Meaning of Research

Search for knowledge

Scientific and Systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic
It is an art of scientific investigation
It is a careful investigation or enquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
Knowledge
Instinct of inquisitiveness
Method which a person employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be
termed as research
Objectives of Research
To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it - Exploratory
research
To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or group
Descriptive research
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else Diagnostic research
To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables Hypothesis-testing
Research
Characteristics of Research
1. It is directed toward the solution of a problem
2. It emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that will be helpful in
predicting future occurrences.
3. Research demands accurate observation and description.
4. Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using secondary data for a new
purpose.
5. Research requires expertise.
6. Research strives o be objective and logical
7. Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity
8. It is carefully recorded and reported.
9. Research requires a strong determination to know the unknown.
Steps in conducting Research
1. Formulating the research problem.
2. Survey and review of literature.
3. Developing hypothesis and clarifying the concepts.
4. Deciding on the research design
5. Defining the population and selecting the sample.
6. Collecting data.(the sample must be true representation of the population)
7. Analysis and interpretation of data.
8. Testing the hypothesis.
9. Conclusions, Implication and recommendations
10. Preparation and submission of report.
Types of Research
Descriptive Research :
-Is one which describes, records, analyses and interprets the conditions that exist.
-It basically describes what is.

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-It describes the state of affairs as it exists at present.
The researcher has no control over the variables, he/she can only report what has happened or
is happening.
2. Analytical research :
- The researcher has to use facts or information already available and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
3. Applied (Action ) research :
- Aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business
organisation.
- Leads to a deeper understanding of the situation by the local people and by the research team.
- Examples are research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a
particular institution marketing research evaluation research etc.
4. Fundamental ( Basic) research :
- Is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory Gathering
knowledge for the sake of knowledge - eg. studies concerning human
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are fundamental
research
Research studies aimed at certain conclusions facing a concrete social or business problem is an
example of applied research.
5. Quantitative Research : based on measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to
phenomenon that can be expressed in terms of quantity
6. Qualitative research : Is concerned with qualitative phenomenon ie. The phenomenon
relating to or involving quality or kind.
Ex. Motivation research ; Attitude or opinion research Specially important in behavioral
sciences.
7. Conceptual Research : It is related to some abstract ideas or theory generally used by
philosophers or thinkers to develop new concepts or to interpret existing ones
8. Empirical research : it relies on experience or observation alone without due regard for
system and theory it is data based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable
of being verified by observation or experiment
Significance of research:
Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical
habits of thinking and organization It provides the basis for nearly all govt. policies in our
economic system. It has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry
-It is important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to
various social problems.

RESEARCH DESIGN :
Research Design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure
- It is the detailed plan of an investigation
- It is the conceptual structure within which the research is conducted
- It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data
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 What Why Where When etc
The Research design decisions happen to be in respect of :
1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data be found?
6. What periods of time will the study include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What techniques of data collection will be applied?
9. How will the data be analysed?
10. In what style will the report be prepared?
One can split the research design into the following parts :
a) The sampling design : which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for
the given study.
b) The Observational Design : Which relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made.
c) The statistical design : which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed
d) The operational design : which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the above three can be carried out.
Important Concepts relating to Research Design :
1. Dependent and independent variables :A concept which can take on different
quantitative values is called a variable. E.g.. height, weight, income etc.
If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is
dependent variable
The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as
independent variable
Example : Height depends upon on age, hence height is a dependent variable
and age is independent.
Height is also depends on sex, then height is dependent and age and sex are
independent.

