditions near tunnel must be
preserved.
For efficient traffic operation of road tunnels focus should be given to smart features such as
an Integrated Traffic Control System; Surveillance, Ventilation and Broadcast Systems; Fire
Fighting System; and SOS call-boxes, etc.Due to the enclosed space of a tunnel, fires can have
very serious effects on users. The main dangers are gas and smoke production, with even low
concentrations of carbon monoxide being highly toxic. Motor vehicle tunnels usually require
ventilation shafts and powered fans to remove toxic exhaust gases during routine operation.
Tunnels in Urban areas needs special requirement that the ground surface should not be disturbed.
At the planning stages issues w.r.t nearby existing tunnels, utility lines and deep foundations need
to be addressed. The project must accommodate measures to mitigate any detrimental effects
to other infrastructure. Subsidence is not the only problem when it comes to tunneling in an
urban environment. Additional critical failure events such as face instability, collapse and large
deformations of either or both excavation or its lining can lead to undesirable consequences such
as injuries or loss of life, damage to third parties, additional costs, and delays in completion of
the tunnel project.
Tunnelling is very complex & difficult mechanism with initial high cost requiring highly
sophisticated and specialized equipment. Now with the life-cycle cost approaches adopted
by Government deferments tunnelling and transport tunnel construction is gaining increasing
importance in India and internationally.

S.K. Nirmal
Secretary General
secygen.irc@gov.in

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 5

 MEET THE DIRECTOR GENERAL (ROAD DEVELOPMENT)
& SPECIAL SECRETARY, MoRT&H

MANOJ KUMAR

Shri Manoj Kumar, IES has more than 35 years experience in the Roads/Highway Sector. He
is presently working in Ministry of Road Transport & Highways as Director General (Road
Development) & Special Secretary.
Shri Manoj Kumar, is a Graduate in B.Tech (Civil), (1974 - 1979), from G.B.Pant University of
Technology, Nainital, Uttarakhand. He started his career in January, 1980 just after completion
of his graduation, as an Engineer in the survey & investigation department for the development
of the Mahi Hydel Project, at Banswara, in the State of Rajasthan.
During the period 1980, he joined as Asstt.Engineer in a newly created organization Harijan
and Nirbal Varg Awas Nigam, where he had the opportunity to work in the Planning and
Construction of houses for under-privileged. During these initial years of his career, he also
gained experience working at U.P. Jal Nigam, where he was involved and associated with the
planning and designing of water and drainage management system.
Later on, he joined in the Regional Office, Lucknow, MoRT&H, and worked as Assistant
Executive Engineer (1982-1985), where inspection of National Highways in the State, before
and after monsoon, was to be carried out. He used to assist the State PWD in preparation of the
proposals. Also, assisted higher officer in scrutiny of estimates pertaining to FDR/S.R for the
State of Uttar Pradesh.
On promotion to the post of Executive Engineer (19851996), was initially posted at Guwahati
in the O/o Chief Engineer where scrutinizing estimates of works pertaining to North Eastern
Council State Roads of Assam, Mizoram, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh & Meghalaya, were
handled. He was again posted at Lucknow. On posting at the Regional Office, Lucknow, inspected
National Highways within the State for assessing flood damages and identified stretches for
periodic renewal and coordinated with the State PWD for compliance of the same. Then he also
worked in the main Ministry dealing with works related to Bridges in the States of Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan & Gujarat. Checking of design of various components of bridges, their
estimates and approval of the same, were main part of his work. This added a new dimension to
his work experience.
As Superintending Engineer (1996-2009), carried out works, related to National Highways in the
State of Rajasthan. Prepared ToR for appointing consultants and played key role in upgradation
from single lane to two lane of Kota Bypass. He also worked as Regional Officer, Hyderabad,
where he was involved in Liaisoning with the State PWD, inventory of roads and bridges works,
laying of OFC etc. During this tenure, he also acted as Head of Office & Drawing & Disbursement

6 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017

Officer. He was one of the few officers who handled the problem of initial implementation of new
direct payment procedure Further, he also looked after works related to finalisation of Annual
Plan, scrutiny of pre-qualification & bidding documents of roads/bridges/ROBs, evaluation of
proposals of retail outlets etc. on NHs in the States of Haryana, Punjab, HP, J&K, & Chandigarh.
On promotion to the post of Chief Engineer (2009-2014), works related to development of
National Highways, examination of proposals regarding development of State roads, NOC
proposals for access permission received from oil companies in the States of Chhattisgarh,
Orissa, Maharashtra, Karnataka, M.P., Goa, U.P., Uttarakhand, Delhi, & H.P. were being looked
after. During this tenure, he was also assigned work of Monitoring Zone to monitor the progress
of all the on-going research schemes. Under S&R(Roads) Zone, played key role in preparation
of policy guidelines on Modified Bitumen in binder layers, E-tendering, retail outlet etc. Several
PPP Projects were also processed for award under NHDP-IV zone.
As Additional Director General (2014-2017) supervised the work of Planning, Monitoring and
Standards.
On taking over charge as DG(RD)&SS, he is concerned with matters related to
Advising the Government on all general policy matters relating to Development &
Maintenance of Roads, National Highways in the States and Union Territories
Administration of Central Road Fund ( CRF) pertaining to State Roads other than rural roads
Evaluation and Specification of Standards for Roads and Bridges.
Specialised training abroad :
- Attended 60 days training under JICA at Japan
- Attended 45 days training on Highways & Tunnelling at Japan
Membership of Professional Societies :
- Life Member, Indian Roads Congress
- Convenor of General Specifications & Standards (GSS), Bridge Specification and Standard (
BSS), Highway Specification & Standards (HSS)
- Chairman, Highways research Board (HRB)
- Member of High Power Committee
- Honorary Treasurer, Indian Roads Congress

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 7

 MEET THE NEW SECRETARY GENERAL IRC

Sanjay Kumar Nirmal

Shri Sanjay Kumar Nirmal, IES is looking after the work of Secretary General at Indian Roads
Congress w.e.f 3rd April, 2017.
Shri Nirmal Graduated in 1983 from Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur in Civil
Engineering with Honours. M.B.A. in 1990 from R.A. Poddar Institute of Management, Jaipur.
Master of Science (MS) in 1998 from Delft University of Technology/IHE, Delft, the Netherlands
and Diploma course in French language from University of Rajasthan.
Prior to joining Ministry of Road Transport and Highways in 1986 as Assistant Executive Engineer
through CES(Roads) Shri Nirmal worked in Engineers India Limited from 1984 to 1986 at Bombay
Offshore project, Uran and Guwahati refinery expansion project at Guwahati.From 1986 to 1991
worked at Ministrys Regional office, Jaipur and worked in project zones at headquarter from 1991
to 1996.As regional officer in Guwahati during 1998-2001 initiated direct payment system in Assam
and Nagaland which was subsequently implemented throughout the country
Thereafter, he worked in National Highways Authority of India during 2003-2009 as General Manager
and 2009-10 as Chief General Manager (Tech) and CGM(Coordination). As GM, NHAI looked after
BOT division and was nodal officer for all PPP matters including finalization of Model documents
for BOT(Toll) and BOT(Annuity) as a member of Inter-Ministerial Group set up for this purpose.
Afterword, he worked in various capacities in DPR cell of IAHE, Bridge Standards and Research
zone of Ministry, NER zone, Ministrys PMU, at Arunachal Pradesh.
Shri Nirmal is recipient of Pt Jawaharlal Nehru Birth Centenary Award for outstanding contribution
to Highway profession given by Indian Roads Congress in 2003.
He has also contributed number of Technical Papers in various IRC Journals, national and international
seminars. He has chaired many technical sessions in conferences organised by CSIR-CRRI, by
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change by International Road Federation and IABSC.
He was Corresponding Member of Technical Committee on Flexible and Semi-Rigid Pavement
(D.2.b) of World Road Association, Paris during 2008-2011.
He is closely associated with IRC for last three decades and contributing immensely in various
technical committees for formation of codes/guidelines/manuals. He is active member of IRC
Apex technical committees viz Highway Specification and Standards committee (HSS), General
Specification and Standards committee (GSS); Co-Convener of IRC H4 Committee (Embankment,
Ground Improvement and Drainage Committee), and Member-Secretary of G1 committee Project
Preparation, Contract Management, Quality Assurance & Public Private Partnership Committee.He
also served as Member-Secretary of IRC H-2 Committee Flexible Pavement Committee for 9 years.
He is Guest faculty for various national and international training programmes organized by Indian
Academy of Highway Engineers, Noida and Guest Faculty for Indian Railways Institute for Civil
Engineers (IRICEN), Pune.

8 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017

 NEWS BOX

The Government decides to do away with beacons for all categories of vehicles
With a view to strengthening healthy democratic values in the country, the Central Government
took another historic step. The Union Cabinet, in its meeting chaired by Prime Minister Shri
Narendra Modi on 19/04/2017 decided to do away with beacons of all kinds atop all categories
of vehicles in the country. The government is of the considered opinion that beacons on vehicles
are perceived symbols of VIP Culture, and have no place in a democratic country. They have no
relevance whatsoever. Beacons, however, will be allowed on vehicles concerned with emergency
and relief services, ambulance, fire service etc. In the light of this decision the Ministry of Road
Transport & Highways will make necessary provisions in the law.

IRC Technical Committees Meeting Schedule for May, 2017

Date Day Time Name of The Committee
06-05-17 Sat 11.00 AM Flexible Pavement and Airfield & Runways
Committee (H-2 )

13-05-17 Sat 11.00 AM Road Safety and Design Committee (H-7)

13-05-17 Sat 11.00 AM Foundation, Sub-Structure, Protective Works

and Masonry Structures Committee (B-3)

16-05-17 Tue 11.00 AM Maintenance and Rehabilitation Committee

(B-8)
20-05-17 Sat 11.00 AM Urban Roads, Streets and Transport Committee
(H-8)

27-05-17 Sat 11.00 AM Loads and Stresses Committee (B-2)

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 9

 IMPORTANT ANNOUNCEMENT

CALL FOR TECHNICAL PAPERS

T he Indian Roads Congress (IRC) invites Technical Papers for publication in its periodicals i.e.
Indian Highways (monthly), IRC Journal (quarterly), HR Journal (half yearly) and Highway
Research Record (yearly).
The contents of papers should cover the additional knowledge, information and ideas so that
highway fraternity gets benefitted from them. The papers should be properly structured and should
avoid dwellings at length on facts broadly known to highway engineers. The papers may deal with
important case studies, new design concepts/principles, new construction techniques, modern quality
control, modern maintenance techniques applied in highway projects, besides traffic engineering,
transport planning, etc.
RULES FOR CONTRIBUTION OF TECHNICAL PAPERS
1. Members intending to contribute papers to the IRC on any subject connected with highway
engineering are requested to send their contributions to the Secretary General, IRC, Kama Koti
Marg, Sector 6, R.K. Puram, New Delhi-110 022
2. As and when these are ready without waiting for a special invitation. In case of joint authors, it must
be made clear to whom communications are to be addressed. E-mail IDs of all the Authors are to
be given in the Paper alongwith Address.
3. Authors and Co-authors should be members of IRC and their Roll Numbers should be mentioned
in the forwarding letter.Even non-members, who are Experts in any relevant field or who have
specialized knowledge on any subject related to highway engineering are also welcome to contribute
Technical Papers.
4. The language of the paper shall be English and should be written in third person.
5. The length of the paper should be upto 5000 words including Tables, Figures, Photographs, etc, on
A4 size paper with 12 pt font size of Times New Roman, typed in 1.5 line space.
6. The layout of the typescript of the paper should conform to IS 12: 2005 (Fourth Revision) Guide for
Drafting and Presentation of Indian Standards, December 2005. Only SI units and their multiples
should be used in the papers and other units, if used, should be given only in the parentheses
preceded by SI units. All numbers, quantities and amounts in the paper should be written as per the
Standards of Weights and Measures (Numeration) Rules, 1987.
7. The paper should contain Abstract of not more than 200 words, covering the aims of work, method
used, results obtained and conclusions reached, etc.
8. Due care should be taken in preparation of the drawings through computer software, so that the get-
up of the paper is presentable. It would be appreciated if the photographs and graphs are in black
and white as the papers are printed in black and white. It should be ensured that the photographs,
drawings etc. are of good quality to ensure good results while printing. Tables, Figures (diagrams) and
Photographs are to be adjusted immediately after their references in the text and these should be legible.
9. Sources of quotations appearing in the papers should be stated and acknowledgement should be
made for all information called from books, periodicals and proceedings of sister societies, etc.
10. References cited in the paper should be numbered sequentially in order of citation and given in the
text by a superscript numeral, with a reference list, in numerical order, at the end of the paper. The
list should give names(s) with initial(s) and the exact title of the paper or the book.
11. The Authors are requested to send 4 hard copies of the complete paper consisting manuscript, drawing,
tables, figures, photos etc. and a soft copy in computer CD in Windows MS software for printing.
12. The papers so received from Authors are sent to a panel of experts and are considered for publication
after obtaining their views about acceptability of the paper.
13. IRC reserves the right to publish any paper in the form of an abstract. When a paper is published in
an abstract form, the manuscript of the paper as sent by the author will be added to the IRC library
and made available for inspection by interested members.
For more details of rules and regulations for contribution of Technical Papers please visit IRC
Website: www.irc.gov.in.
-------------
10 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 11
12 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017
 TECHNICAL PAPER

Laboratory Study on Performance of Various

Agricultural and Industrial Waste Materials in
Road Construction

Dr. Aditya Kumar Anupam* Dr. Praveen Kumar** Dr. G. D. Ransinchung R. N.***

ABSTRACT
The main objective of the present investigation is to assess the usefulness of agricultural and
industrial waste as a soil admixture, and focused to improve the engineering properties of
soil to make it capable of lower layer of road construction. Present investigation describes
the behavioral aspect of soils mixed with industrial waste materials viz. Fly ash (FA), Rice
Husk Ash (RHA) & bagasse Ash (BA) and agricultural waste material rice straw ash
(RSA) to improve the load bearing capacity of the soil. Clayey soil has been considered
using four different types of stabilizer viz. FA, BA, RHA & RSA ranging from 5 to 35% by
weight of soil. The physical and chemical properties of these stabilizers were ascertained
and compared. Mixing these stabilizers improved soaked CBR and UCS values substantially
and large reduction in dry density was observed. Stress-strain characteristics of these ashes
admixed with clayey soil is similar and showed mark influence of compacted density on
angle of internal friction and cohesion.

1. INTRODUCTION properly can be utilized in road construction

India produces an enormous amount of different
types of waste materials as byproducts from
different sectors like industrial, agricultural, etc.
These waste materials if not deposited safely
may be hazardous. The amount and type of waste
generated increases with increase in population.
These wastes remain in the environment for
long duration. The waste disposal crisis arose
due to the creation of non-decaying waste
materials. One solution to this crisis lies in
recycling waste into useful products. Research
into new and innovative uses of waste materials
is continually advancing. In India, research is
currently underway to examine the potential
for use of some locally available wastes in road
construction. A large quantity of waste material is
dumped at land filling site, which if investigated
sector. The utilization of these waste materials
can be an economical and eco-friendly alternative
in nearby areas for road construction. The results,
to date, indicate that there is a wide scope for the
use of such materials. However, in India, only
a few materials have been used and that too on
experimental basis.
Indian coals, though low in sulfur, contain higher
amount of ash (about 35-45%), resulting in
production of huge quantities of fly ash in India
(Kumar, V. et. al., 2005). Fly ash can provide an
adequate array of divalent and trivalent cations
(Ca2+, Al3+, Fe3+, etc.) under ionized conditions
that can promote flocculation of dispersed clay
particles. Thus, expansive soils can be potentially
stabilized by cation exchange using fly ash
(Kumar, A. et al. 2007).

