1, Ack communicates disgust or dismissal.

Ah can denote positive emotions like relief or delight (generally, pronounced with a long a).
Aha signals triumph or surprise, or perhaps derision.
Ahem is employed to gain attention.
Argh, often drawn out with additional hs, is all about frustration.
Aw can be dismissive or indicative of disappointment, or, when drawn out, expressive of sympathy or adoration.
Aye denotes agreement.
Bah is dismissive.
Blah communicates boredom or disappointment.
Blech (or bleah or bleh) implies nausea.
Boo is an exclamation to provoke fright.
Boo-hoo is imitative of crying and is derisive.
Boo-ya (with several spelling variants) is a cry of triumph.
Bwah-hah-hah (variously spelled, including mwah-hah-hah) facetiously mimics the stereotypical archvillains triumphant laugh.
Doh is the spelling for the muttering accompanying Homer Simpsons trademark head-slapping self-abuse.
Duh derides someone who seems dense.
Eek indicates an unpleasant surprise.
Eh, with a question mark, is a request for repetition or confirmation of what was just said; without, it is dismissive.
Er (sometimes erm) plays for time.
Ew denotes disgust, intensified by the addition of one or more es and/or ws.
Feh (and its cousin meh) is an indication of feeling underwhelmed or disappointed.
Gak is an expression of disgust or distaste.
Ha expresses joy or surprise, or perhaps triumph.
Ha-ha (with possible redoubling) communicates laughter or derision.
Hamana-hamana, variously spelled, and duplicated as needed, implies speechless embarrassment.
Hardy-har-har, or har-har repeated as needed, communicates mock amusement.
Hee-hee is a mischievous laugh, while its variants heh and heh-heh (and so on) can have a more derisive connotation.
Hey can express surprise or exultation, or can be used to request repetition or call for attention.
Hist signals the desire for silence.
Hm, extended as needed, suggests curiosity, confusion, consternation, or skepticism.
Hmph (also hrmph or humph) indicates displeasure or indignation.
Ho-ho is expressive of mirth, or (along with its variant oh-ho) can indicate triumph of discovery.
Ho-hum signals indifference or boredom.
Hubba-hubba is the vocal equivalent of a leer.
Huh (or hunh) is a sign of disbelief, confusion, or surprise, or, with a question mark, is a request for repetition.
Hup, from the sound-off a military cadence chant, signals beginning an exerting task.
Hurrah (also hoorah, hooray, and hurray, and even huzzah) is an exclamation of triumph or happiness.
Ick signals disgust.
Lah-de-dah denotes nonchalance or dismissal, or derision about pretension.
Mm-hmm, variously spelled, is an affirmative or corroborating response.
Mmm, extended as needed, conveys palatable or palpable pleasure.
Mwah is suggestive of a kiss, often implying unctuous or exaggerated affection.
Neener-neener, often uttered in a series of three repetitions, is a taunt.
Now (often repeated Now, now) is uttered as an admonition.
Oh is among the most versatile of interjections. Use it to indicate comprehension or acknowledgment (or, with a question mark, a
request for verification), to preface direct address (Oh, sir!), as a sign of approximation or example (Oh, about three days), or
to express emotion or serves as a response to a pain or pleasure. (Ooh is a variant useful for the last two purposes.)
Oh-oh (or alternatives in which oh is followed by various words) is a warning response to something that will have negative
repercussions.
Ol, with an accent mark over the e, is borrowed from Spanish and is a vocal flourish to celebrate a deft or adroit maneuver.
Ooh, with os repeated as needed, conveys interest or admiration, or, alternatively, disdain.
Ooh-la-la is a response to an attempt to impress or gently mocks pretension or finery.
Oops (and the jocular diminutive variation oopsie or oopsy and the variant whoops) calls attention to an error or fault.
Ouch (or ow, extended as needed) signals pain or is a response to a harsh word or action.
Oy, part of Yiddish expressions such as oy gevalt (equivalent to Uh-oh), is a lament of frustration, concern, or self-pity.
Pff, extended as needed, expresses disappointment, disdain, or annoyance.
Pfft, or phfft, communicates abrupt ending or departure or is a sardonic dismissal akin to pff.
Phew, or pew, communicates disgust, fatigue, or relief. (Phooey, also spelled pfui, is a signal for disgust, too, and can denote
dismissal as well. PU and P.U. are also variants.)
Poof is imitative of a sudden disappearance, as if by magic.
Pooh is a contemptuous exclamation.
Pshaw denotes disbelief, disapproval, or irritation or, alternatively, communicates facetious self-consciousness.
Psst calls for quiet.
Rah, perhaps repeated, signals triumph.
Shh (extended as necessary) is an imperative for silence.
Sis boom bah is an outdated encouraging cry, most likely to be used mockingly now.
Tchah communicates annoyance.
Tsk-tsk and its even snootier variant tut-tut are condemnations or scoldings; the related sound tch is the teeth-and-tongue click
of disapproval.
Ugh is an exclamation of disgust.
Uh is an expression of skepticism or a delaying tactic.
Uh-huh indicates affirmation or agreement.
Uh-oh signals concern or dismay.
Uh-uh is the sound of negation or refusal.
Um is a placeholder for a pause but also denotes skepticism.
Va-va-voom is an old-fashioned exclamation denoting admiration of physical attractiveness.
Whee is an exclamation of excitement or delight.
Whew is a variant of phew but can also express amazement.
Whoa is a call to halt or an exclamation of surprise or relief.
Whoop-de-doo and its many variants convey mocking reaction to something meant to impress.
Woo and woo-hoo (and variations like yahoo, yee-haw, and yippee) indicate excitement. (Woot, also spelled w00t among an
online in-crowd, is a probably ephemeral variant.)
Wow expresses surprise.
Yay is a congratulatory exclamation. (Not to be confused with yeah, a variant of yes.)
Yikes is an expression of fear or concern, often used facetiously.
Yo-ho-ho is the traditional pirates refrain.
Yoo-hoo attracts attention.
Yow, or yowza, is an exclamation of surprise or conveys being impressed.
Yuck (also spelled yech or yecch) signals disgust. (Not to be confused with yuk, a laugh.)
Yum, or yummy, is a response to the taste of something delicious and, by extension, the sight of an attractive person.
Zoinks is an expression of surprise or amazement popularized by the cartoon character Shaggy, of Scooby Doo fame.
Zowie, often in combination following wowie, a variant of wow, expresses admiration or astonishment.
2, The paragraph revised:
People who adopt a dog need to teach it basic commands in order to keep it safe and prevent it from harming others. For
example, a dog that wont come when called might run into the street and be hit by a car. A dog not trained to keep from jumping
on people could cause injury by knocking someone down. Unfortunately, many pet owners fail to teach their dogs to obey,
and, as a result, the animal becomes a nuisance or danger to family and strangers alike. To avoid undesirable behavior in their
pets, dog owners should always consider the need to train puppies in basic obedience.