2. Extraneous variable :
Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the
dependent variable are termed as extraneous variable
Eg. Childrens gain in social studies achievement and their self-concepts intelligence.
Extraneous variable
3. Experimental Group :
A group of elements which is administered some form of experimental treatment is known as the
experimental group.
4. Control group :
When a group is exposed to usual conditions and which does not receive any experimental
treatment are called control group.
Eg. Special coaching ; farmers exposed to TV program
5. Treatment :
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The different conditions under which the experimental groups are put are usually referred to as
treatment.
Eg. Comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on the yield of wheat.
6. Experiment : The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating to
some research problem. Eg experiemnt to examine the usefulness of a certain newly
developed drug.
7. Experimental units: The pre determined plots or the blocks where different treatments
are used is known as experimental units.

Different Research Designs :

1) Research Design in the case of exploratory research studies ( Formulative Research
Studies ) :The main purpose of this study is that of formulating a problem for more
precise investigation or for developing the working hypothesis discovery of ideas and
insight. In such cases the design must be flexible
E.g.. Pilot Study - Survey of concerning literature experience survey ,secondary data,
focus group
2. Research Design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research :Research design is: -
Formulating the objective of the study - Designing the method for data collection -Selecting the
sample Collecting the data processing and analyzing the data reporting the findings
3. Research Design for Hypothesis Testing Research
Studies ( Experimental Research Studies) :Such studies require procedures that will not only
reduce bias and increase reliability, but permit inferences abut causality. Usually experiments
meet these requirements. Prof. R.A.Fisher agricultural research He has enumerated three
principles of experimental design, they are
a. The principle of replication : experiment will be repeated more than once each treatment is
applied in many experimental units instead of one ( repetition and duplication)
b. The principle of randomization:-is a technique in which each member of the population has
an equal and independent chance of being selected this is a method of controlling
extraneous variables.
c. The principle of local control :- through this principle we can eliminate the variability due to
extraneous factors from the experimental error grouping (of homogenous units) blocking
balancing
Sampling Design:
What is a sample sampling technique is the selection process The survey so conducted is the
sample survey
Sample design: is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population is the
technique or the procedure adopted by the researcher in selecting samples
Steps
a. Type of Universe
b. Sampling unit
c. Source list
d. Size of sample
e. Parameter of interest
f. Budgetary constraint
g. Sampling procedure
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Sampling Methods :
1. Probability Sampling methods : Simple random sampling Stratified random
sampling(proportionate and disproportionate) Cluster sampling
2. Non-probability Sampling methods : Quota sampling Purposive sampling (
judgement sampling ) Systematic sampling ( every nth element is chosen)
MULTI STAGE RANDOM SAMPLING
Sample Size optimum is desirable optimum is one which fulfils efficiency,
representativeness, reliability & flexibility
Scales and Measurements:
A scale is a technique to measure something. Scaling is used in ordering a series of items along
sort of continuum. They are methods of turning a series of qualitative facts into a quantitative
series
Measurements are yardsticks Measurement in research consists of assigning numbers to
empirical events in compliance with a set of rules Hence, measurement is a three part process