*Research Scholar, IIT Roorkee, addiknit03@gmail.com, **Professor of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee, pkaerfce@iitr.ernet.in, ***Assistant
Professor of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee, gdranjan@gmail.com
The views of Author(s) are personal and for information purpose.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 13

 TECHNICAL PAPER
Rice husk is available in large amount rice
producing countries like China, India, Indonesia,
Bangladesh, Brazil and in South East Asia. Rice
husk is mainly used as a fuel in industries in
boilers for process energy requirements and for
power generations. Rice husk is a fuel having
high ash content, varying from 20-25% of rice
husk and content having 70-80% of silica. In
the majority of rice producing countries much
of the husk produced from the processing of rice
is either burnt for heat or dumped as a waste.
India alone produces around 120 million tons of
rice paddies per year, giving around 24 million
tons of rice husk and 4.4 million tons of RHA
every year (Govindarao, 1980). Farm income
can be increased both directly and indirectly if
economically profitable means of utilizing rice
husk generated are utilized in industry or road
sector. There are many reported uses of rice husk
such as a fuel in brick kilns, in furnaces, in rice
mills for parboiling process, in the raw material
for the production of xylitol, furfural, ethanol,
acetic acid, lignosulphonic acids, as an cleaning
or polishing agent in metal and machine industry,
in the manufacturing of building materials, etc.
(Govindarao, 1980).
About 1711.087 MMT of sugar cane is produced
annually throughout the world and india
produced 292.3 MMT in 2010 (FAOSTAT). India
has just over 500 sugar mills, with nine states
(Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana in the
northern region; Maharashtra & Gujarat in the
western region and Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
and Karnataka in the southern region, holding
95% of them (National Federation). Indian sugar
mills are currently self-sufficient in energy,
already using bagasse to meet their steam and
power requirements. As only 20-30% of all
bagasse is used for these purposes, this suggests
that the remaining 2/3 of bagasse is currently
being wasted and which is mostly used as a
captive boiler fuel other than its minor use as a
raw material in the paper industry. Sugar mills in
the country especially in the private sector have
invested in advanced cogeneration systems by
employing high pressure boilers and condensing
cum extraction turbines and produce bagasse
ash. In general, sugar factories generate bagasse
14 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017
approximately 30% of sugar cane and produced
2-3% ash of bagasses.
Rice is a staple food in the diet for much of the
world. Production of rice was 696.32 MMT in
the world and India stands second largest in the
production with 142 MMT (FAOSTAT). The
quantity of agricultural residues produced differs
from crop to crop and is affected by seasons,
soil types, and irrigation conditions. Production
of agricultural residues is directly related to the
corresponding crop production and ratio between
the main crop produced and the residues, which
varies with the variety of the seeds in one crop
itself. Correspondingly, the availability of
agricultural residues has also been changing with
time.
Clayey soils can be problematic for direct
utilization of subgrade construction. Clayey soil
have the tendency to swell when their moisture
content is increased. Soils containing the clay
mineral montmorillonite generally exhibit these
properties. The clayey soils have a low CBR
value in the presence of water and more shrinkage
cracking in dry condition. Hence, highway
engineers are putting constant efforts in finding
material which are really potential to improving
the CBR value as well as for shrinkage cracking
control. In the present study, an effort has been
made in the similar direction, by selecting RHA
as an admixture to improve the strength properties
of selected clayey soil. The performance of the
structural properties for soil admixed with RHA
is evaluated through laboratory investigation
by conducting tests like shrinkage limit (SL),
standard Proctor, California bearing ratio
(CBR), UCS and triaxial test.
2. PREVIOUS RESEARCH WORKS
Fly ash is a non Acrystalline pozzolanic and
slightly cementitious material. Dhawan, P. K. et
al. (1994) explored the feasibility of ash utilization
in bulk for road construction. They considered
three types of ashes such as fly ash, bottom ash
& pond ash admixed with different types of soil.
The authors found that the CBR value of the fly
ash treated soil increased. The result CBR values
indicated that improvement of CBR values of the
soil with the coal ash from thermal power station
 TECHNICAL PAPER
and FA can be used as a stabilizer for sub base
materials, subgrade & embankment. Prabakar, J.
et al. (2004) studied the influence of fly ash on
soils and reported that addition of fly ash reduced
the dry density of the soil due to the low specific
gravity and unit weight of soil and improved the
shear strength. Kumar, P. et al. (2006) evaluated
the strength parameters of four locally available
materials for their use in the sub base course of a
pavement. Fly ash had the lowest CBR of 9%, but
its behaviour under dynamic load is better than
that of stone dust, which has shown the maximum
value of CBR. The variation of unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) with percentage of
fly ash mix reveals that UCS increases up to 30%
of fly ash mix and then it decreased (Chauhan, M.
S. et al. 2008).
Cordeiro (2009) obtained the important
parameter for the production of SCBA (suger
cane bagasse ash) with pozzolanic activity. The
SCBA produced with air calcination at 600C for
3 hr with a rate of heating of 10C/min presents
amorphous silica, low carbon content and high
specific surface area. The sample produced
with these characteristics presents considerable
pozzolanic activity according to both mechanical
and chemical methods of evaluation. Goyal
et al. (2007) reported that SCBA with high
specific surface area, high contents of amorphous
silica and calcium oxide fulfilled the principal
requirements of a pozzolanic material. Ganesan
et al. (2007) studied on the use of bagasse ash
(BA) as partial cement replacement material in
respect of cement mortars. Up to 20% of ordinary
portland cement can be optimally replaced with
well-burnt bagasse ash without any adverse effect
on the desirable properties of concrete. Osinubi et
al. (2009) focused on the effect of bagasse ash
on the geotechnical properties of the deficient
lateritic soil. The MDD and OMC of the treated
generally showed trends of decrease and increase,
respectively, with higher bagasse ash content.
Several studies have been carried out on the
effectiveness of clay stabilization by RHA
admixing. In this context, Basha, E.A. et al.
(2005) studied the stabilization of residual
soils by cement and RHA. In general, 68% of
cement and 1015% RHA show the optimum
amount to reduce the plasticity of soil. CBR
value determined maximum at 4% cement
and 5% RHA mixtures with soil. According to
compressive strength and PI, 68% of cement
and 1520% RHA showed the optimum amount
to improve the properties of soils. Jha, J. N. and
Gill, K. S. (2006) evaluated the effectiveness of
RHA to enhance the lime treatment of soil. When
soil treated with lime improves the compressive
strength characteristics of soil, further improved
the strength of the lime-stabilized soil with
addition of RHA upto 12% in all the cases.
Muntohar, A. S. (2011) stabilized clayey soil
with lime and RHA mixtures with plastic waste
fibers to improvement of tensile strength. The
lime used for stabilization was estimated to be
12% of the dry soil mass and the ratio of the lime
to RHA is one to one of the weight of dry soil.
Yadu, L. et al. (2011) investigated the potential
of RHA to stabilize black cotton (BC) soil. They
determined CBR value of unsoaked soil samples,
to maximum value of 24% with addition of 9%
RHA. There was approximately 77% increase
in UCS at 9% RHA as compared to black cotton
soil. Like this so many researchers Brooks, R.
M., Chandra, S. et al., Seco, A. et al. analyzed
the suitability of RHA in highway sectors and
they recommended using as subgrade or subbase
construction.
Han, Y. W. and Anderson, A. W. (1974) analyzed
the problem of waste rice straw which more than
half of the dry matter of straw consists of cellulose
and hemicellulose. The rest is comprised of lignin,
nitrogenous compounds, and ash mostly silica.
Ranasinghe and Arjurna, P. (1993) reported about
the ash and silica content of some of the plants
derivatives. It has been seen that rice straw have
14.65% ash after burning, thus for every 1000
kg of rice straw burnt 146.5 kg ash are produced
having about 82% of silica content. El-Sayed,
M. A. and El-Samni, T. M. (2006) conducted the
effect of partial replacing of three different types
of cement as ordinary Portland cement, high-slag
cement and sulphate resistance cement with RSA
on the properties of produced cement pastes.
They reported that RSA is highly pozzolanic
and suitable for use in lime-pozzolana mixes and
Portland cement replacement.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 15
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3. MATERIALS as liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index and

3.1 Soil
Clay of medium compressibility (A-7-6) soil is
used for this study. The index properties such
other important soil properties as per AASHTO
and unified soil classification systems are
presented in Table 1. Fig. 1 presents the grain size
distribution curve of the soil.

Table-1 Physical Properties of Soil

Properties Values
Optimum moisture content (%) 17
Dry density (gm/cm ) 3
1.71
Specific gravity 2.74
Liquid limit (%) 46
Plastic limit (%) 21
Plasticity index 25
Unified soil classification CL
AASHTO soil classification A-7-6
Type of soil Clay of medium compressibility

Fig. 1 Grain size distribution of soil

3.2 Fly Ash (FA)
coal used, method and degree of coal preparation,
The fly ash used in the study was brought from cleaning and pulverization, type and operation of
National Thermal Power Station situated at power generation unit, ash collection, handling
Ghaziabad which was available free of cost. Fly and storage methods etc. So the properties of fly
ash is classified as silts of low compressibility ash vary from plant to plant and even within the
(ML). The chemical, physical and engineering same plant. The physical and chemical properties
properties of ash depends on the type and source of of fly ash tested in laboratory are given in Table 2.
Table-2 Properties of Fly Ash
Physical Properties Chemical Properties
Properties Test Value Constituents % by weight
Specific Gravity (G) 2.24 SiO2 58.78
Liquid limit 47 Fe2O3 9.31

16 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017

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Plastic limit Non-plastic Al2O3 26.92

Modified Proctor OMC (%) 25.0 CaO 1.77
Maximum dry density (gm/cm3) 1.4 MgO 0.68
Lime Reactivity (kg/cm ) 2
28 Ignition Loss (%) 0.72

3.3 Bagasse Ash (BA)

The bagasse ash used in the study was brought The physical and chemical properties of BA
from Uttam Sugar Mill, Deoband near Roorkee. tested in laboratory are given in Table 3.
Table 3 Properties of Bagasse Ash
Physical Properties Chemical Properties
Property Value Constituents % by weight
Specific gravity 2.38 Ignition loss 2.11
Liquid limit 41 SiO2 65.27
Plastic limit Non-plastic Al2O3 3.11
Optimum moisture content (%) 48 Fe2O3 2.1

Maximum dry density (g/cm3) 1.27 CaO 11.16

Lime Reactivity (kg/cm2) 32 MgO 1.27

3.4 Rice Husk Ash (RHA) pozzolonic properties can be utilized in the
stabilization for road construction. For this study,
Rice husk ash is a predominantly siliceous material RHA was obtained from paddy mill, Roorkee. It
obtained after burning of rice husk in a boiler or was fine grained siliceous in nature light weight
an open fire. Lime reactivity test conducted on and grey in color. The physical and chemical
this ash indicate the fully burned RHA exhibits properties of RHA tested in laboratory are given
greater reactivity. This waste material having in Table 4.
3.5 Rice Straw Ash (RSA)
Table 4 Properties of Rice Husk Ash
Rice-straw ash used was procured from
Physical Properties Chemical Properties agricultural field of Roorkee (U.K.). This is waste
material for farmers. The specific gravity was
Property Value Constituents % by
weight
1.81 and colour was light grey. The physical and
chemical properties of RSA tested in laboratory
Specific gravity 2.17 Ignition loss 6.2 are given in Table 5.
Liquid limit 78 SiO2 72.2
Table 5 Properties of Rice Straw Ash
Plastic limit Non- Al2O3 5.4
plastic Physical Properties Chemical Properties
Property Value Constituents % by
Optimum 75 Fe2O3 2.1
weight
moisture
content (%) Specific gravity 1.81 Ignition loss 9.4
Liquid limit NA SiO2 62.75
Maximum dry 1.9 CaO 4.1
density (g/cm3) Plastic limit NA Al2O3 2.4
Optimum 64 Fe2O3 24.18
Lime Reactivity 25 MgO 1.7 moisture
(kg/cm2) content (%)

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 17

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Maximum dry 1.3 CaO 2.76 In the present study, manual mixing method was
density (g/cm3) employed intentionally so as to simulate better
Lime Reactivity 28 MgO 5.12 the field working conditions. Initially subgrade
(kg/cm2) soil was dried and pulverized properly with the
help of small crowbar and spatula to make lumps
4. LABORATORY INVESTIGATION free soil. For FAsoil mixtures, FA was admixed
AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS @ 5 percent equal intervals up to 35% by part
replacing the subgrade soil. Similar procedure
4.1 Material Combination for Soil was adopted for soil-BA, soil-RHA and soil-
Stabilization RSA mixtures. In order to ensure proper mixing,
initially a layer of subgrade soil was spread
The influence of FA, BA, RHA and RSA on the
on mixing tray then on top of which a layer
geotechnical characteristics of different types
of soil were investigated by conducting various of FA was spread then after; dry hand mixing
laboratory tests viz. shrinkage limit, standard was performed from one end so as to intermix
proctor, California bearing ratio CBR, UCS and the entire materials thoroughly. This step was
triaxial test. The tests were performed for various repeated for another five to six times till mixtures
combinations of soil-FA, soil-BA, soil-RHA show uniform colour. Same mixing operations
and soil-RSA mixtures as presented in Table 6. were maintained for all mixtures.

Table 6 Combinations of Soil and Ash

Combinations Soil (% by FA (% by total BA (% by total dry RHA (% RSA (% by
total dry dry weight) weight) by total dry total dry
weight) weight) weight)
1 100 0 0 0 0
2 95,90, 85, 80, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 0 0 0
75, 70, 65 30, 35
3 95, 90, 85, 80, 0 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 0 0
75, 70, 65 35
4 95, 90, 85, 80, 0 0 5, 10, 15, 20, 0
75, 70, 65 25, 30, 35
5 95, 90, 85, 80, 0 0 0 5, 10, 15, 20,
75, 70, 65 25, 30, 35

4.2 Shrinkage Limit (SL)Test

Shrinking is the opposite to swelling of soil.
Soil swells with increase in moisture content
and shrinks with decrease in moisture content.
Soil shrinkage can cause serious distress in a
foundation/structure. The mechanism is the
same as the expansive, but in the opposite
direction. When wetter than the SL, the soil is
fully saturated, but when drier, the soil becomes
unsaturated. The soil changes to a lighter color at
the SL due to the water receding within the pores.
In fact, the volume does continue to remain
constant on drying beyond the SL as soil is dried
below the plastic limit it shrinks and gets brittle
until finally all the particles are in contact and the
soil can shrink no further. This point is called the
shrinkage limit. The soil still has moisture within
it but if any of this moisture is lost by further
drying, air has to enter the soil to replace it. This
test was conducted as per IS 2720 (Part VI). Fig.2
shows the variation of shrinkage limit in respect
of the soil sample on admixing of FA, BA, RHA
and RSA.