Here is a list of transition words grouped according to the types of transition they can be used for:
To add information:
and, not onlybut also, also, moreover, furthermore, in addition, again, besides, equally important, whats more, too
To give examples:
for example, for instance, specifically, in particular
To show contrast:
but, however, on the other hand, otherwise, instead, in contrast
To show concession:
yet, nevertheless, however, although, even though, despite the fact that, despite
To show similarity:
likewise, similarly, in the same way
To show result:
so, as a result, therefore, thus, as a consequence, consequently
To indicate time or sequence:
first, second, finally, meanwhile, immediately, thereafter, soon, finally, previously, formerly, next, following this, after, soon,
therefore
To offer conditional thoughts:
or, whetheror, ifthen
To explain or emphasize:
in fact, actually, in other words, namely, obviously, in any case, naturally, certainly, unquestionably
To offer alternatives:
or, eitheror, neithernor
To compare:
on the other hand, on the contrary, by comparison, compared to, balanced against,
vis--vis, although, in contrast
To prove:
because, for, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, in fact, in any case
To conclude:
in conclusion, in brief, on the whole, to conclude, as I have shown
Some transition words, like also, and, or, like, as for, and further are unobtrusive, directing the reader without distracting. Others,
like albeit, jump out at the reader and must be used sparingly. Still other transitions cast doubt on the credibility of the writer.
Here are some transitions often seen in freshman compositions. They are perhaps best avoided:
in all honesty, to tell the truth, to put it briefly, be that as it may, last but not least, to get back to the point, to make a long story
short.
3, Here are some examples of sentences that rarely cause confusion in nonstandard dialects, but which are incorrect in standard
English:
Note: the asterisk indicates that the sentence is nonstandard.
*She was so weak she couldnt hardly sit up.
*Scarcely nobody came to my party.
*I cant stay only a few minutes.
*I didnt know neither her telephone number nor her address.
*I never saw no one I thought prettier.
*I dont know nothing about building a compost pile.
*We dont need no education
*I dont want none of those escargots.
Here are the same thoughts expressed in standard English:
She was so weak she could hardly sit up.
Scarcely anybody came to my party.
I can stay only a few minutes.
I knew neither her telephone number nor her address.
I never saw anyone I thought prettier.
I dont know anything about building a compost pile.
We dont need an education
I dont want any of those escargots.
Note: Not all double negatives in English earn an F from grammarians. The not un- construction popular in the 17th century is
still acceptable in standard English. For example, heres a comment from a travel article: the flavor was unusual, but not
unappealing. Both not and unappealing are negatives. The idea is that the flavor is too strange to actually be appealing, but is
nevertheless palatable. To state the thought otherwise would alter the writers intended meaning.
4, 2. Our team mascot is a wildcat, so I would expect people to useWildcats when talking about the school teams in
general. Is there a rule for singular or plural use when identifying a specific organization, as in We are the Wildcats
or This is the Wildcat football program?
Team mascot names should be treated as plurals except when, as in the case of Stanford Universitys Cardinal (not Cardinals)
ugh the name is singular: The Wildcats are undefeated this season. The program should also be referred to in the plural form:
This is the Wildcats football program; the only instance in which the singular form is used is when referring to an individual
player, as in John Smith was a Wildcat when the team won the state championship.
3. When someone says, He only answers with yesses and nos, is that the correct way to spell the responses? Also,
do I need to put each word in quotations? I could revise to He only answers with yes or no, but what if I have to
record the statement verbatim?
Write, He only answers with yeses and nos no internal quotation marks. (Technically, only should follow answers, but this is a
transcription.)
5, Some members of my critique group often return my submissions having circled everythat Ive used to introduce a noun
clause.
NOTE: A noun clause is a subordinate clause that answers what? after a verb in another clause: I feel that you are mistaken.
Main clause: I feel. Noun clause: that you are mistaken.
Most of the time, I agree with their judgment and remove the offending that. Sometimes, however, I choose to leave it in, even if
its not strictly necessary.
The modern mantra of leave out needless words is one to observe in a general way, but it shouldnt lead a writer to slash
mindlessly at every word that can be left out just because it can be.
Plenty of guidelines are given for the inclusion or omission of that when introducing a noun clause. The recommendations of the AP
Style Guide are often quoted:
Omit that after the verb to sayusually.
Do not omit that when a time element intervenes between the the verb and the dependent clause.
Include that after the verbs advocate, assert, contend,declare, estimate, make clear, point out, propose, andstateusually.
Include that before clauses beginning with conjunctions such as after, although, etc.
Recognizing the impossibility of laying down hard and fast rules for the use ofthat as a conjunction, the AP entry concludes with
this sensible remark:
When in doubt, include that. Omission can hurt. Inclusion never does.
Fowler mentions some additional verbs that usually require a that: agree,assume, calculate, conceive, hold, learn, maintain,
and suggest.
Even if a verb appears on some guides OK to omit list, writers need to be alert to the possibility that omitting a that could force
a reader to stumble, as in these examples:
The accountant has learned fractions must not appear in the totals.
Do you know Mary Smith has left the firm?
The doctor feels your leg will soon be better.
Here are some that and non-that examples from two popular and respected modern writers.
Elizabeth George, In the Presence of the Enemy:
within minutes it seemed that she hadnt been able to hold up her head
our esteemed MP from East Norfolk declared that his constituency is solidly behind him
MP Larnseys wife swore yesterday shed stick by her man, but Ive a source whos told me shes moving out tonight.
Ive had a call from someone inside the association who says Larnseys going to be asked to stand down.
Laurie King, Justice Hall:
One might wish hed stuck with badgers and squirrels
At Marshs door she said politely that shed see me at dinner
You have to admit that his observations [...] are quite perceptive
I felt again that hed have put it together as soon as he knew Iris better.
The Darlings might hear that we had failed to board the trainThis means that most of the actual tailing exercise will fall to Russell
and myself.
both knew that if they were to dine with Mme Hughenfort, they could not be following her through the streets.