(1) Selecting observable empirical events
(2)Developing a set of mapping rules ie a scheme for assigning numbers
(3) Applying mapping rule to each observation of that event. Example of studying people who
attend a auto show
Different Scales
1. Nominal Scale : It is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order to label
them example: assigning numbers to football players in order to identify them just for
convenience no quantitative value cannot come out with a meaningful value We use Mode
as the measure of Central Tendency eg. classifying the residents of a city according to religious
preferences.
2. Ordinal Scale : The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the ordinal
scale This scale places events in order Eg. Rank orders represent ordinal scales a students
rank in his graduation class involves the use of ordinal scale these scales have no absolute
values all that we can say is that one person is higher or lower in rank on the scale Rams
rank is 10 and Mohans is 40 what do you conclude? If a is greater than b and b is greater
than c, then a is greater than c just mentions greater than or less than , without stating how
much greater or less - the appropriate method of central tendency is median
3. Interval Scale: It has the power of nominal and ordinal scale plus one additional strength, the
concept of equality of intervals eg. the interval between 1 and 2 equals the difference between
2 and 3. In this case the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been established as a
basis for making the units equal these scales can have an arbitrary zero it lacks a true zero
The Fahrenheit scale is an example of an interval scale Mean is the appropriate measure of
central tendency
4.Ratio Scale : It incorporates all the powers of previous three Scales-They have an absolute or
true zero of measurement Eg measurement of physical dimensions like height, weight, distance
and area- geometric mean or harmonic mean are the measures of central tendency
Sources of error in measurement:
1. Respondent: nonresponce, response bias
2. Situation third party present, location of the interview,
3. Measurer behavior, style and looks of investigator may encourage or discourage certain
replies from the respondent, gesture of the measure,
4. Failing to record full response
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5. Instrument e.g. use of complex words, ambiguous meaning etc.
Characteristics of Sound Measurement :
Sound measurement must meet the tests of Validity, Reliability and Practicality
Test of Validity : It refers to the extent to which a test measures what we actually wish to
measure it can also be thought of as Utility validity is the extent to which differences found
with a measuring instrument reflect true differences among those being tested.
Test of Reliability : A measuring instrument is reliable if it provides consistent results eg. if a
scale is consistently overweighs objects by 5 kgs is a reliable scale but is not a valid scale
Reliability is concerned with estimates of degree to which measurement is free of random or
unstable error.
Test of Practicality : This can be judged in terms of economy, convience and interpretability
Scaling : It is defined as the procedure for the assignment of numbers ( or symbols) to a
property of objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in
question. It describes the procedure of assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion,
attitudes and other concepts a scale is a continuum, consisting of the highest point and the
lowest point
Important Scaling Techniques :
Rating Scales : It involves qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a thing or of
traits of a person we judge properties of objects without reference to other similar objects
these ratings are in the form of like dislike, excellent-good-averagebelow average-poor. In
practice three to seven point scales are generally used
There are two types of Rating scale- (1) The Graphic Rating Scale: various points are usually put
along the line to form a continuum and the rater indicates his rating.