18 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER
Fig 2 Shrinkage Limit for Admixed Soil
Admixing of FA, BA, RHA and RSA increases
the shrinkage limits remarkably. This increase
was more pronounced for RHA and FA admixed
with soil samples. This phenomenon is mainly
attributed to the flocculation of clay particles
caused by the free lime present in the RHA and
FA resulting in the reduction of friction between
the particles. Similarly, another possible reason
for having higher shrinkage limits on admixing
of stabilizers was due to the substitution of finer
particles of clayey soil by relatively coarser FA
and RHA particles. Similar behavior was also
Fig 3 OMC for Admixed Soil
Fig 4 MDD for Admixed Soil
observed for soil admixed with BA and RSA.
4.3 Modified Proctor Compaction Test
The geotechnical properties of soil (CBR, UCS,
Triaxial test etc.) are dependent on the moisture
and density at which the soil is compacted.
Generally, a high level of compaction of soil
enhances the geotechnical parameters of the
soil, so that achieving the desired degree of
relative compaction necessary to meet specified
or desired properties of soil is very important.
The aim of the Proctor test (moisture-density
test) was to determine the optimum moisture
contents (OMC) and maximum dry densities
(MDD) of both untreated compacted and treated
stabilized soil-mixtures. In order to obtain these
parameters, heavy compaction test was employed
for the mentioned mixture proportions as per IS:
2720 (Part 8). The results for OMC and MDD for
soil stabilized with FA, BA, RHA and RSA are as
shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 respectively.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 19
 TECHNICAL PAPER
As shown in Fig. the OMC for soil increases with
increase in percentage content of FA, BA, RHA
and RSA. This increase was more pronounced
for RHA admixed soil-mixtures in comparison
to that of other types stabilizers of used. This
phenomenon was mainly due to, RHA being
material containing more percentage of silica
and CaO than that of FA, BA and RSA which
subsequently influenced the hydration effect and
the affinity for more moisture during chemical
reaction process. The dry density for the soil
samples decrease with increase in the percentage
of FA, BA, RHA and RSA (Fig. 4). Decrease in
density was directly attributed to the flocculation/
aggregation and the formation of cementitious
products. This decrement was more pronounced
for RSA to that of other stabilizers.
4.4 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
Test
Fig 5 CBR for Admixed Soil with FA
Fig 7 CBR for Admixed Soil with RHA
20 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017
It is in essence a simple penetration test developed
to evaluate the strength of road subgrades. Higher
the CBR value shows stronger the subgrade and
less thick it is necessary to design and construct
the road pavement, this gives a considerable cost
saving. Conversely low CBR reading indicates the
subgrade is weak and we must construct a suitable
thicker road pavement to spread the wheel load
over a greater area of the weak subgrade in order
that the weak subgrade material is not deformed,
causing the road pavement to fail. The samples of
soil admixed with FA, BA, RHA and RSA content
varying from 0% to 35% were cured for 3, 7, 14
and 28 days. This test was conducted on these
samples after soaking in water for four days as
per IS 2720 (Part 16). The results for CBR values
for soil-FA, soil-BA, soil-RHA and soil-RSA are
as shown in Fig. 5 to Fig. 8 respectively.
Fig 6 CBR for Admixed Soil with BA
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Fig 8 CBR for Admixed Soil with RSA
The soaked CBR value of the soil increases with
the addition of FA, BA and RHA up to a 25 % and
thereafter these values start decreasing (Figs.5, 6
& 7). The trend of increase of CBR values with
the percentage content of FA is approximately
linear upto 20% admixing. Abrupt increase in
CBR values were also noticed between 20% &
25% FA admixing. Also it was found that the CBR
increased from 7.8 to 8.5% with the curing period
from 3 to 28 days at 25% of FA admixed with
soil. At 25% of BA content, the CBR increased
from 6.4 to 7.8% with the curing period from 3 to
28 days. Whereas, RHA admixing improves the
CBR values substantially upto 25% replacement
level (Fig.7). The trend of increase of CBR
values were gradual and more consistent in
comparison to that of FA admixed soil samples.
The soaked CBR values obtained while admixing
RHA were much higher than that of FA and BA
admixing. The percentage increase of CBR value
were more for higher percentage RHA admixed
soil samples with respect to FA and BA admixed
soil samples. The increase in curing period from
3 to 28 days increased the CBR from 11.15 to
13% at 25% of RHA content. The increase of
soaked CBR value for RSA admixed soil sample
showed linear relationship with the ash content
up to 20% after which this increase is slackened
with increase of RSA (Fig. 8). The CBR value of
soil admixed with 20% RSA were much higher
than that of 25% FA, 25% BA and 25% RHA
admixing. The positive effect of curing period
from 3 to 28 days was observed for RSA admixed
with soil at 20% RSA content, which increased
the CBR from 11.87 to 17.74% respectively. In
overall, the improvement observed on soaked
CBR values on admixing of stabilizers were due
to the frictional resistance contributed from the
FA, BA, RHA and RSA.
4.5 Unconfined Compressive Strength
Test
Unconfined compression strength (UCS) is the
main test recommended for the determination
of the required amount of additive to be used
in the stabilization of the soil. The UCS test is
a quick, relatively inexpensive means to obtain
undrained shear strength of cohesive soils. This
test is commonly used in practice because of
its simplicity. In most cases, undrained strength
results from an unconfined compression test are
conservative. The maximum stress measured
at failure is equal to two times the undrained
shear strength. For conducting the UCS test,
cylindrical specimens of size 50 mm diameter
and 100 mm length were prepared at optimum
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 21
 TECHNICAL PAPER
moisture content and maximum dry density.
After compaction, each sample was placed
immediately in a polyethylene bag to maintain
the required moisture content and then cured for
7, 14 and 28 days to protect the samples from the
free moisture in 100% relative humidity room at
Fig. 9 UCS for Admixed Soil
Fig. 9 shows the trend of improvement of
UCS admixing of FA with clayey soil samples.
Rapid improvements were observed upto 20%
admixing, after which these improvements
were slackened. These gradual improvements
were observed upto 30% admixing, beyond this
dosage UCS values start declining gradually. The
UCS increment also depends on curing period
and the rate of UCS increment is more up to 14
days curing the increase at 28 days is very less.
In case of BA, UCS improves progressively upto
25% after this decrease with further addition of
BA. This behavior was more pronounced for BA-
soil in comparison to FA-soil at 28 days curing.
Whereas, RHA admixing improves the UCS
values substantially upto 25% replacement level
(Fig. 9). Rapid improvements were observed upto
20% admixing, after which these improvements
were slackened. Beyond 25% dosage, UCS values
start declining gradually. The UCS values for
25% RHA admixed soil are more as comparison
to optimum values of FA and BA at all curing
periods. UCS values increased upto 30% for soil
admixed with RSA after this decreased with more
22 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017
21C, according to ASTM Standard Procedure
D1632-07. The test was conducted as per ASTM
D2166-06. The results of unconfined compressive
strength of soil admixed with FA, BA, RHA and
RSA varying from 0% to 35% tested for 7, 14 and
28 days curing period are shown in Fig 9.
RSA content. The maximum increase in UCS
value was observed in this case as compared to
soil-FA, soil-BA and soil-RHA at 28 days curing
period. Present analyses direct to understand that
admixing of stabilizers to clayey soil produces
cementitious compounds which are principally
responsible for binding actions. Formations of
these compounds are perhaps more pronounced
for stabilizers admixing due to higher percentage
content of SiO2 and CaO.
4.6 Triaxial Test
Unconsolidated undrained (UU) triaxial test are
most commonly used for specimen of earth-fill
materials which are compacted in laboratory under
specified condition of optimum moisture content
and maximum dry density. While other triaxial
type consolidated drained (CD) or Consolidated
undrained (CU) will produce more meaningful
strength parameters. The UU test carried out in
the present study was intended as a ranking test.
All triaxial tests were conducted at a constant
axial strain at 1.2 mm/min under UU condition
 TECHNICAL PAPER
to simulate the behavior of soils subjected to
quick loading immediately after construction.
The cylindrical test samples were prepared of
dimension 100 mm height and 50 mm diameter.
Three different confining stresses as 100, 150
and 200 kPa were applied on specimens to obtain
peak deviator stress as shown in Table 7. The
range of confining stresses was chosen to obtain
Fig 10 Cohesion of Admixed Soil
A chemical reaction occurs on admixing of
various types of stabilizers with weak host soil
that both modifies and stabilizes soil. Increase
of cohesion was observed for the soil admixed
with FA content up to 30 % and then after it
reduced (Fig. 10). A rapid increase was observed
in cohesion upto 10% FA content and thereafter
it increased gradually upto 30%. The cohesion
of soil increased from 42.99 to 45.58 kPa for the
curing period from 7 to 28 days respectively. For
soil admixed with BA similar trend was observed
in increase of cohesion as that of FA, but was more
pronounced then FA-soil. The cohesion increased
upto 25% BA content and then decreased. The
positive effect of curing period from 3 to 28 days
was observed for BA admixed with soil at 25%
BA content, which increased the cohesion from
45.15 to 49.5 kPa respectively. The increase of
more well define and accurate plots of Mohr
envelopes to obtain shear strength parameters
cohesion (c) and angle of internal friction ()
of the soils mixed with RHA. The variation of c
and with admixing FA, BA, RHA and RSA are
evaluated and results are as shown in Fig. 10 and
Fig. 11 respectively.
cohesion maintained linear relationship upto
25% of RHA admixed for all curing periods. The
cohesion values obtained while admixing RHA
were higher than that of FA and BA admixing.
Also it was found that the cohesion increased
from 46.12 to 56.65 kPa with the curing period
from 7 to 28 days at 25% of RHA admixed with
soil. Whereas, cohesion values increased upto
30% for soil admixed with RSA for all curing
periods. The maximum increase in cohesion value
was observed in this case as compared to soil-FA,
soil-BA and soil-RHA. The increase in curing
period from 7 to 28 days increased the cohesion
from 51.19 to 56.91 kPa at 30% of RSA content.
This significant alteration of soil property is most
likely due to presence of more clay particles in
the soil mass which ultimately lead to have better
modification process in presence of stabilizers.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 23
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Fig 11 Angle of Internal Friction of Admixed Soil

Fig. 11 shows the variations of the angle of curing. The increase in curing period from 7 to 28
internal friction of soil admixed with FA, BA, days increased the angle of internal friction from
RHA and RSA. Upto 30% of FA, the angle of 2724 to 3024 at 25% of RHA content.
internal friction increased after this decreased
with FA content increase at every curing period. 5. Cyclic Triaxial Test
It was seen that the angle of internal friction
Repeated triaxial test were conducted on sample
increased from 18 to 19 with the curing period
of size 100 mm diameter and 200 mm height in
from 7 to 28 days at 30% of FA admixed with soil.
conventional triaxial cell by static compaction at
In case of BA, angle of internal friction improved
OMC. The frequency of load application in all
progressively upto 25% after this decrease with
tested were kept 70 cycle per minute; this was
further addition of BA. This behavior was more
fixed based on traffic density (Kumar, P. and
marked for BA-soil at 25% in comparison to FA-
Singh, S. P., 2008). The loads were applied upto
soil at 30%. At 25% of BA content, the angle
10,000 cycles and behavior of resilient strain was
of internal friction increased from 20 to 23
observed at different cycles by computerized
with the curing period from 7 to 28 days. The
dataloger system. In the present study, the cyclic
gradual increase of angle of internal friction for
triaxial tests were conducted as per ASTM
RHA admixed soil sample showed with the ash
D5311-11 on natural and treated stabilized
content from 5 to 25% after which this increase
specimens. Stress-strength ratio in this study is
is slackened with increase of RHA (Fig. 11). This
called deviator stress levels (DSL) and can be
behavior was more pronounced for RHA-soil
defined as the ratio of the d of repeated load
in comparison to FA and BA at 28 days curing.
triaxial test to the soil strength obtained from
The encouraging effect of curing period from 3
undrained triaxial (s). The average response of
to 28 days was observed for RHA admixed with
total resilient strain (r) under each deviator stress
soil at 25% RHA content, which increased the
(d) for the last five cycles of the testing phase
angle of internal friction from 22 to 25 RSA
were measured to determine the resilient modulus
admixing improves the angle of internal friction
(Mr) by using following equation.
values substantially upto 30% replacement level
(Fig.11). The angle of internal friction values
obtained while admixing RSA were much higher
than that of FA, BA and RHA admixing at 28days

24 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017

 Table-7 Deviator stress for Admixed Soil at Different Confining Pressure

% Stabilizer C o n fi n i n g Deviator Stress (kPa)

Pressure
(kPa)
FA BA RHA RSA
7 Days 14 Days 28 Days 7 Days 14 Days 28 Days 7 Days 14 Days 28 Days 7 Days 14 Days 28 Days
0 100 207.340 213.192 204.832 204.832 204.832 204.832 204.832 204.832 204.832 204.832 204.832 204.832
150 279.909 287.810 276.523 276.523 276.523 276.523 276.523 276.523 276.523 276.523 276.523 276.523
200 342.111 351.767 337.972 337.972 337.972 337.972 337.972 337.972 337.972 337.972 337.972 337.972
5 100 242.111 252.883 262.808 269.815 290.072 299.823 285.016 308.666 314.629 326.819 353.293 359.047
150 319.586 331.277 341.650 356.156 379.994 389.770 376.222 404.353 409.017 431.401 462.814 466.761
200 399.483 414.729 428.376 445.196 475.718 488.711 470.277 506.213 512.845 539.251 579.400 585.247
10 100 264.267 277.429 284.224 297.484 321.817 335.238 312.451 340.313 349.814 366.709 401.347 415.404
150 346.189 360.657 366.649 389.703 418.363 432.458 409.311 442.406 451.260 480.389 521.751 535.871
200 428.112 446.660 454.758 481.923 518.126 536.381 506.171 547.903 559.702 594.069 646.169 664.647
15 100 279.202 289.482 298.572 317.233 344.746 356.292 331.819 362.890 370.688 390.161 420.952 442.666
150 362.963 373.432 382.173 412.403 444.722 456.054 431.364 468.128 474.480 507.209 543.029 566.612
200 452.308 466.066 477.716 513.918 555.040 570.067 537.546 584.253 593.100 632.060 677.733 708.265
20 100 295.663 301.993 311.217 335.688 362.230 384.680 350.444 380.525 399.334 416.844 446.385 479.934
150 387.318 398.631 410.807 439.752 478.144 507.777 459.081 502.293 527.121 546.065 589.228 633.512
200 478.973 489.229 501.060 543.815 586.813 619.334 567.719 616.450 642.928 675.287 723.143 772.693
25 100 305.481 312.351 320.586 344.480 370.451 389.922 359.457 389.161 408.314 438.088 471.483 500.277
150 391.016 402.933 410.350 440.934 477.882 499.100 460.105 502.017 522.642 560.753 608.213 640.355
200 491.824 502.885 513.739 554.612 596.426 624.850 578.726 626.549 654.324 705.322 759.088 801.694
30 100 312.175 319.950 327.221 337.455 363.119 379.932 352.288 378.093 394.979 443.141 486.655 511.592
150 399.584 406.337 412.298 431.942 461.161 478.714 450.929 480.178 497.673 567.221 618.051 644.605
200 502.602 513.520 521.917 543.302 582.806 605.991 567.184 606.840 629.991 713.457 781.081 815.989
35 100 271.714 279.696 287.045 281.495 308.274 314.593 292.606 323.131 329.057 393.600 441.984 452.001
150 350.511 358.011 368.852 363.128 394.591 404.252 377.462 413.608 422.838 507.745 565.739 580.822
200 437.460 447.513 458.123 453.206 493.239 502.090 471.096 517.009 525.175 633.697 707.174 721.394