Even when that is not needed for clarity, it may be the right stylistic choice for a writers intended tone. When it comes to
using that as a conjunction, the best advice is to be aware of the rules, but dont be afraid to deviate from them if the sentence
doesnt sound right to your writerly ear.
6, Which is the correct way to format time in the case below?
(a) 9:30 11:15am
(b) 9:30 11:15 am
(c) 9:30 11:15a.m.
(d) 9:30 11:15 a.m.
Do I leave a space after the last number for the am to follow, or not? Do I use periods, or not? Should I use
the am after 9:30 as well as after11:15? Is a dash OK to use to mean to? Or should I use 9:30am to 11:15am?
The lack of a letter space between the closing time and the abbreviation am in (a) and a.m. in (c) is problematic because the
abbreviation appears to apply only to the closing time. (However, the convention is that abbreviations for before noon or after
noon appear after only the second time element unless they one time is before noon and the other is after noon, or vice versa.)
Also, periods in initialisms are becoming obsolescent, though The Chicago Manual of Style recommends retaining them when they
follow a lowercase letter Mr., etc., and so on but not MD, DC, and so on so either (b) or (d) is correct.
Also, speaking of letter spaces, no space should precede or follow the hyphen in the time range (and the hyphen technically should
be an en dash, though some newspapers and websites use the simpler symbol). A more formal piece of content such as a book is
likely to spell out to within a time frame, but in most other contexts, the symbol is appropriate. The best choices, therefore, are
(formally) 9:3011:15 a.m. and (less formally) 9:3011:15 am.
7, When referring to steps within a process, do I capitalize steps? For example, should I write, After completing
Step 1, go to Step 6?
The Chicago Manual of Style recommends lowercasing references to parts of books, even when theyre numbered: part 1,
chapter 2, section 3, and so on, and though it doesnt refer to steps, I would follow that rule for elements of a procedure.
(However, The Associated Press Stylebook recommends capitalization for numbered parts of books.)
3. Should names of dog breeds be capitalized for example,pomeranian, labrador, bull terrier, American pit bull
terrier?
Dog breeds are not capitalized unless the name is that of a geographic region:Pomeranian, Labrador retriever, bull terrier,
American pit bull terrier. (Dalmatian is an exception; its usually lowercase, but I would probably uppercase it when it appears
with similar names normally capitalized.)
8, A variety of prefixes and words that express former and future states of being are available to writers. Heres a discussion of
the possibilities.
In reference to people who are no longer in a particular position or profession, the most common wording, for example, is former
stockbroker John Smith or ex-stockbroker John Smith. Other, more elaborate terms, in ascending order of ornateness,
include onetime, erstwhile, and quondam.
One can also use once or at one time, but not as a simple description preceding the name, as in the examples above; one would
have to write, depending on context, something like John Smith, once a stockbroker himself or John Smith, who at one time
was a stockbroker.
Descriptions might also use then as an adjective, as in then stockbroker John Smith (note that the phrase consisting of then and
a descriptive word is not hyphenated), which is distinct in meaning from phrases that include former orex-: For example, The
book was written by former stockbroker John Smith means that Smith wrote the book after he was no longer a stockbroker,
whereas The book was written by then stockbroker John Smith means that Smith wrote the book while he was a stockbroker but
is no longer working in that profession.
A more complex form is to use turned as a transitional term between a former state and a current one, as in stockbroker turned
mechanic John Smith. (Note that hyphens are not used to connect the terms; that common error likely arises from confusion with
phrases that include the term cum from the Latin word for and and therefore not synonymous with turned which appears in
such constructions as teacher-cum-coach John Smith.)
Unfortunately, this variety of solutions is not available for expressing future states. Future is the only simple description, as in
future stockbroker John Smith. Otherwise, one might write, John Smith, who will become a stockbroker or, in retrospect, John
Smith, who went on to become a stockbroker. (However, politicians who will take office on a specified date can be referred to as,
for example, President-elect John Smith.)
The effect on a job title of the insertion of former, ex-, or any other similar term (or any adjective, for that matter) before the title
varies according to style. The Chicago Manual of Style and similar handbooks generally treat the job title as if has joined the
adjective as part of an epithet, a generic description rather than a capitalized title. Therefore, someone who no longer holds a
particular office would be described, for example, as former president Bill Clinton, as opposed to the designation President Bill
Clinton for a sitting president. The Associated Press Stylebook, by contrast, does not make this distinction: The form most
newspapers follow is former President Bill Clinton.
9, Its too bad you cant eat grammatical errors or use them to fill your gas tank, because theyre a cheap, endlessly renewable
resource. Heres a five-course meal of sentences with troublesome structure, starting with dessert.
1. The writer will sit, eat, and interview the subject.
It seems more logical for the writer to interview the subject after being seated but before eating him or her, but whatever. If the
intended meaning of the statement is that the writer will dine with the subject rather than cannibalistically consume him or her,
however, the sentence should be revised as follows: The writer will sit and eat with, and interview, the subject. Better yet, for a
smoother flow to the sentence, introduce a pronoun: The writer will sit and eat with the subject and interview him [orher].
2. The committee consists of the executive directors of the Bay Area Toll Authority, California Transportation
Commission, and California Department of Transportation.
Normally, items in a list can share an article (the birds, bees, flowers, and trees), or each can have its own (the birds, the bees,
the flowers, and the trees), but when the list items are proper nouns, its best to assign an article to each one so that it doesnt
appear that the entities after the first one are erroneously referred to without an article: The committee consists of the executive
directors of the Bay Area Toll Authority, the California Transportation Commission, and the California Department of
Transportation.
3. His contribution to the interior design of the home is his impressive antique musical instruments and modern art
collection.
The statement implies that the collection consists of antique musical instruments and modern art, but technically, the reference
