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Either,
If, then, or
+ + +
iDi vDi iDi = 0 vDi iDi vDi = 0
After the all ideal diodes have been replaced with either shorts
or opens:
HOW ??
iDi > 0
vDi < 0
dv
Capacitors: i C .
dt
i +
C v
-
Ideal Diodes
You will now learn about a new electrical circuit element, the
diode. Diodes are made from two different types of
semiconducting materials that come together to form a
junction:
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 1 Page 3 of 7
It is apparent from this i-v characteristic curve that there are two
distinct regions of operation of the ideal diode:
v 0 i 0 . In this region, the diode is off.
i 0 v 0 . In this region, the diode is on.
The ideal diode acts as an electronic valve allowing current in
only one direction through the diode: in the direction of the
arrow in the circuit symbol.
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 1 Page 4 of 7
Applications of Diodes
Signal rectifier.
Think of this R as the Thevenin
resistance of additional circuitry
+ vD - attached to the rectifier circuit.
+ D +
vI R vO
- -
vI
vO
R
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 1 Page 6 of 7
D1
1V
D2
3V V
I
1k
-5 V
One process you can use to solve this problem is to try (i.e.
guess) different on/off combinations for the diodes D1 and D2
until you achieve a physically plausible and self consistent
solution.
(Fig. 4.8)
nVv
i I S e 1
T
(4.1),(1)
where
n = emission constant. Typically between 1 and 2.
Your text uses n = 1 throughout, which is typical of
integrated circuits.
VT kT q 25 mV at room temperature (20C). Called
the thermal voltage.
Notice the highly non-linear relationship between i and v in this
equation. (Youll learn where this mathematical expression
comes from in EE 362.)
pn Junction
p type n type
silicon silicon
lattice lattice
For a silicon diode, both the p and n regions are silicon, but in
each of these regions, small amounts of impurities have been
added through a process called doping.
(Fig. 3.1)
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 2 Page 4 of 11
(Fig. 3.2)
Holes
(Fig. 3.4)
(2) To create free electrons, add donor dopants (see Fig. 3.3).
For such n-type semiconductors, the silicon is doped with
pentavalent impurity elements such as phosphorus. These
impurities displace silicon atoms (with four valence
electrons) with phosphorous atoms (having five valence
electrons). Consequently, one extra electron is available to
move through the silicon lattice.
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 2 Page 7 of 11
(Fig. 3.3)
Be aware that the entire p-type and n-type regions remain charge
neutral at all times! The dopant atoms are also charge neutral.
Depletion Region
p type n type
silicon silicon
lattice lattice
+ + -
p type n type
Ebattery
- - - +++
- - - +++
- - - +++
E- - - +++
- - - +++
p - - - +++ n
- - - +++
width of depletion
region increases
Ebattery
minority carrier
minority carrier + - + +
- +
- +
p E - + n
- +
- - + -
- +
I
width of depletion
region decreases
VDD/R
Slope = -1/R
v
VDD
(Fig. 4.11)
The point where these two curves intersect is the
simultaneous solution to the two equations (1) and (2).
VDD
(b) R increases?
R
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 3 Page 4 of 10
DC
DC1
565 mV
VD
2V 1.43 mA
R
-1.43 mA 1.43 mA
R1
V_DC R=1 kOhm ap_dio_1N4148_1_19930601
SRC1 D1
Vdc=2.0 V
(Fig. 1)
(Sedra and Smith, 5th ed.)
(Fig. 2)
(Sedra and Smith, 5th ed.)
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 3 Page 7 of 10
This is probably the most commonly used diode model for hand
calculations.
(Fig. 3)
(Sedra and Smith, 5th ed.)
The finite slope to this curve means that the diode has a non-
zero internal resistance, which we will label as rD. The
equivalent circuit for the PWL diode model is then
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 3 Page 9 of 10
(Fig. 4)
(Sedra and Smith, 5th ed.)
The equivalent circuit using the PWL model of the diode is then
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 3 Page 10 of 10
I R=1 k
+
+
Ideal VIdeal
-
VDD=
VD VD0=0.65 V
2V
rD=20.8
-
or I = 1.32 mA.
For example:
(Fig. 4.14)
The total voltage at any time t is the sum of the DC and AC
components
vD t VD vd t (4.8),(1)
provided the AC signal is small enough that the diode operates
approximately in a linear fashion. (See Section 1.4.8 for a
discussion on the symbol convention used in your text.)
iD t I S e nVT
I S e e nVT
nVT
ID
vd t
or iD t I D e nVT (4.12),(2)
where ID is the DC diode current.