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 25

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For analysis of resilient modulus (Mr) results, set
of six tests was conducted on both expansive and
RHA admixed soils. Tests were conducted at pre-
determined deviator stress level (DSL) of 0.5.
Similarly, three confining pressure of 100 kPa
150 kPa and 200 kPa were chosen for the test.
Throughout the test, the aforementioned DSL
rates and confining pressures were maintained.
The main objective of this study was to understand
the effects of confining pressure and DSL on
expansive soil and FA admixed soils.
Fig. 12 Resilient Modulus of Admixed Soil
Fig. 13 Resilient Modulus of Admixed Soil
Fig. 14 Resilient Modulus of Admixed Soil
26 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017
Fig. 15 Resilient Modulus of Admixed Soil
Figs. 12 to 15 explain that increase in confining
pressure resulted enhancements of Mr of
all cases. Mr values increase with increase
indifferent stabilizer content irrespective DSL
and confining pressure. The maximum Mr values
observed were 110 MPa at 0.5 DSL for a constant
200 kPa confining pressure when no admixing
was done. But these values increases to 171, 204,
214 & 267 MPa after admixing of 30% FA, 25%
BA, 25% RHA and 30% RSA respectively. This
effect may be attributed to a stiffer soil skeleton
structure of stabilizer admixed soils caused by
increased confinement and pozzolanic reactions,
which result in a closer bonding of soil particles.
6. CONCLUSIONS
In the present study performance of various
agricultural and industrial waste materials in
road construction are studied through laboratory
investigation. The soil admixed with FA, BA,
RHA and RSA samples were cured up to 28 days
before testing. Various tests like shrinkage limit,
CBR, UCS, and triaxial test were conducted. The
following conclusions have been drawn from
these laboratory tests:
Marked improvements in shrinkage limits
were observed for soil admixed with FA, BA,
RHA and RSA. This improvement was more
pronounced for 30% RHA admixing.
Admixing of FA, BA, RHA and RSA
increased the optimum moisture content as
the dosages of stabilizers increased. This
increase was more pronounced for RHA
admixed soil-mixtures in comparison to that
of other stabilizers. But dry densities have
 TECHNICAL PAPER
decreased with increase in the percentage of
FA, BA, RHA and RSA. This decrement was
more pronounced for RHA to that of other
stabilizers.
Admixing of FA, BA and RHA upto 25%
and RSA upto 20% increased CBR values
of clayey soil at all curing days. The CBR
value of soil admixed with 20% RSA were
much higher than that of 25% FA, 25% BA
and 25% RHA admixing. The positive effect
of curing period from 3 to 28 days was
observed for RSA admixed with soil at 20%
RSA content, which increased the CBR from
11.87 to 17.74%
Similarly, higher UCS was offered by RSA
admixed soil samples upto 30% at 28 days
curing. The trend of increase of UCS on
admixing of 30% FA showed optimum.
The optimum admixing of BA and RHA to
achieve maximum UCS value was 25% at 28
days curing period.
Admixing of FA & RSA upto 30% and BA
& RHA upto 25% could accelerate cohesion
values of clayey soil at all curing days. The
cohesion value of soil admixed with 30%
RSA at 28 days curing were much higher
than that of 30% FA, 25% BA and 25% RHA
admixing.
The addition of FA upto 30%, BA upto
25%, RHA upto 25% and RSA upto 30%
contributed to increase in angle of internal
friction values of the stabilized soil, after this
it decreases at all curing periods. The angle
of internal friction values obtained while
admixing RSA were much higher than that of
FA, BA and RHA admixing at 28days curing.
Resilient modulus (Mr) values increase with
increase in additives content irrespective
of confining pressure. The maximum MR
values observed were 110 MPa at 0.5 DSL
for a constant 200 kPa confining pressure
when no admixing was done. But these
values increases to 171, 204, 214 & 267
MPa after admixing of 30% FA, 25% BA,
25% RHA and 30% RSA respectively at 200
kPa confining pressure. This effect may be
attributed to a stiffer soil skeleton structure of
stabilizer admixed soils caused by increased
confinement and pozzolanic reactions, which
result in a closer bonding of soil particles.
Based on the present study, all stabilizers
viz. FA, BA, RHA and RSA attains its
optimal strength after 28 days curing period.
It is suggested that these can be utilized as
an effective soil stabilizer if available in
abundant quantity. The results are based
only on laboratory investigations and hence
it is further recommended that the viability
and long-term performance in field, of this
material should be determined in actual
highway construction projects.
7. REFERENCES
1. Alhassan, M. (2008). Potentials of Rice Husk
Ash for Soil Stabilization, AU J.T., Vol.
11(4), 246-250.
2. 
Basha, E.A., Hashim,R., Mahmud, H.B.
and Muntohar, A.S.(2005). Stabilization of
residual soil with rice husk ash and cement
Stabilization of residual soil with rice husk
ash and cement, Construction and Building
Materials, Vol. 19, 448453.
3. 
Brooks R. M. (2009). Soil stabilization
with flyash and rice husk ash, International
Journal of Research and Reviews in Applied
Sciences, Vol. 1(3), 209-217.
4. Chandra, S., Kumar, S. and Anand, R. K.
(2005). Soil stabilization with rice husk ash
and lime sludge, Indian highways, Vol. 33
(5), 87-98.
5. Chauhan, M. S., Mittal, S. and Mohanty, B.
(2008). Performance evaluation of silty sand
subgrade reinforced with fly ash and fibre,
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol. 26,
429435.
6. Cordeiro,G.C., Toledo Filho, R.D., Fairbairn,
E.M.R. (2009). Effect of calcinations
temperature on the pozzolanic activity of
sugar cane bagasse ash,Construction and
Building Materials,Vol.23, 3301-3303.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 27
 TECHNICAL PAPER
7. 
Dhawan, P. K., Swami, R. K., Mehta, H.
S., Bhatnagar, O. P., and Murty, A. V. R. S.
(1994). Bulk utilization of coal ashes from
road works. Indian highways, Vol. 22 (11),
21-30.
8. El-Sayed, M. A. and El-Samni, M. T. (2006).
Physical and chemical properties of rice
straw ash and its effects on the cement paste
produced from different cement types, J.
King Saud Univ., Riyadh. 19. 1427H/2006
Eng. Sci.(1): 21-30.
9. 
FAOSTAT, http://faostat.fao.org/, accessed
on 10 September, 2012.
10. Ganesan, K., Rajagopal, K. and Thangavel,
K. (2007). Evaluation of bagasse ash as
supplementary cementitious material,
Cement & Concrete Composites, Vol. 29,
515524.
11. Govindarao, V. M. H. (1980). Utilization of
rice husk - a preliminary analysis, Journal of
Science and Industrial Research, 39(6), 495-
515.
12. Goyal, A., Anwar, A.M., Kunio, H., Hidehiko,
O. (2007). Properties of sugarcane bagasse
ash and its potential as cement - Pozzolana
binder, Twelfth International Colloquium on
Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, 10-
12 Dec. Cairo Egypt. 1.
13. Han, Y.W. and Anderson, A.W. (1974). The
Problem of Rice Straw Waste: A Possible
Feed through Fermentation, Oregon
Agricultural Experiment Station, Technical
Paper No. 3713.
14. Jha, J. N. and Gill, K. S. (2006). Effect of rice
husk ash on lime stabilization, Journal of the
Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 87, 33-
39.
15. Kumar, A.,Walia, B. S. and Bajaj, A.(2007).
Influence of Fly Ash, Lime, and Polyester
Fibers on Compaction and Strength Properties
28 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017
of Expansive Soil, Journal of Materials in
Civil Engineering, 19(3), 242248.
16. Kumar, P. and Singh, S. P. (2008). Fiber-
reinforced fly ash subbases in rural roads,
Journal of Transportation Engineering ASCE,
134(4), 171-180.
17. Kumar, V., Mathur, M. and Sinha S. S. (2005).
A Case Study: Manifold Increase in Fly Ash
Utilisation in India, Fly Ash Utilization
Programme (FAUP), TIFAC, DST, New
Delhi, I 1.1-I 1.8.
18. Muntohar, A.S (2011). Effect of Specimen
Size on the Tensile Strength Behavior of the
Plastic Waste Fiber Reinforced Soil-Lime-
Rice Husk Ash Mixtures, Civil Engineering
Dimension,Vol. 13(2),82-89.
19. 
Osinubi, K.J.,Bafyau, V, and Eberemu,
A.O. (2009). Bagasse Ash Stabilization of
Lateritic Soil, Appropriate Technologies for
Environmental Protection in the Developing
World, Springer, 271-280.
20. Prabakar, J., Dendorkar, N. and Morchhale,
R. K. (2004). Influence of fly ash on strength
behavior of typical soils, Construction and
Building Materials, Vol. 18, 263267.
21. Ranasinghe and Arjurna, P. (1993). Use of
Rice Straw as Pozzolana, Master Thesis No.
St-85-1, Asian Institute of Technology.
22. 
Seco, A., Ramirez, F., Miqueleiz, L. and
Garcia, B. (2011). Stabilization of expansive
soils for use in construction, Applied Clay
Science, Vol. 51, 348352.
23. Yadu, L., Singh, D. and Tripathi R. K. (2011).
Strength Characteristics of Rice Husk Ash
Stabilized Black Cotton Soil, Proceedings
of International Conference on Advances in
Materials and Techniques for Infrastructure
Development (AMTID 2011), NIT Calicut,
India, 1-6.
 TECHNICAL PAPER

Development of Correlation Between

Roughness Index And International Roughness
Index For Indian Condition

Amal Raj* Sh. Pradeep Kumar** Sh.K. Sitaramanjanayulu***

ABSTRACT
Roughness is an important pavement characteristic because it affects not only ride
quality but also vehicle delay costs, fuel consumption and maintenance costs. Roughness
measurements are used for dividing the road section into statistically homogeneous units,
establishing the preferences for maintenance and rehabilitation, and in other aspects of
pavement surface characterisation. So, accurate measurement of road roughness is of
at most importance. Commonly used roughness measuring equipment in India are Fifth
wheel bump integrator and Car Axle mounted bump integrator. For making conversion
between Roughness Index (mm/km) and International Roughness Index (m/km), equation
developed under World Bank sponsored study namely International Road Roughness
Experiment (IRRE) in 1982 is being used. The main objective of the study is to develop
correlation between Roughness Index (mm/km) and International Roughness Index (m/
km) based on the equipment, which are currently being used in India.
Key Words: Road Roughness, Roughness Index, International Roughness Index
1. INTRODUCTION not only provide a higher level of service but
also lasts longer than otherwise equivalent but
Road roughness is the deviations of the
initially rougher pavements [3]. Roughness
pavement surface from a true planar surface
measurement is an important factor in making
with characteristic dimensions that affect
vehicle dynamics, ride quality, dynamic loads, decisions towards spending limited budgets for
and drainage, for example, longitudinal profile, maintenance and improvements. Analysis of
transverse profile, and cross slope [1]. By causing roughness can aid in the diagnosis of roadway
vehicle vibrations, roughness has a direct influence deterioration and the design of appropriate
on vehicle wear, ride comfort, and safety. In turn, maintenance [2]. Due to this, specifications for
the dynamic wheel loads produced are implicated roughness have been adopted by various highway
as causative factors in roadway deterioration [2]. engineering agencies.
The relationship between vehicle operating cost
and road roughness are well established through 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
several studies conducted in India and abroad.
The effect of roughness on road safety is also Road roughness is a key characteristic of the road
being recognized. There is growing belief among condition which should be seriously considered in
pavement engineers that smooth pavements developing maintenance standards and for fixing
*M Tech. Student, AcSIR, CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, **Principal Scientist, Road Asset Management Group, CSIR-
Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi ***Senior Principal Scientist, Pavement Engineering Area, CSIR-Central Road Research Institute,
New Delhi
The views of Author(s) are personal and for information purpose.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 29

 TECHNICAL PAPER
the level of serviceability required for the purpose
of economic evaluation. It has effect on safety,
vehicle operating cost, vehicle riding comfort,
vehicle speed, etc[4, 5, 6]. Along with pavement
surface characteristics, grading frequency, terrain
type and environment type, will also affect road
roughness. Traffic loading and type of vehicles
including cumulative loading, Pavement type
and structure, Pavement strength, subgrade
strength or classification, climate/environment,
maintenance costs, time or pavement age, initial
roughness value, etc are the important factors that
affects roughness progression in pavements.
Road roughness measuring systems can be broadly
classified into profilometric systems and response
type road roughness measuring systems. Based
on the accuracy level , the instruments/methods
used for measuring roughness can be classified
into four classes-class I (Precision Profilers like
Walking Profiler, Dipstick, Laser Profilometers,
etc), class II (High Speed Ultrasonic Sensor
Based Profilers), class III (Response Type Road
Roughness Measuring System including Fifth
Wheel Bump Integrator, Car Axle Mounted
Bump Integrator, Roughometer-III, etc) and
class IV (Visual inspection). The various
equipment used for measuring road roughness
are Rod and Level, MERLIN, Dipstick, Walking
Profiler, APL Profilometer, Portable Universal
Roughness Device (UVRD), Roughometer III,
Fifth wheel Bump Integrator, Car Axle Mounted
Bump Integrator, California Profilograph,
Laser Profilometer, Roadmaster, Non-contact
Light weight Profiling Devices, Dynamic Force
Measuring Vehicle, Mays Ride Meter, Nose
Meter, Inertial Devices, etc. Other than these,
many other new techniques are developed by
various agencies.
Different units are used worldwide for expressing
road roughness. They include Roughness Index
(RI), Present Serviceability Rating (PSR), Ride
Quality Index (RQI), Profilograph Index (PrI),
Ride Number (RN), Half-car Roughness Index
(HRI), NAASRA Roughness count, Cumulative
Straightedge Index (CSI), Urban Distress Index
(UDI), etc.
International Roughness Index (IRI) is the
30 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017
internationally accepted unit for expressing road
roughness. It was developed through World Bank
sponsored study International Road Roughness
Experiment (IRRE) Held in Brazil in 1982. It is
expressed in m/km. Through IRRE, conversion
equations between IRRE and other units were also
developed. In India, the equation RI=630IRI1.12 is
used for the conversion between RI and IRI [7].
The calibration of these equipment are done by
finding roughness of calibration sites with the
equipment which needed to be calibrated and with
the class I equipment and there after developing
correlation between the two set of readings.
After IRRE, studies were conducted in different
countries to develop relationship between IRI
and various other units. Also various models
were developed to study the characteristics of
roughness.
3. OBJECTIVE
In India Response Type Road Roughness
Measuring System (RTRRMS) is mostly used
for measuring road roughness.The Bump
Integrator which is commonly used for roughness
measurement gives the output in terms of
Roughness Index (RI), which is in mm/km. Indian
standards also specifies the road roughness in
terms of RI measured through Fifth Wheel Bump
Integrator or Car Axle Mounted Bump Integrator.
Profilometric equipment like Walking Profiler,
Dipstick, Laser Profilometer, etc. gives road
roughness in terms of International Roughness
Index (IRI). IRI is the international standard of
road roughness, which is required to be converted
into RI as per Indian standards. Sometimes it is
also required to convert RI to the international
scale of roughness i.e. IRI. The main objective
of the study is to develop correlation between
Roughness Index (mm/km) and International
Roughness Index (m/km) based on the equipment,
which are currently being used in India.
4. METHODOLOGY
Since all RTRRMS need to be calibrated with
reference to a standard roughness measuring
device, before they are used for the roughness
measurements, due to their sensitivity to the type
of tyre, load, suspension system, etc., first the
sites require for the calibration of equipment and
 TECHNICAL PAPER
development of correlation between Roughness
Index and International Roughness Index were
selected. Then all the equipments used for the
study were calibrated according to their standard
procedures. Thereafter roughness data were
collected from all the selected sites with the
selected equipments. The statistical analysis was
done to develop the relationship.
4.1. Test Equipment
Roughness was measured by using both
Profilometric and Response Type Road
Roughness Measuring System namely Fifth
Wheel Bump Integrator, Car Axle Mounted Bump
Integrator, Laser Profilometer, Walking Profiler
and Dipstick. Out of these equipments, Dipstick,
Walking Profilometer, and Laser Profilometer
are Profilometric equipments, whereas Fifth
Wheel Bump Integrator and Car Axle Mounted
Bump Integrator are Response Type Road
Roughness Measuring System. Dipstick, Walking
Profilometer and Laser Profilometer III give the
roughness value in IRI (m/km), whereas Fifth
Wheel Bump Integrator and Car Axle Mounted
Bump Integrator gives roughness value in RI
(mm/km).
4.2. Test Sites
Sites were selected according to the following
criteria:
Site with roughness Range varying from
1500 to 10000 mm/km.
Sites have to be on plain terrain, or at a
constant grade.
Length of the test sections to be between 300
500 m.
Lead in and Lead out length, in addition to
the survey test section length, should be there
to maintain standard survey speed for the
test section
Each of the site should be having
homogeneous roughness level
A total of 70 road sections having a road length
of 300 m to 500 m, were initially selected on
NH-02 (CRRI to Ballabhgarh), MDR-133 (Near
Sohna) and on Ballabhgarh-Sohna road covering
roughness range from 1500 mm/km to 10000
mm/km.
4.3 Calibration
All the equipment used for the study were
calibrated according to their standard procedures.
To ensure that the Dipstick unit is reading
accurately, it must be zeroed (levelled) prior
to each session [8]. Quick offset trim method
was done before the Walking Profiler survey to
ensure the accuracy of IRI results [9]. Digital
Laser Profiler Laser Sensor Calibration is done
for Laser Profilometer. This calibration computes
calibration constants for each of the individual
lasers on the profiler assembly, by measuring
firstly, the distance to a plate on the ground, and
secondly, the distance to the top of an accurate
gauge block placed over the plate [10]. The
calibration of Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator and
Car Axle Mounted Bump Integrator is done
according to the calibration standards given by
World Bank [11].
4.4. Roughness Measurement
IRI data for the study was taken from Laser
Profilometer (Photo-1) as it was noticed that
Laser Profilometer is giving comparable results
when compared with Dipstick and Walking
Profilometer. Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator and
Car Axle Mounted Bump Integrator, which are
response type road roughness measuring systems
(Photo-2-a,b), were used for the measurement
of roughness in terms of RI (mm/km). The
results obtained from all the three equipments
were used to develop correlations between RI
and IRI. The roughness data were collected on
70 road sections selected for development of
correlation between RI and IRI. Out of these 70
road sections, the roughness data of 51 sections
were only used for the study (these 51 sections
were selected based on the standard survey speed
maintained during survey). Eleven sections from
the above 51 sections were used to calibrate the
RTRRMS equipments and therefore, the Dipstick
measurements were also conducted on these
eleven sections.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 31
 TECHNICAL PAPER
Photo-1:Laser Profilometer installed in the front of
the Survey Vehicle
Photo-2a
Photo-2b
Photo-2-a&b :Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator and Car
Axle Mounted Bump Integrator Used for the Study
4.5. Field Data Analysis
The Roughness data of 51 sections was used for
development of correlations between RI and IRI,
wherein 32 sections were used for development
of correlation and 19 sections were used for
validation of the results.
The regression analysis was done between
32 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017
IRI (obtained with Laser Profilometer) and RI
(obtained with calibrated Fifth Wheel Bump
Integrator)as shown Fig. 1 and Fig.2. The
various forms of equation (linear, exponential,
logarithmic, polynomial and power) were checked
to develop conversion equations between IRI and
RI and one with the highest R2 value was selected.
Fig.1 Regression Analysis for IRI to RI (Fifth
Wheel Bump Integrator) Conversion
Fig.2 Regression Analysis for RI (Fifth Wheel
Bump Integrator) to IRI Conversion
Equations to convert back and forth IRI and RI
(Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator) were obtained
with a high R2 value of 0.99. The equations are
given in Eqns. 1 and 2.
RI = 643* IRI1.1.(1)
IRI = 0.0028* RI0.91...(2)
Similarly, regression analysis was done between
IRI (obtained with Laser Profilometer) and RI
(obtained with calibrated Car Axle Mounted
Bump Integrator) as shown Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. In
this case also, various forms of equation (linear,
exponential, logarithmic, polynomial and power)
were checked to develop conversion equations
between IRI and RI and one with the highest R2
value was selected.
Fig. 3 Regression Analysis for IRI to RI (Car Axle
Mounted Bump Integrator) Conversion
 TECHNICAL PAPER