should be to two distinct collections, described in the plural form and with each description preceded by its own plural pronoun:
His contributions to the interior design of the home are his impressive antique musical instruments and his modern art collection.
Alternatively, the sentence could be revised as follows, with the collections referred to as a single contribution or a pair of
contributions: His contribution(s) to the interior design of the home is (or are) his impressive collections of antique musical
instruments and modern art.
4. The organization promotes sustainable landscaping practices, green building-construction methods and products,
and minimizing pesticide use in the home.
The inconsistency of syntax here is that the first two items are modified with adjectives, while the third is described as an action.
Change the verb in the final item to an adjective: The organization promotes sustainable landscaping practices, green building-
construction methods and products, and minimal pesticide use in the home.
Alternatively, introduce verbs into each of the other items: The organization promotes employing sustainable landscaping
practices, utilizing green building-construction methods and products, and minimizing pesticide use in the home.
5. Here come the summer moviesthe usual formulaic action flicks, dumb comedies, and sequels.
This sentence is not wrong, but the rhythm is off because the first two items are preceded by adjectives but the final element is a
bare noun. Introduce an adjective before that item for parallel structure: Here come the summer moviesthe usual formulaic
action flicks, dumb comedies, and weak sequels.
10, Headings are second-generation headlines, words or phrases that introduce sections of a piece of content and thus help a
writer organize the content into smaller components. This post describes three categories of headings and their functions.
1. Question Headings
A question heading, as you might have guessed, is a heading in the interrogative case. A question heading like How Do Widgets
Make Your Job Easier? directs a readers attention because it implies that the text that follows the heading will answer that
question.
Question headings are useful in content that serves as an informational resource, such as an instructional procedure, a
troubleshooting guide, or a websites FAQ (frequently asked questions) page. But they can also serve to organize more qualitative
information intended to expand readers knowledge, such as headings that ask the difference between various political systems,
religions, or philosophies.
2. Statement Headings
Statement headings are those that include a noun and a verb, forming a complete thought. Newspaper headlines are the model for
this form: Widgets Make Your Job Easier is an example of a statement heading.
Statement headings are ideal for straightforward content when question headings arent appropriate or desired. They express a
fact or an opinion, and they signal that the content following them will provide details that support that fact or argue that opinion.
3. Topic Heading
A topic heading consists of a single word or a short (or not-so-short) phrase that serves as a label identifying the topic of the
content that follows: Sample topic headings include Widgets, Benefits of Widgets, and How to Use Widgets to Make Your Job
Easier. Topic headings can introduce functional content, but theyre the type of heading best suited for leisure reading content
intended to entertain rather than inform.
Topic headings can be the most challenging to write because they dont necessarily provide much information. The first two
examples, above, for instance, arent very specific; only the third one matches the sample question and statement headings for
utility. Topic headings do invite more creativity, including wordplay and alliteration, but Workout Widgets and Widgets and
Gadgets, for example, might require more context, like an image, or a transitional sentence at the end of the previous section, to
be of much use.
Also, note that the more conceptual a topic heading is, the less likely it is to support an online search, because it probably includes
fewer keywords than an equivalent heading formatted according to one of the other heading styles.
11, When are letters of the alphabet, appearing in isolation rather than as part of a word, capitalized, and when are they
lowercased? When should they be italicized, and when is the normal type, called roman, employed? Heres a general guide to
styling letters.
Letters as Letters
When referring to a letter as an alphabetical character in print or online, style it in italics and use uppercase or lowercase forms as
appropriate, as in the examples Notice how the letter m is cut off so that it almost looks like an n and Engraved in the rock was
a capital A.
A roman apostrophe and a roman s are added to indicate a plural form, as in When you wrote ballot, you included three ls. For
capital letters, the apostrophe isnt necessary: The two Vs look like a W. However, if plural forms of both uppercase and
lowercase letters appear in the same document, for consistency, reconcile the style either way.
Letters employed in lieu of an entire word beginning with that letter to disguise profanity or otherwise avoid the words use are
capitalized and styled in italics: The F word refers to an obscene four-letter word, for example, and the Dword might appear in
a perhaps jocular reference to relationships in which the writer declines to use the word divorce.
In idioms such as Dot [ones] is and cross [ones] ts or the humorous inversion Cross [ones] is and dot [ones] ts and
Mind [ones] ps and qs, the letters are traditionally not italicized, despite this custom being an exception to the rules described
above; instead, an apostrophe is inserted before the plural s. Other idiomatic usage (for example, the three Rs and to a T)
generally does not call for italicization, either.
Names of Letters
In the unlikely event that a letter needs to be referred to by name, it can be spelled out as indicated in dictionaries. However, the
system is difficult to use because not all names of alphabetical characters are spelled intuitively, so theyre difficult to locate for
verification: B and letters that rhyme with it are spelled bee, cee, and so on, but others are spelled, for example, aitch, cue,
and wye.
Letter Grades
When the letters A, B, C, D, and F are used in educational contexts and, by extension, in informal analogous usage, as evaluative
marks, they are not italicized. Thats because they refer to the points on the grading scale, not to letters of the alphabet; Ive
italicized them here, though, because Ive named them as letters: the letter A, and so on. (Why is there no E in the grading
scale? Apparently, educators were concerned that this letter grade would be misconstrued as representing excellent, as F stands
for failure, so although it was originally part of the grading scale, it was eventually omitted.)
An alternative system, often used euphemistically in lower grades, is E, G, F, P, and U (excellent, good, fair, poor, and
unsatisfactory). No apostrophe is inserted before the plural s; for example, write I had hoped to receive more As or She earned