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 4 Page 4 of 10
2!
and if vd(t) is small enough so that vd t nVT 2 , truncate
the series to two terms:
vd t
v t
e nVT 1 d (3)
nVT
Substituting (3) in (2) gives
I
iD t I D D vd t (4.14),(4)
nVT
So, if vd(t) is small enough we can see from this last equation
that iD is the sum (or superposition) of two components: DC and
AC signals. What weve done is to linearize the problem by
limiting the AC portion of vD to small values. [It has been
linearized because in (4) the terms with vd2 and higher are all
negligibly small and have been dropped from the equation so
that iD t is only dependent on vD .]
The term nVT I D in (4) has units of ohms. It is called the diode
small-signal resistance:
nV
rd T [] (4.18),(5)
ID
From a physical viewpoint, rd is the inverse slope of the tangent
line at a particular bias point along the characteristic curve of the
diode. Note that rd changes depending on the (DC) bias:
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 4 Page 5 of 10
rd
vd vs
rd R
10 V 2V
As an aside, note that in this circuit the ripple in the voltage has
been reduced at the output. At the input, the ripple is 2/10=20%
of the DC component while at the output the ripple is
0.0107/0.7=1.5% of the DC component.
This purely resistive AC model for the diode works well when
the frequency of the AC signals is sufficiently low.
I Cj
+ -
VS vs
Provided that the power dissipated in the diode is less than the
maximum rated, the diode is not damaged when operating in the
breakdown region. In fact, Zener diodes are designed to operate
in this region.
(Fig. 4.18)
These diodes are usually operated in the reverse bias regime
(i.e., breakdown region) so that IZ > 0 and VZ > 0.
(Fig. 4.19)
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 6 Page 3 of 12
The manufacturer specifies the VZ0 and test current IZT. One can
design Zeners with a wide range of voltages.
The rated VZ at the specified IZT is listed for these Zener diodes.
The circled component, for example, has VZ = 8.2 V at IZT = 31
mA. The maximum rated power is 1 W for this device.
As the current deviates from the specified value IZT, the voltage
VZ also changes, though perhaps only by a small amount. The
change in voltage VZ is related to the change in the current IZ
as
VZ rz I Z (1)
where rz is the incremental or dynamic resistance at the Q point
and is usually a few Ohms to tens of Ohms. See the datasheet for
the particular device you are working with.
(Fig. 4.20)
where VZ VZ 0 rz I Z (4.20),(2)
as is apparent from Fig. 4.19.
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 6 Page 5 of 12
(Fig. 4.21a)
With these ratings
VZ VZ 0 rz I Z VZ 0 VZ rz I Z
or VZ 0 6.8 20 5 103 6.7 V
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 6 Page 7 of 12
R=500
+
VZ0=6.7 V
IZ VO
rz=20
-
6.8
then IL 3.4 mA.
2000
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 6 Page 9 of 12
500
+
VO
-
If V+ = 9 V:
9 6.7
IS 4.6 mA.
500
Therefore, IL = 4.6 mA-0.2 mA = 4.4 mA, so that
V 6.7
RL L 3
1,522
I L 4.4 10
If V+ = 11 V:
11 6.7
IS 8.6 mA.
500
Therefore, IL = 8.6 mA-0.2 mA = 8.4 mA, so that
V 6.7
RL L 798
I L 8.4 103
N2
vs vp (1)
N1
This occurs even though there is no direct contact between the
input and output sections. This magic is described by
Faradays law:
d
CS
E dl
dt S C
B ds
d m
or emf (2)
dt
Diode Rectification
1. Half-Cycle Rectification
(Fig. 4.23a)
We will use the PWL model for the diode to construct the
equivalent circuit for the rectifier:
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 7 Page 4 of 9
(Fig. 4.23c)
2. Full-Cycle Rectification
(Fig. 4.24a)
Notice that the transformer has a center tap that is connected to
ground. For such a transformer, the same relationship (1) applies
as for a regular transformer, but to the entire secondary voltage.
So, for the center tapped transformer, the voltage across each
secondary winding is one-half of the total secondary voltage.
(Fig. 4.24c)
While this full-cycle rectifier is a big improvement over the half-
cycle, there are a couple of disadvantages:
PIV 2Vs VD 0 [ Vs VD 0 Vs ], which is about twice
that of the half-cycle rectifier. This fact may require
expensive or hard-to-find diodes.
Requires twice as many transformer windings on the
secondary as does the half-cycle rectifier since vs is needed
from each set of windings.
Whites, EE 320 Lecture 7 Page 8 of 9
3. Bridge Rectification
D2 D3
- -
Is
i
D4
- vO +
i
D3
(Fig. 4.25b)
The bridge rectifier is the most popular rectifier circuit.
Advantages include:
PIV Vs VD 0 , which is nearly the same as the half-cycle
rectifier.
No center tapped transformer is required, as is needed for
the half-cycle rectifier.