6 3289 3273 0.49

7 3710 3722 0.32
8 4068 4063 0.12
9 4505 4517 0.27
10 4904 4914 0.20
11 5313 5328 0.28
12 5588 5597 0.16
Fig.4 Regression Analysis for RI (Car Axle Mounted
Bump Integrator) to IRI Conversion 13 6281 6274 0.11
14 6560 6576 0.24
The equations to convert back and forth IRI
15 6840 6835 0.07
and RI (Car Axle Mounted Bump Integrator)
were obtained with a high R2 value of 0.99. The 16 7669 7677 0.10
conversion equations are given in Eqns. 3 and 4. 17 7935 7930 0.06
18 8586 8587 0.01
RI = 642 * IRI1.1(3)
19 9802 9814 0.12
IRI = 0.0028 * RI0.91..(4)
Table 2. Validation of Equation for Car
4.6. Validation of Results Axle Mounted Bump Integrator
Data of a certain number of sites were kept reserved
Roughness Index
for the validation of the conversion equation. For
the validation, the Laser Profilometer data were Section Laser Car Axle %
ID Profilometer Mounted Error
first converted to RI, using the new equation. Then
(mm/km) Bump
the calibrated Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator and Integrator
calibrated Car Axle Mounted Bump Integrator RI (mm/km)
data were compared with the Laser Profilometer
1 1256 1251 0.40
RI data. The results shown in Table-1 and Table-2
indicate that the maximum % error is 0.66 and 2 1666 1672 0.36
0.45 for Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator and Car 3 2024 2015 0.45
Axle Mounted Bump Integrator respectively for 4 2483 2490 0.28
a roughness range of about 1250 mm/km to 9800 5 2885 2876 0.31
mm/km.
6 3284 3293 0.27
7 3704 3710 0.16
Table 1.Validation of Equation for Fifth 8 4062 4068 0.15
Wheel Bump Integrator 9 4498 4515 0.38
Roughness Index 10 4896 4883 0.27
Section Laser Fifth Wheel % 11 5305 5314 0.17
ID Profilometer Bump Error 12 5580 5573 0.13
(mm/km) Integrator 13 6271 6278 0.11
(mm/km)
14 6550 6562 0.18
1 1258 1252 0.48
15 6829 6838 0.13
2 1669 1658 0.66
16 7657 7673 0.21
3 2027 2036 0.44
17 7922 7909 0.16
4 2487 2481 0.24
18 8573 8569 0.05
5 2890 2903 0.45
19 9787 9782 0.05

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 33

 TECHNICAL PAPER
5. CONCLUSION
1. Road roughness is a key characteristic of the
road condition which should be accurately
measured as it is seriously considered in
developing maintenance standards and for
fixing the level of serviceability required for
the purpose of economic evaluation.
2. 
Different units are used worldwide for
expressing road roughness. They include
Roughness Index (RI), International
Roughness Index (m/km), Present
Serviceability Rating (PSR), Ride Quality
Index (RQI), Profilograph Index (PI),
Ride Number (RN), Half-car roughness
Index (HRI), NAASRA Roughness count,
Cumulative Straightedge Index (CSI), Urban
Distress Index (UDI), etc.
3. In India, both type of equipments (RI and
IRI) for roughness measurements are used.
So, the development of separate equations for
Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator and Car Axle
Mounted Bump Integrator for conversion
between RI and IRI is of immense use.
4. Correlations between IRI and RI separately
for Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator and Car
Axle Mounted Bump Integrator were
developed with high R2 value.
5. The validation of the developed correlations
for Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator and Car
Axle mounted Bump Integrator was done
using a new set of roughness data. The
results presented in Table 1 and Table 2 for
Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator and Car Axle
Mounted Bump Integrator respectively
shows that the new equations developed can
be used for conversion between RI and IRI.
6. REFERENCES
1. ASTM E867 (2012), Standard Terminology
Relating to Vehicle-Pavement Systems,
American Society for Testing and Materials
International, USA
2. Sayers, M.W., T. D. Gillespie, and A.V.Q.
Cesar (1986), The International Road
Roughness Experiment - Establishing
34 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017
Correlation and a Calibration Standard for
Measurements, World Bank Technical
Paper No.45, 464 p
3. 
Chen,J.S.and C.C. Huang (2006),
Development of Pavement Smoothness
Index Relationship, Journal of ASTM
International, Vol. 3, No. 8, ASTM
International, USA, 8 p
4. 
Bester, C.J (2003), The Effect of Road
Roughness on Safety, TRB 2002 Annual
Meeting, USA
5. Harrison, R.(1990), Influence of Road-
Surface Roughness on Vehicle Operating
Costs: Reviewing the Evidence from
Developing Countries, Surface
Characteristics of Road- ways: International
Research and Technologies, ASTM STP
1031, American Society for Testing and
Materials, USA, pp 416-429
6. 
Paterson, W. D. O. and Watanatada,
T. (1985),Relationships Between
Vehicle Speed, Ride Quality, and Road
Roughness,Measuring Road Roughness and
Its Effects on User Cost and Comfort, ASTM
STP 884, American Society for Testing and
Materials, USA, pp 89-110
7. IRC: SP: 16 (2004), Guidelines for Surface
Unevenness of Highway Pavements, The
Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, India, 16 p
8. 
Face (1992), Dipstick Auto-Read Road
Profiler Hardware Instruction Manual,
Face Construction Technologies, Norfolk
9. ARRB (2008), Walking Profiler G2-User
Manual, Australian Road Research Group
Ltd, Australia
10. ARRB (2008), Hawkeye 2000 Series User
Manual, Australian Road Research Group
Ltd, Australia
11. 
Sayers, M.W., T. D. Gillespie, and W.
D. O. Paterson (1986), Guidelines for
Conducting and Calibrating Road Roughness
Measurements, World Bank Technical Paper
No. 46, 96 p
 TECHNICAL PAPER

Highway Cost Allocation Study in India Ways

and Means

Sasanka Bhushan Pulipati* NitinTiruttani** Sankalp Jahagirdar***

ABSTRACT :
The central, state and local governments in India charge various taxes and fees on ownership
and use of vehicles on public roads; the entire tax system is complicated. The exact tax
burden on each road user and whether it is his fair share with respect to the benefit he
receives or the cost he imposes on the system is not clear. A highway cost allocation(HCA)
study in India not only can provide the policy makers with a good decision tool to improve
the fairness of the road user tax system but also can improve the understanding of the public
on the tax system. This is a step towards transparency.The authors review the various
components of a HCA study including the data required and the methods followed for cost
allocation and revenue allocation. To perform this study for India or an Indian state, data
on road use in the form of vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT) by vehicle class and road
class should be developed. The accounting of highway expenditure and revenue collection
should be more detailed. The authors suggest a simple method to allocate the highway costs
until better India-specific cost allocation models are developed. The authors visualize that
this review opens path to various studies to fulfil the requirements of a HCA study in India
that culminate in a credible HCA study for a state or the nation as a whole.
Keywords: Highway cost allocation study, Equity, Cost allocation, User-pay, Road user tax

1. INTRODUCTION
The state and central governments in India The public is concerned whether what they pay
have spent about 57,000 crores of rupees is their fair share. This fairness, called user-pay
on constructing, maintaining and operating equity, can be based on many parameters. In
roadways and road transportin 2010-11 financial general, the more benefit one gains by using a
year1. Since the transport facilities benefit the facility, the more one should pay, and the more
public in fulfilling their needs, intuitively, this cost one imposes by using a facility, the more one
cost is retrieved from the public. Funds are should pay2. As it tries to account for the above
generated through motor fuel tax, motor vehicle fairness concept and also to fulfill other objectives
tax, passenger and goods taxes and other fees like reducing congestion, the current tax structure
paid by the road users, or sometimes non users. is complex3. However, a scientific justification is
The total amount collected from a person may needed to prove this fairness. A HCA study can
depend on factors such as the vehicle type, extent provide this justification to the public and policy
of use, or the location. makers.
*Faculty, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Warangal, Telangana, 506004, India, bushan515@yahoo.com.,
**M.Tech. Graduate, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Warangal, Telangana, 506004, India, nitintiruttani@
gmail.com., ***M.Tech. Graduate, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Warangal, Telangana, 506004, India,
sank158@gmail.com. *Corresponding author
The views of Author(s) are personal and for information purpose.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 35

 TECHNICAL PAPER
A HCA studyassesses equity, usually for a
projected period, and recommends adjustments to
existing tax rates to bring the payments and cost
responsibilities for each user class closer. The
costs here mean the costs related to construction,
maintenance and operation of major highways,
roads and streets. HCA studies primarily classify
the highway users with the type of vehicle driven
such as passenger cars, buses, single axle trucks
and multi axle trucks. Vehicles may also be
classified by their weight.
In the United States, where the HCA studies
are prevalent, a highway agency such as a state
Department of Transportation (DOT) conducts a
HCA study for the corresponding state within the
framework of specific policies and procedures
that are agreed on by the government. It informs
whether the full cost of highways is paid by
the highway users, or is it shared by non-users
also, whether some classes of users overpay or
underpay and, if so, by how much, and what
specific changes in tax structure can improve
equity among highway users. HCA study assists
policy makers as they consider changing the
transportation tax structures. Further, it is valuable
because it informs the public and the legislative
bodies regarding the fairness of the highway user
tax system.
The authors realize that a HCA study is necessary
in India to evaluate the fairness of the current
road user tax system in India and improve it.
Such study is able to make the tax system more
understandable to the public, which enables them
in accepting or rejecting any future adjustments
to it with rational decision making.
Since Indias road system and its development
process, and the road user charges may differ
from other countries where HCA studies have
been performed, the best practices in HCA
studies around the world should be studied and
a systematic approach which is specific to Indian
conditions needs to be developed.
In this paper, the authors present a comprehensive
review of different components of a HCA study
and the methods used, and the customization
needed when such a study is performed for India
or an Indian state. Performing an actual HCA
36 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017
study is not included in the scope of this paper.
The objectives of this research are:
To study the various practices around the
world regarding HCA studies
To discuss the applicability of existing
methods of HCA studies to a similar studies
in India and identify the suitable approach.
To investigate the availability of data for
performing a HCA study and suggest a plan
to fulfill the future data needs.
To propose the future directions of research
to perform an effective HCA study for Indian
conditions
This section introduces the HCA study, discusses
the need for a HCA study in India and outlines the
objectives of the paper. The next section gives a
brief history of HCA studies. The third section
reviews the methodology used in a HCA study.
The fourth section focuses on the customization
needed if a HCA study is to be performed
for Indian situation. The paper concludes by
identifying the efforts needed for data collection
and future studies.
2. HISTORY OF HCA STUDIES
Oregon state performed the first HCA study
in 1937. Since then more than 30 US states
have performed it. The Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA) of the USA conducted
HCA studies in 1965, 1982 and 1997 to evaluate
the equity of the user taxes at national level. The
improved methodology used in the 1982 and
the 1997 studies, and the National Pavement
Cost Model (NAPCOM) developed during the
latter study are adopted by many subsequent
state level studies. A synthesis from the National
Cooperative Highway Research Program lists all
the HCA studies performed until 2010 and shows
the evolution of the study methodology4.
Usually, a HCA study is conducted when there
is a perceived need to evaluate or modify the
structure of highway related taxes. Hence there
is no specific timeline for such studies. In some
states such as Oregon, a new HCA study should
be submitted to the legislature every two years4.
 TECHNICAL PAPER
Historically, the recommendations from the study
have either been accepted, ignored or even been
rejected.
Fair and efficient ways of allocating the highway
costs to different user classes has been a concern of
many other countries such as the United Kingdom,
Australia, New Zealand and the Netherlands5.
Countries have tried to charge the users close
to their cost responsibility through a variety of
taxes. In the last two decades, innovations in
technology have made the governments to think
of charging the road users more directly based on
the vehicle weight and distance traveled. This has
prompted studies to revisit the tax structures and
cost allocation models.
Based on the literature review, the authors realize
that a cost allocation study may provide very good
recommendations but the tax structure should
be such that these recommendations can be
incorporated. For example, the recommendation
of the Oregon state HCA study that the tax of
a specific weight class of heavy vehicle should
be increased is viable only because Oregon has
weight-distance tax for heavy vehicles.
Fig.1. HCA study process
The analyst usually sets an analysis period,
usually a one year or two year period, for which
the equity analysis of the tax system is requested
by the policy makers (for example, Texas study7
and Oregon study8).
3. HCA STUDY METHODOLOGY
In general, a HCA study follows the process
given in Fig. 1. The outcome of a HCA study
usually is a set of equity ratios for different user
groups. Equity ratio (ER) is defined as the ratio
of the share of total revenue paid by a user class
and the share of total highway cost for which
it is responsible. For having perfect equity, the
equity ratio is unity. The case of ER>1 or ER<1
indicates inequity and that the user class is paying
more than or less than its cost responsibility,
respectively. One should note here that the ratio
of percentage shares is estimated rather than the
absolute quantities.
In most of the studies the users are classified
primarily as light vehicles and heavy vehicles
because of the apparent difference in the
damage they impose on the roadways. Further
classification depends on the grouping used in
the existing tax structure, and the availability
of data. Buses are included as heavy vehicles or
kept separate. Heavy vehicles may be classified
based on shape, number of axles or weight. The
1997 FHWA study splits the trucks by their shape
and number of axles into eighteen classes6.
HCA study requires three categories of data for
the analysis period, namely the highway costs,
the revenues and the road use. The road use data
should contain, for each vehicle class, the number
of vehicles registered in the study area and the
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 37
 TECHNICAL PAPER

vehicle distance travelled (VDT) on each class vehicle classification counts at locations on the
of roadways. A sample data table is shown in road network and then summing the products of
Table 1. VDT can be estimated by first collecting counts and segment lengths.

Table 1. Format of road use data

Vehicle km (or miles) Travelled on Road Class
Number of Express National State Major Other Village
Vehile Class
Vehicles Ways Highways Highways District District Road Road
Road
Passenger car
Bus
Light Trucks
Medium Weigh
Trucks
Heavy Weight Trucks
The revenue collected is recorded separately on both national and state highways, and revenue
for each user charge. One should decide which from user taxes from both federal and state taxes
charges are included and whether any portion of are considered7.
a tax should be ignored due to not being used for
highway expenditure7. For example, in Texas, As shown in Fig.1, two main tasks are involved
25 per cent of fuel tax revenue is dedicated to in a HCA study revenue allocation and cost
schools. This part can be ignored in compiling allocation. They are explained in the following
the revenue. subsections.