three Es last semester.
Letters as Shapes
When letters are used to describe shapes, they are capitalized and styled in roman, as in C clamp and T square. Letters
employed in this way are sometimes treated in sans serif type (one of many typefaces in which letters are made solely of straight
lines and curves and lack appendages), but this approach looks awkward.
Music and Rhyme Schemes
In general, letters referring to musical pitches are capitalized in roman type for example, This song is in D. (Technical usage
such as references to octaves varies; consult specialized print publications or websites for more information.)
Rhyme schemes, however, are indicated in lowercase italic letters with no letter spaces between characters indicating a set of lines
constituting a verse, as in The poem is written in abba rhyme.
12, How does one introduce a person in narrative nonfiction? What is the style for subsequent references to that person? It all
depends on the circumstances of the person and of the content.
In biographical content, it is common to name someone on first reference by birth name, including middle name(s) and
independent suffixes such as Sr.or III, but this formal version need not be used again, except in a rare circumstance Ill mention
below. Normally, however, the first and last name will suffice, unless a historical personage is generally identified otherwise, such
as in the case of Franklin Delano Roosevelt.
A biographical treatment, however, might begin with an anecdote from the subjects youth or young adulthood, and this excerpt
might identify the person at first and on second reference (this editorial term refers not just to the second instance but all
subsequent mentions) with a diminutive for example,Bobby in place of Robert or a nickname. Then, once the anecdote is
complete, the first reference to the main body of the text will formally identify the subject.
And what about second reference? An intimate portrait, or a portion referring to the subjects childhood, might use the first name
alone or a diminutive or a nickname. In most cases, however, the subjects surname will be employed. Exceptions are figures with
extended surnames who are known simply by a single element of that surname, such as Spanish artist Pablo Diego Ruiz y Picasso,
 popularly known as Pablo Picasso or even just Picasso, and French diplomat Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Prigord, known to
history as Talleyrand.
(These two men are among a small number of historical figures known simply by their last name, though their full names are
generally used on first reference unless the person is not the primary subject of the text and is mentioned merely in passing:
Smith was no Picasso; Jones aspired to be the next Talleyrand.)
When else should a full name be used after the first reference? If the person is being discussed as a type, or the writer is referring
to the subject being self-referential, the full name perhaps including middle name(s) and/or a suffix is often applied: Jones
suggested it to Smith. . . . John James Smith was not the kind of person to ignore a challenge like that.
What are the guidelines for when a person is mentioned occasionally? They can be only guidelines, rather than rules, because one
must use ones judgment depending on the length and organization of the content and on the frequency and placement of
references to the person. For example, if a person is mentioned in only one chapter or at most a few sequential chapters of a book,
the last name alone should suffice on second reference.
But if a person not central to the narrative reappears after an interval of a section or a chapter or more, the full name should be
used to reacquaint readers with this person. If the person is mentioned only a handful of times throughout a long report or a book,
full identification might be best on each occasion. The writer must decide based on the persons familiarity and the persons
significance to the narrative. (Another consideration is the presence of other people sharing that persons surname.)
Writers can also vary second reference by using personal pronouns and by judicious use of nicknames or epithets (for example,
the Wizard of Menlo Park, for Thomas Edison). Other possibilities are occasional use of first and second initials, or even all
initials, for those people popularly known by such appellations, such as JFK for John F. Kennedy.
13, English syntax is flexible, enabling writers to shape a given sentence in various ways, and we should take advantage of this
lack of rigidity to enhance the impact of our statements. Here are several sentences that benefit from rearrangement.
1. Complex adaptive systems can respond more quickly the more complex they are.
This sentence is clear and straightforward, but it would be stronger with a shift in emphasis. Whats the key point? Speed increases
as complex adaptive systems become more complex. This revision begins with the key point, but its often more effective to
withhold significant information until the end of a sentence: The more complex that adaptive systems are, the more quickly they
can respond.
2. Its the world of impressions, in which we can do no wrong, not the world of action.
In the previous example, the distinctions between the three variations of the statement were minimal, although the key point
popped out more in the suggested revision. In this case, however, the statement begins vigorously, peaks in the middle, and limps
to a close, and the key point is relegated to a parenthetical statement that separates two elements of a contrast. Reorganize the
sentence by establishing the contrast and culminating with the conclusion: Its the world of impressions, not the world of action,
in which we can do no wrong.
3. America should rely on the entrepreneurship and goodness of its citizens to be a great society, not on the well-
intentioned but ineffective policies of government agencies.
Again, the heart of a sentence is buried in its middle, and the juxtaposition of the two approaches is interrupted. This sentence
makes an assertion about how the United States can be a great society, and that final phrase should punctuate, not be buried in
the midst of, the statement.
Here are two variations that, as in the previous example, introduce a contrast and then ride the momentum of that tension to drive
home the argument: The United States should rely on the entrepreneurship and goodness of its citizens, not on the well-
intentioned but ineffective policies of government agencies, to be a great society, or The United States should rely not on the
well-intentioned but ineffective policies of government agencies but on the entrepreneurship and goodness of its citizens to be a
great society.
Note how one variant is internally punctuated and the other isnt. In the first alternative, the counterpoint, the phrase beginning
with not, is parenthetical it could be omitted without affecting the coherence of the sentence. In the second revision, the two
elements of the contrast are an integrated thought, and there is no parenthesis. If the second element of the contrast were
omitted, the sentence would read, The United States should rely not on the well-intentioned but ineffective policies of government