All the expenditure on construction, 3.1. Revenue Allocation

maintenance and operation of roadways, and
other administrative costs are compiled as cost
data. Data from previous years can be used to
estimate the costs in the analysis period. Costs
are separated by different road classes.
HCA study is usually performed with reference
to a funding authority. For example, in the Texas
HCAS, the Texas Department of Transportation
(TxDOT) is the reference. TxDOTs expenditure
To allocate the revenue, a list with revenue from
each user charge is prepared first. Each entry of
revenue is allocated among the vehicle classes.
The analyst breaks down the number of vehicles
and vehicle distance travelled along tax-relevant
dimensions such as vehicle type and vehicle
weight7. Table 2 shows the parameters used to
split a list of selected road user charges from
India and the USA.

Table 2. Revenue allocation of selected user charges

Road User Tax Basis of Tax Revenue Allocator
Vehicle registration fee, Texas, USA9 Fixed amount paid annually, varies Number of vehicles of each weight
by weight class class
Motor Vehicle Tax, Goa, India3 % of vehicle cost, paid all at once,Number of vehicles and Average
varies by cost of vehicle cost of each vehicle class
Fuel tax, Texas, USA10 Fixed amount per litre of gasoline Average fuel economy and number
used of miles travelled by each vehicle
class
Heavy vehicle use tax, USA10 Fixed amount paid quarterly, varies Number of vehicles of each weight
by weight class class

38 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER
Weight Distance Tax, Oregon, USA10Amount per mile travelled, varies
by weight class
Passenger and Goods tax, Himachal % of passenger fare, % of value of
Pradesh, India3 freight
3.2 Cost Allocation
According to the user-pay equity concept, the
amount one pays as a tax should be in proportion
to the benefit one gains or the cost one imposes on
the system. Based on these two ideas, two broad
approaches for allocating the highway costs are
discussed in the literature - the benefit based
approach and the cost occasioned approach.
Benefit based Approach
Both users and non-users of roadway get
improved mobility, safety and economic
development from the road system. So the costs
can be distributed among both users and non-
users based on the benefits they receive. This
allocation promotes both fairness and efficiency
as people pay in proportion to the value they
receive. However, benefits cannot be measured
directly. Moreover, benefit of a trip may be
different for each vehicle in each time8.Because
of these drawbacks encountered by Benefit based
approach, most of the HCA studies follow Cost
occasioned approach.
Cost Occasioned Approach
The basic principle here is that each user should
be charged in proportion to the costs the user is
responsible for. But the cost of highway damage
or of serving all the demand is often too large
to be covered by user charges. So the actual
expenditure is used as a substitute for cost4.
Until the 1970s, the HCA studies have allocated
the costs in two basic methodsproportional
method and incremental method11. The first
method distributes the cost in proportion to one
or more measures of highway use. The second
method is a layered process. The cost of providing
facilities for light vehicles is determined first.
This cost is a common responsibility of all user
classes and is allocated to all using proportional
method. Each group of successively larger and
Number of miles travelled by each
weight class of vehicles
All revenue from passenger tax
to buses; average value of goods
transported each weight class
heavier vehicles requires a better design of
the facility. The difference in the cost of two
successive designs is allocated to the upper
vehicle class each increment6. This method
however gives undeserved benefit to heavy
vehicles in allocating pavement costs because
each additional inch of pavement thickness
up to a certain point can support an increasing
number of equivalent single axle loads (ESALs)
during the design life of the pavement. The cost
increment for these vehicles is lower than the
expected marginal damage due to their load4. So
the Federal Method, as it is called, used in the
1982 Federal HCA study uses the incremental
method only for some expenditures that cannot
be viewed as consumed by highway use and
uses new procedures that relate the pavement
damage with the use for elements like pavement
rehabilitation and their related works4. Many
states following the Federal Method allocate the
pavement costs in proportion to the loads of the
vehicle classes in terms of ESALs which is the
parameter in designing the pavement thickness.
In the 1997 Federal HCA study, the FHWA
develops National Pavement Cost Model
(NAPCOM) which includes predictors that
estimate different pavement distresses associated
with different vehicle classes more similar to the
observed distress patterns than a simple approach
based on ESALs4. This study still uses the
incremental method to allocate the bridge costs
while using NAPCOM for pavement costs.
As the external costs of traffic such as congestion
and pollution costs becomes a concern of the
public, HCA studies have started to include
these external costs in the total cost. A 2011
Oregon study calls the inclusion of these costs
in calculation of equity ratios an efficient fee
approach because the user charges based on the
full costs aim to make the transportation system
use more efficient12.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 39
 TECHNICAL PAPER
4. 
CUSTOMIZING HCA STUDY
FOR INDIA
While the HCA studies are well established in the
USA, the analysis procedure may not be directly
applicable to Indian situation because of various
reasons such as below:
The structure of the road user taxes in India
is different from other countries. One should
carefully find the charges or part of the
charges to be considered in the HCA study.
Type of vehicles and their extent of road use
may be different. The vehicle classes to be
considered can be different. The pavement
distress models should be customized to
Indian situation.
HCA studies require a lot of data. The data on
highway expenditure, revenue generation and
road use in India is not adequately recorded
or readily available.
The design and construction practice in India
is different from that in other countries and
so the cost allocation models and pavement
distress models need to be customized to
India.
An important limitation of a HCA study is
that it assumes that all taxes are administered
with minimal evasion; otherwise any tax
system may become unfair. This may not be
true in the case of developing countries such
as India 13.
In this section, the authors review the revenue
generation, highway expenditure, road use
characteristics and data availability, and try to
customize the HCA study to India. The scenario in
India is compared with that in USA because that
is where the HCA studies are well established.
4.1. Vehicle and road use characteristics
In 2012, about 1.59 crores of motor vehicles
were present in India; about 72% of them are
motor cycles, 13.5% are light private vehicles,
one percent are buses and five per cent are goods
40 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017
vehicles14. Number of motor vehicles of all types,
on average, grew at close to 10% each year in the
last two decades.
Buses represent primary transport mode for inter-
urban trips and a significant mode for intra-urban
trips. The low vehicle ownership rates make a
large portion of Indian population captive to bus
systems. The state road transport corporations
have effectively served the public since the
1950s. This is a significant deviation from the
USA where large proportion of trips on road is
made by personal car. Hence, allocating highway
costs to buses and bus passengers becomes more
important in India than in USA.
Trucks contribute to a significant proportion of
inter-urban road traffic. While this is similar to the
condition in the USA, the amount of damage of
roads due to freight traffic is expected to be larger
in India. First, the axle loads carried are larger in
India compared to the USA. This case is evident
in developing countries where the shippers seek
to reduce the transportation costs. Secondly,
overloading carrying more than the legal weight
limits is also common in India. This means, any
highway damage cost estimated based on legal
weight limits becomes underestimated.
4.2 
Revenue generation by road user
charges
In India, central, state and local governments
collect various road user charges. The purpose of
these charges is regulation, revenue generation
and increasing efficiency. Tax type or tax rates
levied by all states are not same. A summary
of the structure of road user taxes in India as
explained by Purohit and Purohit3 is given below.
Taxes on Purchase of Motor Vehicles
The central government levies customs duty and
central value added tax (CenVAT) as a percentage
of the vehicle value at the factory gate. State VAT
is levied by the state. For vehicles other than
motor cycles and cars, these taxes sum up to 32%
of vehicle value.
Taxes on Ownership of Vehicles
Motor vehicle tax or road tax, registration fee,
 TECHNICAL PAPER
fees for transfer of ownership and fees for fitness
certificate are levied by state government. Tax
classes and tax rate vary from state to state. For
private motor cycles and motor cars, most states
charge a one-time tax. Tax is most commonly
calculated as a percentage of cost of the vehicle.
This percentage varies based on factors such as
cost of vehicle, seating capacity and unladen
weight. The motor vehicle tax on private stage
carriages (buses, etc.) and goods vehicles is
commonly assessed annually or quarterly based
on the number of seats and gross vehicle weight,
respectively. Registration and other fees depend
on the type of the vehicle.
Taxes on the Operation of Vehicles (Fuel Tax,
Passenger and Goods Tax and Tolls)
Primarily, road use is indirectly charged through
fuel tax. Central government charges import duty
and excise duty on motor fuel while each state
charges a VAT on the price of fuel. All these
charges except a highway cess of Rs. 2/litre for
petrol and high speed diesel contribute to the
general revenue of the governments; the revenue
from highway cess is accumulated in Central
road fund (CRF) and is used for development
of national highways, state highways and rural
roads15.
In addition, passenger vehicles other than
personal vehicles are charged a tax based on the
seating capacity or actual number of passengers
as a percentage of ticket price. Goods vehicles
are charged as a percentage of value of freight
carried. This is called passenger and goods tax.
Further, states charge an entry tax on goods
entering some locations. Tolls are collected on
some roads. Some municipalities in Maharastra
levy an entry tax named Octroi.
4.3 Highway Expenditure
Major funding source at the central government
is the CRF. Money from the CRF is used for
various categories of projects as per the limits
specified by the CRF Act, 2000, after the
governments apportionment15. NHAI spends the
money apportioned to national highways. The
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)
uses the money apportioned to rural roads.
Each state government supplements the revenue
obtained through its own road user charges with
the funding from the CRF. It develops state roads.
Some states in India operate a separate state road
fund for highway funding. When the funding for
highway works is not earmarked through a road
fund, state annual budget should allocate some
money from the consolidated fund where revenue
from all taxes is accumulated. Andhra Pradesh
state is an example of this case16. Such allocation
may not tally with the revenue from the highway
taxes. In such a case, the HCA study should be
based on an average allocation from a number of
past years.
The expenditure for different categories of
roadways in India is made by a different authority.
So using a state or a geographic region rather than
an entity that spends the money as a reference for
costs is more appropriate for an Indian situation.
4.4 Availability of Data for HCA Study
As shown in Fig.1, recent, reliable and detailed
data regarding the revenue, costs and road use are
necessary for a successful HCA study. In India,
the expenditure and revenue data are reported
by the Comptroller and Auditor General of India
(CAG)17, and thestate finance department16,18;
however, the accounting is somewhat aggregated.
The authors expect that it is possible to get more
detailed information through specific requests.
For distributing the revenue from motor vehicle
tax and some other taxes, number of registered
vehicles by vehicle class is available. The
main difficulty is with the road use data. The
HCA study requires VKT by road system, by
vehicle type, weight class, number of axles or
other vehicle tax class. VKT is estimated by
performing traffic counts on many road segments
covering entire road network in a region with the
necessary vehicle classification and multiplying
them with the representative length of the road
segments. This effort, usually being expensive, is
not yet common in India; however less expensive
approximate methods can be developed such as
the one proposed by Fricker and Kumapley19.
VKT can be used as a primary indicator of the
amount of travel and a secondary indicator of
air pollution. So a programme where the traffic
counts are collected periodically and VKT is
estimated can be beneficial.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 41
 TECHNICAL PAPER
4.5 Suggested Methodology for HCA
Study in India
As in other countries, the HCA study may be started
with whatever data means available in India and
improved step by step as more comprehensive
data and techniques are developed. The analysis
can be done for a recent past year. The first task is
to define the vehicle classes for which the equity
ratios are calculated. In the first version, three
classes light vehicles, heavy vehicles and buses
Fig.2. Suggested Methodology for HCA Study in India
Road Use Data Development
The main hurdle to perform a HCA study is
unavailability of the VKT data which is the
primary cost allocator. The authors suggest the
following to develop VKT data:
A road information system (RIS) developed
by the National Highway Authority of India
and some other states20 can be a useful tool
to manage the data. Each link should have
details such as road class, length, pavement
data, bridge data, and traffic counts classified
by vehicle type and number of axles.
Classified traffic counts are usually available
at various toll booths in the country.
Previous studies such as detailed project
reports provide some earlier traffic data.
Remaining counts should either be measured
or approximated.
42 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017
can be considered. Light and heavy vehicles may
be divided further when the cost allocator data
becomes available for such disaggregation. Two
road classes national highways and non-national
highways, and two cost categories construction
and maintenance works, can be considered to
start with. The authors propose the following
methodology for different components of the
study. A flow chart shown in Fig.2 demonstrates
this procedure.
VKT is the product of segment length and the
vehicle class volume on it.
The distribution of ESALs by vehicle class on
each road class should be estimated. This is
achieved by collecting axle counts and vehicle
weights through weigh-in-motion detectors at
various locations.
Cost Allocation
The analyst should distribute the common costs
to all vehicles by VKT and the remaining costs
by appropriate cost indicators. The common
cost for pavements and bridges is the project
cost assuming all vehicles as light vehicles.
Some other common costs are administration
and overhead costs of the highway departments.
The share of vehicle class i in the common
costs is calculated as in Equation (1).
 TECHNICAL PAPER
VKTi
% Sharei = Total Cost
all i Sum(VKT )
Next, the pavement costs, which vary by the
loads incurred, should be distributed using VKT
weighted by the ESAL of the vehicle class since the
design practice in India represents the traffic load
in ESALs. Equation (2) shows this distribution.
VKTi ESALi
% Sharei = Total Cost
all i (VKTi ESALi )
This ESAL based allocator can be replaced by
more reliable relationships between vehicle
loads and pavement distress considering specific
infrastructure and environmental conditions in
India once they are developed.
For bridges, the share can be estimated with
Equation (2) but a more appropriate weighting
factor based on bridge design practice should be
used in the place of ESAL.
If local streets are considered as a road class, most
of the cost may be allocated to personal vehicles
based on the number of registered vehicles in
each region because local streets are mainly
traveled by personal vehicles.
Revenue Allocation
Revenue allocation seems to be straight forward;
however, the difficulty is there when the revenue
from multiple sources is accounted together.
The following steps are suggested for allocating
revenue.
Only the charges that contribute to highway
expenditure should be considered. All the
state level road use taxes may be included;
however, in the central import and excise
duty on motor fuel, only the highway cess
may be included.
The annual revenue receipts from CAG
state accounts should be compiled into a
spreadsheet.
As shown in Table 2, appropriate revenue
allocator should be used to distribute the
revenue among the vehicle classes used in
the study.
Estimation of Equity Ratios and Further
Analysis
Once the cost and revenue are allocated among
vehicle classes, equity ratios can be calculated as
described in Section two. The fairness of the road
user charge systems can be commented using
the equity ratios calculated above. In the initial
versions, the accuracy and reliability of the equity
ratios may be low. Through a sensitivity analysis,
the effect of any assumptions or approximations
on the final results may be tested. For example,
the VKT may include many approximations.
These values should be changed slightly and the
effect on the result should be reviewed.
A HCA study with cost occasioned method tests
the tax system with regards to the user-pay equity.
If a HCA study results in inequities, modifications
to tax system can be suggested, which should be
reviewed again with the public and policy makers
because there may be some other principles that
also need to be satisfied.
5. Conclusions and
Recommendations
People in India are taxed for various components
of their road use. The authors are concerned with
the equity or fairness of these road user taxes.
HCA studies guide policy makers in making
the road user charges more aligned to the cost
responsibility of the users. In a country such as
India where roadway traffic growth is more than
ten percent per year, and people are becoming
more educated and want to understand various
public policies, a HCA study is very useful.
A HCA study can be done for a state or for the
entire nation. All the revenue collected and the
cost of all roadway development in the study
area should be distributed among a set of vehicle
classes including motor cycles, cars, buses and
goods vehicles which may be further classified.
Revenue and costs are allocated using allocators
such as number of vehicles, VKT and ESAL
distribution. The main hurdle is lack of detail
data. The authors recommend the following data
collection efforts in India.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 43
 TECHNICAL PAPER
Traffic on all major roadway sections should
be counted as a nationwide programme. Some
count stations should be permanently located
and should note vehicle classification counts
throughout the year. These counts should be
compiled and made readily available through
an online information system. Every year,
VKT by vehicle class should be estimated
through these traffic counts and reported.
Heavy vehicle surveys should be conducted
to develop factors to convert from axle
composition to vehicle weight and then
to ESALs. This is similar to truck size and
weight study the USA.
Currently the revenue and expenditure data
is reported by the CAG; more disaggregated
data as required by a HCA study should be
reported.
Some directions for future research are
given below :
Pavement cost and bridge cost allocation
models specific to India should be developed.
These should be incorporated in a cost
allocation software.
Traffic data collection and management of
data costs a lot of money. Future research
should develop cost effective methods to
fulfil this task.
In a multi-modal scenario that India has,
a HCA study should extend to evaluate the
fairness of taxes with respect to persons
rather than vehicle classes. For example, bus
passengers pay passenger tax. Since the tax
base, i.e., the number of tickets, is large, a
large amount of revenue may be collected
for a relatively small cost imposed by buses.
A detailed evaluation may reveal that bus
passengers are unfairly taxed.
The current research is one of the first efforts in
conducting a HCA study in India. A comprehensive
review such as this is helpful in preparing a HCA
study methodology most suitable and efficient for
India. Once a HCA study is successfully prepared,
policy makers can use its results to make the road
user taxes more equitable and efficient. These
44 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017
studies may be improved in terms of accuracy
and reliability of results.
6. REFERENCES
1. 
Comptroller and auditor general of India,
Supreme audit institution of India, Combined
finance and revenue accounts of union and
the state governments in India for the year
2010-11 Volume-II, http://www.saiindia.gov.
in/content/combined-finance-and-revenue-
accounts-union-state, last accessed May 20,
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2. Rosenbloom S, Alternative Transportation
Financing Strategies. Transportation
Research Record, Vol. 2163, 2010, pp.15-23.
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Government of India, Foundation for Public
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4. Balducci P, Stowers JR. State highway cost
allocation studies, NCHRP Synthesis 378,
Transportation Research Board, Washington,
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Road user charges review group, An
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6. March JW, Federal highway cost allocation
study, Public Roads, Vol. 61, No. 4, 1998.
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Luskin DM, Garcia-Diaz A, Walton CM,
Zhang Z, Texas highway cost allocation
study, Research Report FHWA/TX-02-1810-
2, 2002.
8. ECO Northwest, Highway Cost Allocation
Study 2011-2013 Biennium, Oregon
Department of Administrative Services,
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http://www.oregon.gov/das/oea/docs/
highwaycost/2011report.pdf, last accessed
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 TECHNICAL PAPER
9. Texas Department of Motor vehicles, http://
ftp.txdmv.gov/pub/txdot-info/vtr/fees/fee_
chart_1c.pdf, last accessed May 12, 2013.
10. 
Pulipati S, Mattingly S. Multi-Criteria
Evaluation of Surface Transportation
Funding Alternatives Based on a Delphi
Survey of Experts, TRB 93rd Annual Meeting
Compendium of Papers, Transportation
Research Board, Washington D.C., 2014.
11. 
Villarreal-Cavazos A, Garcia-Diaz A,
Development and Application of New
Highway Cost-Allocation Procedures,
Transportation Research Record,Vol.1009,
1985.
12. ECONorthwest, Efficient Fee Highway
Cost Allocation Study 2011-2013
Biennium,Oregon Department of
Administrative Services, Office of Economic
Analysis, 2011, http://www.oregon.gov/
DAS/OEA/docs/highwaycost/2011efficient_
fee.pdf, last accessed January 14, 2016.
13. Bird RM, de Jantscher MC, Improving tax
administration in developing countries,
International Monetary Fund, 1992.
14. Data.gov In, Total number of registered motor
vehicles in India during 1951-2012, https://
data.gov.in/catalog/total-number-registered-
motor-vehicles-india#web_catalog_tabs_
block_10, last accessed May 14, 2015.
15. Transport department, Government of Bihar,
Acts and Rules, The central road fund act,
2000, http://transport.bih.nic.in/Acts/The-
Central-Road-Fund-Act-2000.pdf, last
accessed May 20, 2015.
16. Andhra Pradesh finance department portal,
Andhra Pradesh budget in brief 2015-
2016, http://www.apfinance.gov.in/uploads/
budget-2015-16-books/Volume-II.pdf,last
accessed May 13, 2015.
17. 
Comptroller and auditor general of India,
Supreme audit institution of India, State
accounts, http://www.saiindia.gov.in/state-
accounts, last accessedJanuary 14, 2016.
18. Andhra Pradesh finance department portal,
Andhra Pradesh budget in brief 2015-
2016, http://www.apfinance.gov.in/uploads/
budget-2015-16-books/Volume-III-6.pdf,
last accessed January 14, 2016.
19. Fricker J, Kumapley R, Updating procedures
to estimate and forecast vehicle-miles
traveled, Final Report FHWA/IN/JTRP-
2002/10, Joint Transportation Research
Program, 2002.
20. 
Nishant R, Sharief MI, Road Information
System: A Step Forward in Supply Chain
Management in India, IIM B Management
Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2007.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 45
 TECHNICAL PAPER
User Fee Vs. Vehicular Operation Cost
M.N. Dekate
1. INTRODUCTION
The Social cause and benefits are not properly
communicated to the general public at large
which results into opposition to the toll roads.
Lack of awareness on the part of users and
absence of effective dissemination of facts
on the part of other stakeholders are reasons
behind the public unrest. The direct and indirect
benefits of road infrastructure are not properly
brought to home of the public by the government
machinery as well as by the concessioners,
bankers, consultants, etc. Though there are
several indirect benefits, in the form of economic
development growth, minimization of accident
rate, employment generation, industrial, agro
industrial development, etc., the key of success of
toll road lies in the clinching evidence of saving
in vehicular operation cost.
In this paper an attempt is made to depict the
direct benefits related to saving in vehicular
operation cost and saving in time and to explain
the organic relationship in between the saving in
cost and time and the user fee.
2. Direct Benefit
Direct benefit because of saving accrued on
Vehicular Operation Cost (VOC) is a very
important parameter to decide the feasibility
of a project including type of construction,
geometrical improvement, widening of road,
improvement of facilities etc. and has a direct
relation with the user fee. As far as Public Private
Partnership (PPP) road projects, are concerned
the perceptible saving in vehicular operation
cost and saving in time are the only factors
*Chief Engineer, Public Works Department Govt. of Maharashtra (India), **Professor in Civil Engineering, Prof. Ram Meghe Institute of
Technology and Research, Badnera, Amravati.
The views of Author(s) are personal and for information purpose.
46 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017
Dr. P.S. Pajgade
responsible to elicit adequate response from the
public in general and road users in particular. In
between the saving in vehicular operation cost
and saving in time, the consideration of saving
in cost outweighs the consideration of saving in
time. In developed countries where there is a
realization that time is money, the saving in time
is also receiving due weightage.
The 54 samples of toll road projects of different
hues have been carefully selected from the state
of Maharashtra for the purpose of calculation
of vehicular operation cost and to decide the
quantum of user fee which has a direct bearing
on the saving in cost.
The total initial spending of these selected project
is Rs.6129 Crores and the life cycle cost (Life
Cycle Cost of project includes total cost required
during concession period for construction,
maintenance, repairers, interest on loan, returns
on investment, administration and establishment
expenditure, etc.) of these projects is Rs.21,511
crores. The same selected samples are further
analyzed to work out the Vehicular Operation
Cost (VOC) for Bitumen and Concrete Pavements
to arrive at two different scenarios. Comparative
study between Bitumen and Cement Concrete
Road Pavements leads to proper selection of
type of pavement and appropriate user fee (toll
vs. saving). Such a study would help to decide
the extent of improvement in Road Infrastructure
which in turn leads to achieving a better transport
facility which is in the interest of the public.
Following table shows the details of selected
sample projects
 TECHNICAL PAPER

Table 1: PPP Projects

Sr. No Type of Project No of Road Length Total initial Total Life Cycle
covered Project Constructed through Spending project Cost (Cr)
covered PPP (kms) cost (Cr)
1 Toll Closed 23 659.21 192.55 336.43
2 Toll Ongoing 27 1319.04 4319.60 15226.35
3 Toll not started 04 278.21 1616.51 5948.36
Total 54 2256 6128.66 21511.14

3. 
Vehicle Operation Cost
(VOC)
3.1 Saving in the vehicular operation cost for
a) Type 2A : Jeep, Car, etc., b) Type 2B : Light
commercial vehicle like Matador Tempo, etc.,
c) Type 3 : 2 Axle Truck and Bus, d) Type 4: 3
Axle Truck, e) Type 5 : Multi Axle Vehicle is
calculated based on IRC:SP:30-2009 for these
54 road projects having different road length,
different project cost and life cycle cost vis-
a-vis the toll rates and total toll amounts from
acceptable cash flow of contract applicable to
them.
Saving in vehicular operation cost, saving in time
and increase in speed as direct benefit is worked
out against the toll amount accrued during the
concession period in respect of Bitumen Roads.
The resultant saving in VOC for 54 projects, is
shown in the following table.

Table 2: Saving inVOC-Bitumen Road

National Highways Road Length (kms) Total Toll Amt. (Cr.) Total Savings In VOC (Cr.)
1 26.43 1085.41 1050.49
2 72.22 4852.34 9964.39
3 28.35 57.97 190.16
4 8.00 4779.30 2049.29
5 24.00 5721.71 4911.27
6 59.48 181.38 959.64
7 33.40 93.96 554.79
8 19.00 259.99 326.77
9 30.00 621.53 1223.29
10 23.00 117.60 151.21
11 75.60 462.40 2475.65
12 47.20 94.10 175.99
13 55.45 218.44 405.52
14 58.60 1120.76 2118.10
15 55.53 283.22 895.05
16 62.60 1809.85 1835.37
17 41.80 284.49 523.60
18 40.00 557.03 430.75
19 86.90 409.91 799.10
20 37.40 140.46 310.73
21 77.70 1733.74 1337.11

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 47

 TECHNICAL PAPER

National Highways Road Length (kms) Total Toll Amt. (Cr.) Total Savings In VOC (Cr.)
22 105.20 634.30 482.11
23 65.80 1519.17 2352.72
24 71.68 608.94 1283.40
25 9.70 110.02 90.09
26 40.00 1828.17 1255.37
27 64.00 3170.41 2103.65
28 29.00 4250.40 2816.46
29 51.50 2225.11 2721.53
30 53.30 2446.81 3484.67
31 144.41 5642.86 14051.06
32 11.00 65.92 105.04
33 15.80 14.07 19.17
34 34.30 34.40 129.04
35 64.27 34.28 219.94
36 16.00 13.89 25.80
37 11.00 21.58 32.25
38 33.10 26.28 112.55
39 7.00 10.76 10.25
40 9.00 17.88 19.42
41 51.49 35.89 227.16
42 17.85 69.54 164.71
43 44.80 24.24 146.45
44 37.20 43.63 219.63
45 31.20 20.00 79.60
46 28.00 26.38 93.70
47 15.80 19.45 62.31
48 25.40 100.06 358.01
49 24.20 41.77 113.90
50 16.40 21.85 55.92
51 49.00 19.66 132.46
52 20.00 20.16 63.55
53 48.00 43.40 268.64
54 48.40 26.99 225.96
Total 2256.46 51669.61 66214.82
Average (54 nos.) 41.79 956.84 1226.20
% of Toll to Savings 78.03 %

From the above table it will be seen that in
respect of these selected samples having a length
of 2256.46 km the expected total toll revenue is
Rs. 51670 crores and the expected total savings
in Vehicle Operating Cost is Rs.66215 crores.
The toll revenue is expected to be 78% of the
total savings in Vehicle Operating Cost.
4 Cement Concrete Road
While analyzing the problems and issues in hand
about Toll Road Projects, it is imperative that
the one important technical issue, i.e. a decision
between Bituminous vs. Cement Concrete roads
also needs to be addressed. According to the

48 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Government of India, Ministry of Road Transport
and Highways circular dated April 13, 2015 as per
present practice, the initial cost of construction
of cement concrete pavement is estimated to
be about 5 20 % more than the bituminous
pavement, depending upon the price of the
constituent materials and distance of project site
from the production centers.
For the calculations of the sample projects,
20% increase in Initial Spending is considered,
for the concrete pavement as per the circular of
MoRT&H. With the experience of rigid pavement
projects, repairs and maintenance cost is about
1% of the initial spending for a concession period
of 25 to 30 years. This result into a decrease of
Life Cycle Cost by about 35-40% compared to
bituminous road. This data has been made use
of to create an alternative scenario with concrete
pavement for this purpose based on literature and
findings on concrete roads the Initial Spending
of all the projects has been increased (over
bituminous pavement) by 20% and the Life Cycle
Cost of all the projects has been decreased (over
bituminous pavement) by 37%. Accordingly
VOC is calculated for concrete pavement.
4.1 Savings in Vehicle Operation Cost
on Cement Concrete Roads
It has been generally observed that the savings
accrued to the road user in fuel cost is more in case
of cement concrete roads. The author has relied
upon few research papers in this regard. Though
the referred research papers suggest that there
is a saving in fuel costs due to cement concrete
roads, the savings range so calculated varies from
5 % to 14% due to reduced rolling resistance on
rigid pavement. [Reference-Research on Fuel
Savings on Cement Concrete Pavement by Dr.
L.R. Kadiyali & Associates in collaboration
with Central Road Research Institute.] Hence,
based on the cited references, the author is of
the view that, on an average there is about 9%
more saving in the fuel cost of vehicles, due
to cement concrete roads, compared to that of
bituminous roads. Accordingly the saving in fuel
cost is factored to work out the saving in vehicle
operation cost in case of Cement Concrete Roads
vis-a-vis the accruable toll amount for the sample
54 BOT projects, Table 3, shows the total toll
amount during concession period and saving in
VOC for Cement Concrete Road.

Table 3: Savings in VOC-Cement Concrete Roads

Project No. Length (Kms) Total Toll Amt. (cr) Total Savings in VOC (cr)
1 26.43 1085.41 1192.90
2 72.22 4852.34 11109.22
3 28.35 57.97 216.43
4 8.00 4779.30 2315.53
5 24.00 5721.71 5700.09
6 59.48 181.38 1068.82
7 33.40 93.96 618.97
8 19.00 259.99 369.01
9 30.00 621.53 1414.89
10 23.00 117.60 173.63
11 75.60 462.40 2774.77
12 47.20 94.10 201.85
13 55.45 218.44 498.76
14 58.60 1120.76 2428.95
15 55.53 283.22 1013.24
16 62.60 1809.85 2133.41

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 49

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Project No. Length (Kms) Total Toll Amt. (cr) Total Savings in VOC (cr)
17 41.80 284.49 605.62
18 40.00 557.03 498.24
19 86.90 409.91 900.39
20 37.40 140.46 359.55
21 77.70 1733.74 2075.22
22 105.20 634.30 679.78
23 65.80 1519.17 2682.25
24 71.68 608.94 1503.19
25 9.70 110.02 99.64
26 40.00 1828.17 1418.95
27 64.00 3170.41 2379.88
28 29.00 4250.40 3501.39
29 51.50 2225.11 3164.67
30 53.30 2446.81 4295.03
31 144.41 5642.86 19158.15
32 11.00 65.92 119.48
33 15.80 14.07 23.62
34 34.30 34.40 150.23
35 64.27 34.28 253.04
36 16.00 13.89 29.96
37 11.00 21.58 36.65
38 33.10 26.28 127.09
39 7.00 10.76 11.56
40 9.00 17.88 22.33
41 51.49 35.89 257.88
42 17.85 69.54 184.85
43 44.80 24.24 166.87
44 37.20 43.63 248.76
45 31.20 20.00 89.82
46 28.00 26.38 107.96
47 15.80 19.45 70.01
48 25.40 100.06 409.33
49 24.20 41.77 134.63
50 16.40 21.85 62.99
51 49.00 19.66 152.06
52 20.00 20.16 71.55
53 48.00 43.40 304.02
54 48.40 26.99 255.27
Total 2256.46 51669.61 79842.40
Average 41.79 956.84 1478.56

% of Toll Savings 65%

From the table above it will be seen that the savings in Vehicle Operating Cost.
toll collected is expected to be 65% of the total

50 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER

5. Comparison in saving in case of cement concrete roads though initial cost

VOC (Bituminous vs. Cement
Concrete Road)
Saving in vehicle operation cost in cement
concrete road is observed to be more compared
to bituminous road due to less life cycle cost. In
is more, due to less repair and maintenance cost
during concession period overall life cycle cost is
less. The comparative saving in VOC (Cement
Concrete road Vs. Bitumen road) for 54 projects,
is shown in the following table.