agencies to be a great society an incomplete statement. Insertion or omission of punctuation can change meaning.
14, The rules for formatting titles of compositions and their constituent parts may seem complicated, but they follow a fairly
straightforward set of guidelines, outlined below.
Capitalization
Titles of compositions are generally formatted in headline, or title style. In this system, the first letters of the following words are
capitalized:
The first and last word of the title, regardless of part of speech
Nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and subordinating conjunctions (such as although, because, and than)
In titles, the following words are lowercased:
Prepositions (except when they are used adjectivally or adverbially (in such phrases as off day and come down)
To when it is part of an infinitive (for example, to exercise)
All articles, prepositions, and coordinating conjunctions (such as and, but, and or)
Emphasis
Italics are used for titles of books, periodicals, films, television specials and series, and both series titles and episode titles for
anthology programs likeMasterpiece Theatre, though episodes of regular series, as well as titles of book chapters and magazine,
newspaper, and online articles, are enclosed in quotation marks.
Some publications, including most newspapers and some magazines, use quotation marks for titles of all compositions as well as
parts of compositions, but italics are almost always employed for this purpose in books, and I highly recommend maintaining this
distinction in periodicals and online.
Titles of many nonfiction books include a subtitle following a colon, and except in informal usage, the full title should be used on
first reference; the title alone the part preceding the colon can be used thereafter.
Note that magazine and similar descriptive words should be capitalized and italicized only if they are part of a publication title:
refer to the New York Times Magazine, for example, but Time magazine; in the former case,magazine is officially part of the
publications name. (In a context in which it is obvious that Time, for example, refers to the publication with that title, the
word magazine can be omitted.)
Also, as shown in this example, do not capitalize or italicize the before a publication name, whether or not it is part of the title.
Various publications differ in self-identification, even when their titles share a word for example, the New York Times bills itself
as The New York Times, while the Los Angeles Times omits the article and this rule is designed to save writers the trouble of
having to check individual publications for specific usage.
Titles of plays and of poems long enough to be published in book form are italicized; titles of poems short enough to be included in
a collection in a book are formatted, like chapter titles, in quotation marks.
To determine how to treat titles of websites and their components, compare them to print equivalents: A website that sells
products and/or services, even if it features content related to those offerings, is an online store, and the site name should not be
formatted as a composition title. But titles of sites that emulate books and periodicals, and their articles and essays, should be
treated like them; the same standard applies to blogs and blog posts.
What about titles of videos posted online? Many such videos, especially those posted to video-sharing sites such as YouTube, dont
have titles or lack well-thought-out titles so they can just be referred to generically (See Smiths video about wombats),
with a link. For those with traditionally composed titles, however, use either italics or, especially for short videos, quotation marks.
15, Which symbol should be used with numbers: a hyphen (-), or an en dash ()? The question may seem trivial a dash is a
dash, right? but using the correct symbol aids comprehension, just as commas and semicolons signal distinct grammatical
structures, and no one will argue that those two punctuation marks can be used interchangeably.
Hyphens are used to separate groups of numbers, such as in telephone numbers or numbers of financial accounts. But for almost
all other cases, the correct punctuation mark is an en dash, which indicates a range or a difference.
A span of years (such as 20092012) or any other time range includes an en dash. (And note that from 20092012 and
between 20092012 are incorrect; either use both from and to, or between and and, or neither.) The same treatment is given to
a sequence of components, such as a range of chapter or page numbers or amounts (for example, chapters 110 or 250300
pages).
A range of monetary amounts and any other amounts is also represented this way, as in Salary range: $75,000$80,000.
(Note that when expressing a range with very large numbers, to avoid confusion, the first number should not be abbreviated; for
example, $75$80,000 means from $75 to $80,000, not from $75,000 to $80,000.)
Two contexts that cause confusion about which dash to use are scores and votes. These are not, technically, ranges, because
nothing exists between them, as in the case of 20092012, in which that time span includes 2010 and 2011 as well, and of
chapters 110, which also includes every page between 1 and 10. But The Chicago Manual of Style, reasoning that the symbol
between the numbers represents a difference between two values (and that the symbol is pronounced to), has elected to use en
dashes for both types of representation.
Therefore, use an en dash to indicate scores for sports or other competitions (for example, Her team won 63 or They came
back from behind to chalk up a 9792 victory). Note, however, that when a score does not immediately follow a verb or precede a
noun, as in the examples above, it should be set off from the rest of the sentence by one or two commas: East prevailed over
West, 9792; East prevailed over West, 9792, for the league championship. Win-loss records should also be formatted with an
en dash: The team went on to earn an 84 record.
Votes are treated the same way: The city council approved the project with a 52 vote.
Many newspapers and websites follow the style recommended by theAssociated Press Stylebook, which is to simply use a hyphen
in place of an en dash. That preference presumably dates from the lead-type era, when compositors didnt want to be bothered
about trying to distinguish a from a on a piece of metal the size of a watermelon seed. Last time I noticed, however, producing
an en dash was a simpler task. Dare to dash.
16, A proper noun, also known as a proper name, is capitalized to indicate that it denotes a unique entity or phenomenon. Many
entities or phenomena are widely known by their names. Sometimes, however, writers misunderstand or misrepresent the label.
Here are five examples of proper nouns that illustrate the importance of verifying precise nomenclature and considering the
context in which it is used.
1. Big Ben
This is the official nickname, specifically, of the bell in the Elizabeth Tower, the iconic structure often used as a visual shortcut to
identifying London in photographs, on television, and in films. (The tower, previously called simply the Clock Tower, was renamed
in 2012 in honor of the sixtieth anniversary of Queen Elizabeth IIs reign.) However, popularly, the phrase generally refers to the
clock in the tower or the tower itself.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
This US government agencys official name is the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, but it retains the initials, CDC, of its
previous designation, the Centers for Disease Control; note that the first word is plural. (A similar example is the name of the
National Institutes not Institute of Health.)
3. Halleys Comet
The technical name for this peanut-shaped orbiting body roughly the size of a big-league Himalayan mountain is Comet Halley.
(actually, 1P/Halley is its astronomy-catalog designation.) Because of its relative familiarity, however, due to unusually frequent
reappearances (roughly every seventy-five years), it is also called Halleys Comet.
The traditional pronunciation among astronomers rhymes with alley, but, perhaps as a result of contamination from the name of
the seminal rock-and-roll band Bill Haley and the Comets, most laypeople pronounce it to rhyme withdaily. (No one knows how
discoverer Edmund Halley pronounced his name, but Id give the odds to the stargazers convention.)
4. New York
The largest US city is popularly called New York (the official name is the City of New York), but writers should determine
whether, depending on the context, it should be referred to as New York City to distinguish it from New York State. (In this
designation, and in Washington State so as not to confuse the state with Washington, DC state is capitalized even though
its not part of the states official name.)
5. Sierra Nevada
The name of the mountain range forming the backbone of California a name shared by several other ranges throughout the
world from the Spanish phrase meaning snowy mountains, should not be pluralized with the letter s, and the Sierra Nevada
Mountains is partially redundant. (The same is true of the truncation the Sierras; call it the Sierra.)
Many other geographical designations are redundant: Fujiyama translates as Mount Fuji; the words sahara, gobi, and negev all
mean desert; and the first word in Rio Grande, as well as Avon and Don the names for rivers in England and Russia,
respectively means river. Although its not wrong to use the word mount, desert, or river before or after the name of a
geographic feature that means mountain, desert, or river, the common noun can often safely be omitted (for example,
Fujiyama, the Sahara, and the Rio Grande). Note, too, that river, when it precedes a rivers name (for example, the river
Nile), is always descriptive and not part of the name.
17, Many writers native English speakers and nonnative speakers alike are confounded by uncertainty or confusion about
usage, the complicated issue of what, exactly, a given word means regardless of its practical or official definition. Here are some
questions and comments Daily Writing Tips readers have sent me about definitions and connotations, along with my responses.
1. One of the words I hear all the time, which I believe is improperly used, is hopefully, as in Hopefully, well be
successful. Id love to hear your thoughts about using this word hopefully, youll agree with me.
For better or worse, in the usage you abhor, hopefully is firmly established, and employment in its original sense (in a hopeful
manner, as in I waited hopefully for her response) has all but disappeared. The only thing one can do to curtail its use is avoid
using it oneself, but this is a case in which the people have spoken: The new sense will prevail.
2. For the past few years, Ive been noticing the use of only ever, as in I only ever stay on the weekends.
Isnt ever unnecessary and perhaps incorrect?
Yes, ever is an extraneous intensifier. Its not incorrect, but it should be avoided in formal writing.
3. May Thank you for correcting me sound ironic in Modern English? I once used it and got negative feedback. And I
think it has pejorative connotation in English, though in my mother tongue its just a way to express gratitude or
thanks.
Yes, Thank you for correcting me looks perfectly neutral, but its not: In English, the notion of correcting someone has a negative
connotation, like being criticized or scolded, and someone who receives that comment from you may assume that youre resentful
for the assistance.
Depending on the situation, it would be better to say or write, Thank you for providing me with the correct information (less
concise, but neutral in tone) or Thank you for clarifying that for me. In American English, at least, an informal, friendly way to
acknowledge correction is Thanks for setting me straight.
18, Writing is simply a matter of expressing ideas, but as we all know, its not so simple after all. One challenge is to coherently
connect those ideas. This post lists ten categories of words and phrases one can employ to signal a transition, with several
examples for each type.
These words and phrases can be used within a sentence as well as at the beginning. Note, too, that many can apply to more than
one category. (These groupings are arbitrary, created for the sake of presentation; transitional terms can be organized in various
ways.)
1. Addition
Also, I have to stop at the store on the way home.
Besides, it would give me great satisfaction to help you.
First, Id like to thank you for inviting me to speak tonight.
2. Comparison
In the same way, the author foreshadows a conflict between two minor characters.
Likewise, the sequel was very successful.
Similarly, we observed no differences in response rate.
3. Concession
Granted, you did not ask ahead of time.
Naturally, the final decision is up to her.
Of course, he will want to examine the documents himself.
4. Contrast
At the same time, what she said has some truth to it.
However, I dont see what that has to do with anything.
Otherwise, how can they expect us to comply?
5. Consequence
Accordingly, I have consulted with him for a second opinion.
As a result, Im not sure what to do.
For this reason, we have decided to halt the project.
6. Emphasis
Above all, we must exercise discretion.
Certainly, hell find out for himself in time.
In fact, theyre on their way right now.
7. Example
For example, he could have asked for advice first.
In particular, I draw your attention to the stain on the carpet.
Namely, consider the consequences of your decision.
8. Sequence
Earlier, you had mentioned a report.
Eventually, well see some improvement.
Meanwhile, Ive been waiting for you.
9. Space
Below, youll find instructions for assembling the shelf.
In the distance, he could see the approaching figure.
Off to one side, a package wrapped in plain paper caught her attention.
10. Summary
In conclusion, I see no reason to delay any longer.
In other words, theyre incompetent.
Therefore, your decision leaves me no choice.
19, How do you write around the outmoded usage of the pronounhe or him when a male is not necessarily the subject of the
reference? Here are ten strategies none ideal in every circumstance for achieving gender neutrality.
1. Use He or She