Table 4: Savings in VOC Cement Concrete Roads Vs. Bituminous Roads

Project no. Length (kms) Total Toll Total Savings in Total Savings in Difference in
Amt. (Cr.) VOC Concrete VOC Bitumen VOC (colm no.4-
Road (Cr.) Road (Cr.) colum no.5 (Cr.)
1 26.43 1085.41 1192.90 1050.49 142.41
2 72.22 4852.34 11109.22 9964.39 1144.83
3 28.35 57.97 216.43 190.16 26.27
4 8.00 4779.30 2315.53 2049.29 266.24
5 24.00 5721.71 5700.09 4911.27 788.882
6 59.48 181.38 1068.82 959.64 109.18
7 33.40 93.96 618.97 554.79 64.18
8 19.00 259.99 369.01 326.77 42.24
9 30.00 621.53 1414.89 1223.29 191.60
10 23.00 117.60 173.63 151.21 22.43
11 75.60 462.40 2774.77 2475.65 299.12
12 47.20 94.10 201.85 175.99 25.86
13 55.45 218.44 498.76 405.52 93.24
14 58.60 1120.76 2428.95 2118.10 310.85
15 55.53 283.22 1013.24 895.05 118.19
16 62.60 1809.85 2133.41 1835.37 298.04
17 41.80 284.49 605.62 523.60 82.02
18 40.00 557.03 498.24 430.75 143.24
19 86.90 409.91 900.39 799.10 101.29
20 37.40 140.46 359.55 310.73 48.82
21 77.70 1733.74 2075.22 1337.11 738.11
22 105.20 634.30 679.78 482.11 197.67
23 65.80 1519.17 2682.25 2352.72 324.53
24 71.68 608.94 1503.19 1283.40 219.79
25 9.70 110.02 99.64 90.09 9.55
26 40.00 1828.17 1418.95 1255.37 163.22
27 64.00 3170.41 2379.88 2103.65 276.23
28 29.00 4250.40 3501.39 2816.46 684.93
29 51.50 2225.11 3164.67 2721.53 443.94

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 51

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Project no. Length (kms) Total Toll Total Savings in Total Savings in Difference in
Amt. (Cr.) VOC Concrete VOC Bitumen VOC (colm no.4-
Road (Cr.) Road (Cr.) colum no.5 (Cr.)
30 53.30 2446.81 4295.03 3484.67 810.96
31 144.41 5642.86 19158.15 14051.06 5107.09
32 11.00 65.92 119.48 105.04 14.44
33 15.80 14.07 23.62 19.17 4.45
34 34.30 34.40 150.23 129.04 21.19
35 64.27 34.28 253.04 219.94 33.10
36 16.00 13.89 29.96 25.80 4.16
37 11.00 21.58 36.65 32.25 4.4
38 33.10 26.28 127.09 112.55 14.54
39 7.00 10.76 11.56 10.25 1.31
40 9.00 17.88 22.33 19.42 2.91
41 51.49 35.89 257.88 227.16 30.72
42 17.85 69.54 184.85 164.71 20.14
43 44.80 24.24 166.87 146.45 20.42
44 37.20 43.63 248.76 219.63 29.13
45 31.20 20.00 89.82 79.60 10.22
46 28.00 26.38 107.96 93.70 14.26
47 15.80 19.45 70.01 62.31 7.70
48 25.40 100.06 409.33 358.01 51.32
49 24.20 41.77 134.63 113.90 20.73
50 16.40 21.85 62.99 55.92 7.07
51 49.00 19.66 152.06 132.46 19.60
52 20.00 20.16 71.55 63.55 8.00
53 48.00 43.40 304.02 268.64 35.38
54 48.40 26.99 255.27 225.96 29.31

6 
User Fee (Toll) Vs. Savings
(VOC)
From the above analysis, it will be seen that for
Concrete Road, the toll collected as percentage
of savings in vehicle operation cost vis-a-vis
bituminous roads decreases from 78% to 65%.
Thus it can be inferred that there is a scope
for transferring the benefit of more saving by
reducing the toll rates appropriately.
This analysis also indicates that in case of high
density traffic corridors, cement concrete roads
are better alternative to the bituminous roads.
As such for major PPP projects in the light of
benefits accruing on life cycle cost, the concrete
pavement could be a preferred choice.
The user fees should be decided projectwise
according to the Savings in Vehicle Operation
Cost. The following table explains this proposal
further. The road length for the sample 54 projects
is averaged out and is 41.79 km. The saving in
VOC for different types of vehicles is worked
out to decide appropriate user fee charges. The
logic which holds good is that the user fee should
not be more than the accrued saving in Vehicular

52 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Table 5: User Fee Vs. Saving

Operation Cost (VOC) for both Bitumen and Cement roads. Based on this logic user fee is worked out
as 78% and 65% for Bitumen road and concrete road from the savings and is shown in column 8 and 10
respectively.
Vehicle Vehicle Present, Present Saving Saving In VOC Prospose VOC Prosposed Remarks
Type No. per Initial User Fee In VOC VOC Per Saving user Fees Saving User Fees
Day User Fees Collection Per DAy (Cement Per (Bitumen Per (Cement
(Enhance per (Bitumen Road (Rs.) Vehicle Road) Vehicle Concrete
5% yearly day(Rs.) Road (Rs.) (Bitumen (Rs.) (Cement Road (Rs.)
after 3 year) Road) Concrete
(Rs.) Road)
(Rs.)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
2A 2369 20 47380 46170.27 81202.97 19.05 15 33.51 20 The user fee is
to be revised
downwards
2B 877 32 28064 72277.99 92242.24 96.11 75 122.66 80 There is a
scope for
increasing user
fee upwards
3. 2240 64 143360 633279.87 696550.56 323.30 355.60 There is a
scope for
230
250 increasing user
fee upwards
4 611 105 64155 212729.43 234863.29 317.84 350.91
5 732 263 192516 872361.22 948115.50 1073.07 840 1166.25 760 There is a
scope for
increasing user
fee upwards

However such an increase in user fee it to be
effected, will have to be done gradually so that
there is no adverse reaction from the users. It
goes without saying that the common people in
general and the road user in particular will have
to be convinced that such an increase is justified.
7 Conclusion
The user fee (toll) is not a burden on road user but
it is out of the savings in vehicular operation cost
accrued to the road user. User fee should be less
in case of light motor vehicle like car, Jeep, etc.
and shall gradually be increased for commercial
vehicle. Before implementing toll project user
fee based on VOC saving should be worked out
for every PPP Project to ensure that the user fee
should not exceed the savings in VOC.
The Scientifically calculated user fee (toll)
based on savings in vehicular operation cost
will be helpful in quelling the public unrest to
some extent. It would also come handy to the
government to convince the critics of PPP Project.
References:-
1) Indian Road Congress, IRC:SP:30:2009
2) Dr. Kadiyali and Associates in collaboration
with Central Road Research Institution
(CRRI), Research on Fuel Savings on Cement
Concrete Pavement; 2000
3) 
Government of India, Ministry of Road
Transport and Highways Circular, April 13,
2015
4) 
Ph.D. Thesis on, Critical Review and
Evaluation of Public Private Partnership
(PPP) projects for social cause with
special reference to Infrastructure in the
state of Maharashtra (India), submitted
to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
University, Nagpur (January, 2016) by Shri.
M.N. Dekate.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 53

 CIRCULAR

Essential approach and principles to be followed for Road Safety Engineering works on
National Highways
Sl No Item Approach & principles to be followed
1. List of works for Road Concerned field engineers should visit the Critical accident prone locations
Safety annual Plan for where there is history of repeated accidents on NHs in their jurisdiction and
National Highways should identify the broad additional features like improvement of junctions,
improvement of geometry, provision of pedestrian facilities, provision of service
roads, widening of any bottle neck portions etc.,required for reducing accidents.
Availability of land for accommodating these additional features and any ongoing
/ upcoming projects at the identified sites should also be assessed. Based on these
details, RO MORTH and CE(NH) should discuss and finalize the list of 2 to 4
Road Safety Engineering works for inclusion in Road Safety annual Planas per
the check list given by the Ministry.
2. Preparation of Road Proposals are to be prepared accommodating the remedial measures to the extent
safety annual plan feasible in the available land or in extreme cases in the proposed land either
proposals through in-house efforts or through competent consultants or a combination of
both. After preparing the draft proposal together with cost estimate, the same is
to be discussed with Road Safety Engineering Cell of the Ministry and is to be
fine tuned to sanctionable form with complete details of geometry, road signs,
markings etc., before submitting the same to Road Safety Engineering Cell (CE
Road Safety) of MORTH.
3. Implementation Road Safety Engineering works are to be implemented truly transferring the
of Road Safety approvedlayouts to the ground, adopting the correct sizes and dimensions for
Engineering Works signs, markings andother road furniture from the relevant IRC codes namely
IRC-67 :2012 and IRC-35:2015 (or their latest revisions) as per the conditions
of technical note, as the markings and signson layouts are indicative. The
consultants who prepared the design should be entrusted with the responsibility

54 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017

 CIRCULAR

of exactly setting out the layout on the ground using total station and other
equipment. In case of non-feasibility of this option equivalent arrangement
should bemade. These works are to be executed in time bound manner through
various preparatory activities like pre-discussions with prospective consultants/
bidders and pre-bid meetings etc. Guidance from Road Safety Engineering
Cell of Ministry can be taken when ever required in these activities either
telephonically or through video conferencing or through site inspections cum
discussion meetings.
4. Installation of Accident prone stretches where crash barrier installation is required & feasible
Modified thrie beam (with respect to availability of space and other site conditions), are to be
type crash barriers in identified and got approved by Ministry. Estimates are to be prepared (model
hilly terrain on NHs rate analysis already communicated to all concerned) and got sanctioned by
Ministry for the approved stretches. In case of non-feasibility of execution at
some stretches the same can be deleted or substituted though formal approval
of RO MORTH. Prospective crash barrier manufacturers (who would also be
the bidders for their installation in the case of installation in long lengths) are
to be sensitized through pre-discussions about these crash barriers/installation
conditions as approved in the report of the Ministry. These works are to be
executed in time bound manner through various preparatory activities like pre-
discussions with prospective bidders and pre-bid meetings etc. Guidance from
Road Safety Engineering Cell of Ministry can be taken whenever required in
these activities either telephonically or through video conferencing or through
site inspections cum discussion meetings
5. Detailed Road Safety Stretches where development works like two laning or four laning are neither
audits on existing NH in progress nor in pipeline are to be identified and got approved in principle for
stretches taking up detailed Road Safety audits. After in-principle approval, tender based
estimates (following Ministrys standard RFP for these works) are to be got
sanctioned by Ministry. Consultancy services are to be procured and implemented
in time bound manner as per standard bid document circulated by Ministry through
pre-discussions with prospective competent consultants, pre-bid meetings
and collaborative working between consultants and PWD field engineers etc.
6. Implementation After the Road Safety Audit Report is finalized as per the standard document,
of the agreed Competent consultants are to be deployed with the approval of the Ministry for
recommendations preparing comprehensive integrated proposal for the stretch as per the agreed
of the detailed Road recommendations of the audit. Such integrated proposal should be implemented
Safety Audits as specified for Road Safety Engineering works after the proposal is sanctioned
by Ministry like any NH(O) proposal
7. Road Safety Stretches where development works like two laning or four laning are in
Operational Audits pipeline but aretaking time of the order of 18 months for commencement of
and implementation actual execution are to be identified and got approved in principle for taking up
of short term remedial operational Road Safety audits. After in-principle approval, tender based estimates
measures are to be got sanctioned and operational audit reports together with proposals of
short term remedial measures as specified in the standard TOR circulated by the
Ministry are to be submitted and implemented in time bound manner through
pre-discussions with prospective competent consultants, pre-bid meetings
and collaborative working between consultants and PWD field engineers etc.
8. Establishing Road Road Safety Engineering Cells broadly comprising ONE EE + ONE AE or ONE
Safety Engineering AE + ONE JE (with required support staff ) are to be established in the NH
Cells in the NH directorate under the direct control of CE (NH). They should be imparted training
directorates of States/ in Road Safety Engineering through National / State level workshops, training
UTs courses in the country & abroad. They would be contributing by pursuing timely
submission of the Road Safety engineering proposals as per guidelines, pursuing
approvals for the same, providing guidance in procurement & implementation of
these works through periodic inspections and discussions with concerned field
engineers. They will also be handling the crash data /feed back related functions,
organization of workshops/trainings in the area of Road Safety Engineering,
organization of Expert committee meetings and pursuing the submission of Road

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017 55

 CIRCULAR

Safety engineering proposals on state roads under CRF etc. CE (NH) should
use his authority in getting the Road safety actions and activities of Road Safety
Engineering Cell of the state/UT swiftly implemented.
9. Constitution of Expert Committee is to be constituted as per guidelines
committee for Road
Safety Engineering
works on state roads
under CRF
10. Constitution of District Committee is to be constituted as per guidelines
level monitoring
committee for Road
Safety Engineering
works on state roads
under CRF
11. Submission of Road Proposals are to be prepared and submitted to Road Safety Engineering Cell
Safety Engineering (CE Road Safety) of the Ministry through an expert committee as per guidelines
works proposals on issued in this regard.
state roads under CRF
12. Rectification of As soon as the black spots on NHs are identified and notified with unique ID
identified black spots numbers by Ministry as per the approved protocol & definition, immediate
on NHs cautionary measures are to be installed as per the guidelines of the Ministry
already issued, meeting the expenditure from the contingencies of any ongoing
NH (O) work. A combined approximate estimate for permanent rectification of
all the identified black spots ( including short term measures for immediate relief
where long term measures are not appropriate) is to be forwarded through RO
MORTH for approval of Ministry. After this approval, detailed proposal with
estimate is to be prepared for rectification of the black spots on the lines specified
for Road Safety engineering works and should be got technically sanctioned
by RO MORTH under delegated powers. These works are to be implemented
similar to Road Safety engineering works explained above.
13. Road Safety Road Safety Engineering workshops should be organized in consultation with
E n g i n e e r i n g Road Safety Cell Engineering of the Ministry meeting the expenditure from the QC
workshops sub-head of any of the sanctioned NH(O) works as per guidelines already issued.
14. Higher level monitoring Actions in respect of Road Safety Engineering are to be reviewed and followed
of Road Safety up at the level of Concerned Principal Secretary along with CE(NH) & CE (State
Engineering actions in Roads) twice a month on Pre-fixed days (say 2nd and 4th Tuesdays etc).
the State/UT
15. Investigation based Survey & investigation based actions with attention to detailing in the design
actions with quality is stage as well as in execution stage is a must for achieving safety through Road
essential for achieving Safety Engineering. Routine handling of more works or proposals does not
road safety through reduce accidents and in some case sit may lead to increase in accidents.
Engineering
16. Feed back monitoring Efficacy of the Road Safety Engineering measures is ensured only when road
and documentation accidents /fatalities related to road and road environment are eliminated as
with its logo). reflected in feed back on accidents/ fatalities at the improved location for at least
3 years. Therefore, regular collection of the accident/fatality data at the improved
locations from police authorities and forwarding the same to Road Safety Cell
Engineering MORTH on quarterly basis is essential. Documentation of the traffic
flow and road environment before improvement and after improvement using
drones or any other alternate method is essential to review the improvement
in traffic movements and its adequacy. This is also essential for future learning
and capacity building activities and as such should be captured and furnished to
Road Safety Cell Engineering MORTH. All the above mentioned guidelines are
circulated to all states/UTs and are also available on MORTH website namely
www.morth.nic.in under Road Safety Engineering Cell (can be easily identified

56 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, MAY 2017

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Delhi Postal Registration No DL-SW-17/4194/16-18
UNDER 'U' NUMBER U(SW)-12/2016-2018
At Lodi Road, PSO on dated 28-29.04.2017 LICENCE TO POST
Newspaper Regd No. 25597/73 WITHOUT PREPAYMENT
DL-SW-17/4194/16-18
INDIAN HIGHWAYS PUBLISHED ON 24 APRIL, 2017 May, 2017
MAY, 2017
ISSN 0376-7256 Newspaper Regd. No. 25597/73

INDIAN HIGHWAYS
Volume: 45 Number: 5 Total Pages: 64

Tunnel of Hope:
Chenani - Nashri Road Project, J&K, India

`20
Edited and Published by Shri S.K. Nirmal, Secretary General, Indian Road Congress, IRC HQ, Sector-6, R.K. Puram, Kama Koti Marg,
New Delhi - 110 022. Printed by Shri S.K. Nirmal on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress at M/s. I G Printers Pvt Ltd, 104, DSIDC Complex,
Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-I, New Delhi-110020
https://www.irc.nic.in