Before: Ask the student whether he is prepared to give a presentation.

After: Ask the student whether he or she is prepared to give a presentation.
This solution is stiffly formal and is awkward in repetition; use sparingly. Usinghe/she, s/he, or any such alternative (or an
invented neutral pronoun like ze) is not advised.
2. Alternate Between He and She

Before: Ask the student whether he is prepared to give a presentation. If he is ready, tell him that he may begin when he is
ready.
After: Ask the student whether he is prepared to give a presentation. If she is ready, tell her that she may begin when she is
ready.
This solution works only in the case of two or more references to a hypothetical subject of either gender. In the proximity of the
references in the examples, this solution is awkward, but when the references are at some distance from each other, it can be
effective in moderation.
3. Omit the Pronoun

Before: Ask the student whether he is prepared to give a presentation.

After: Ask whether the student is prepared to give a presentation.
This revision does not clearly indicate whether the student or another person is being asked; writers must recognize and respond
to such lack of clarity if it affects comprehension.
4. Repeat the Noun in Place of the Pronoun

Before: Ask the student whether he is prepared to give a presentation.

After: Ask the student whether the student is prepared to give a presentation.
When the noun is repeated in the proximity shown above, the sentence is awkward; in a more complex sentence, the repetition
may not seem so obvious.
5. Use a Plural Antecedent for the Pronoun

Before: Ask the student whether he is prepared to give a presentation.

After: Ask the students whether they are prepared to give their presentations.
Employing a plural noun and a plural pronoun may change the meaning somewhat; writers must be alert as to which other nouns,
if any, should be made plural as well.
6. Replace the Pronoun with an Article

Before: Ask the student to prepare his presentation.

After: Ask the student to prepare a presentation.
7. Revise the Sentence to Use the Pronoun One
Before: A prepared student is more likely to succeed than if he has not done sufficient research.
After: A prepared student is more likely to succeed than an unprepared one.
8. Revise the Sentence to Use the Pronoun Who

Before: A student is more likely to succeed if he does sufficient research.

After: A student who does sufficient research is more likely to succeed.
9. Revise the Sentence to the Imperative Mood

Before: A student must be well prepared for his presentation.

After: Be well prepared for the presentation.
10. Use a Plural Pronoun

Before: Ask the student whether he is prepared to give a presentation.

After: Ask the student whether they are prepared to give a presentation.
Many writers reject this solution because traditional grammar rules frown on using a plural pronoun when the antecedent is a
singular noun. However, the bewildering absence of a gender-neutral plural pronoun in English calls for a radical solution. This one
is widely used in informal writing and in conversation, and its commonsensical to welcome it in formal writing. That welcome,
however, has not yet been forthcoming, and, regrettably, writers should use the plural pronouns them and they in place of singular
pronouns with caution.
Some writers reject the notion that one should avoid gender-specific pronouns in universal contexts at all. After all, why change
long-standing usage that has only recently been challenged? But these writers, though sensible in the logic of their argument, are
culturally insensitive and, ultimately, are on the wrong side of linguistic history. I hope, too, that integration of the
singular they and them in any usage will eventually occur.
20, 1. The movie achieves its effects, not by threatening to show you something hideous, but by getting under your
skin and into your head.
This sentence constructs the comparative phrases (not by [this] but by [that]) correctly, but the internal punctuation is
superfluous: The movie achieves its effects not by threatening to show you something hideous but by getting under your skin and
into your head.
2. I caution her not to rely so heavily on what she thinks others would do, but on her own intuition.
Because the verb rely applies to both comparative phrases, as achieves does in the first example, both the phrase beginning
with not and the one beginning with but should follow the verb; the phrase describing the recommended strategy should also be
revised to more thoroughly parallel the description of the persons original approach: I caution her to rely not so heavily on what
she thinks others would do but to depend, rather, on her intuition.
3. He films it in a way that doesnt suggest good taste, but colossal presumption and delusion.
This sentence has the same error of parallelism as the preceding one; the verbsuggest should precede both the not phrase (here,
its beginning is disguised asdoesnt) and the but phrase: He films it in a way that suggests not good taste but colossal
presumption and delusion.
4. But the story here is not one of privacy infringement so much as the way real estate is changing because of
technology.
The comparative phrasing here is incomplete; a repetition of is within a mirroring verb phrase must be inserted before the
concluding phrase: But the story here is not one of privacy infringement so much as it is the way real estate is changing because
of technology.
5. They accomplished this task both by utilizing the built-in transformation tools and creating their own.
Both is correctly positioned only if by is repeated before the verb in the second part of the compound phrase: They accomplished
this task both by utilizing the built-in transformation tools and by creating their own. Otherwise, bothshould switch places with by:
They accomplished this task by both utilizing the built-in transformation tools and creating their own.