2) The Itemized rating scale ( Numerical Scale) : It presents a series of statements from
which a respondent Selects one as best reflecting his evaluation.
Eg. suppose we want to enquire as to how well does a worker get along with his fellow workers:
a. He is almost always involved in some friction with fellow worker
b. He is often at odds with one or more of his fellow workers
c. He sometimes gets involved in friction
d. He frequently becomes involved in friction with others
e. He almost never gets involved in friction with fellow workers
Attitude Scales :
Thurstone defined Attitude as the degree of positive or negative feeling associated with some
psychological object like symbol, phrase, slogan, person, institution, ideal or ideas towards
which people can differ in varying degrees. While measuring the attitudes of the people, we
generally follow the technique of preparing the opinionnaire ( attitude scale)
in such a way that the score of the individual responses assigns him a place on a scale.
People may conceal their attitudes and express socially acceptable opinions They may not
really know how they feel about a social issue People may be unaware of their attitude
about an abstract situation until confronted with real situation even behaviour itself is at times
not a true indication of attitude.
Eg- Politicians kissing babies Is this bevaviour a true expression of affection towards
infants? No
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Hence there is no sure method of measuring attitude.
With all these limitations, several attitude scales were developed, they are :
1. Arbitrary scales:
Are developed on ad hoc basis and are designed largely on researchers own subjective selection
of items researcher himself first collects few statements or items which he believes are
unambiguous and appropriate to a given topic some of these instruments are selected for
inclusion in the measuring instrument.
Eg. consider a company image study
How do you regard companys reputation :
1. As a place to work : Bad -- -- -- Good
2. As a institution of social responsibility : Bad -- -- -- Good
These scales are easy to develop and relatively less expensive
Demerits are no objective evidence and we have to rely on researchers insight and competence
2. Thurstone Scale ( Differential scale ) :
This has been developed using consensus scale approach In this approach the selection of items
is made by a panel of judges who evaluate the items in terms of whether they are relevant to the
topic of area.
Detailed procedure : 1) The researcher gather a large number of statements, usually 20 or more ;
2) These statements are submitted to a panel of judges ( 50 to 300 judges ), requesting them to
classify these statements into eleven groups. Those statements which he/she considers most
favorable to the object are put in the first group; those considered next most in the second group
those consider most unfavourable in the last group.
It may be noted here that only the neutral and the two extreme categories ( most favoured and
most unflavored) on which the statements are to be judged are defined. The remaining eight are
unlabelled to create the impression of equal appearing intervals between the three labels.
3) The scale value of a statement is computed as the median position to which it is assigned by
the group of judges.
4) A final selection is made taking items or statements that are spread out evenly along the scale
from one extreme position to the other and for which there are more judges agreement.
3) Summated Scales ( Likert Scale )
This scale consists of a set of items ( statements) to which the subject is asked to react. The
respondents are asked to respond to each item in terms of several degrees of agreement or
disagreement and the scores may be, for eg. strongly agree - 5 ; agree-4; undecided-3; disagree
2; and strongly disagree 1. Total score is obtained when all the weights are summated
4)Semantic Differential (S D) Scale:
This is developed by Charles E.Osgood and others in 1957. The word Semantic means relating to
meaning in language. SD scaling is an attempt to measure the psychological meanings of an
object. This scaling technique is used rather easily in decisional survey research. Its main use has
been in connection with comparison of brand and company images, determination of attitudinal
characteristics of consumers and analysis of the effectiveness of promotional activities.
The S D scale is a technique for psychological measuring of things, usually concepts or objects
of people. It consists of a series or set of descriptive adjectives or phrases which are polar
opposite. They are generally classified into three categories
1.Evaluative : Good Bad ; Beautiful Ugly; Clean Dirty; Fair-Unfair
2.Potency : Large Small; Strong Weak; Thick Thin; Loud-Soft; Deep Shallow.
3.Activity : Fast Slow; Active Passive; Sharp-Dull.
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The respondents are asked to describe the concept under investigation according to the set of
scales using the method of rating. Thus, the technique enables an investigator to examine both
the context and intensity of peoples attitudes.
SURVEY RESEARCH :
DATA COLLECTION :
Primary Data : are collected afresh and for the first time original in character we collect
primary data during the course of doing experiment in an Experimental Research, but for
Descriptive Research, we can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct
communication with the respondents.
Methods :
Observation method : Commonly used in studies relating to behavioral sciences we all
observe many things, but it is not a scientific observation it will become scientific when it
serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to
checks and controls on validity and reliability eg. investigator himself looking at the wrist
watch the respondent is using instead of asking with him the brand of wrist watch, child behavior
Advantages : Subjective bias may be eliminated it gives information relating to current state
of affairs Independent of respondents willingness or capability to respond
Disadvantages : time consuming and expensive limited amount of information is available
extraneous factors may interfere.
Types of observation :
a. Structured and unstructured observation :Structured observation is characterised by a
careful definition of the units to be observed there should be standardised conditions of
observation proper method of recording.
b. Participant and non-participant observation :In participant observation, the investigator
observes by making himself a member of the group he is observing so that he can experience
what the the members of the group experience. Eg. study on the lifestyle of fishermen
community.
c. Controlled and uncontrolled observation : if the observation is taking place in a natural
setting, it is uncontrolled when observation is taking place according to prearranged plans, it is
controlled.
Interview Method :
a) Personal Interviews : Face to face Interviewee may also ask Questions
direct personal investigation on the spot and meet the people Govt committees and
Commissions usually carried out in a structured way ( known as Structured interviews) with
structured questions rigid procedure
Unstructured interviews are flexible do not follow a predetermined set of questions
interviewer has much freedom to ask questions it lacks comparability of one interview with
another it requires greater skill and knowledge exploratory or formulative research, go for
unstructured and descriptive research, go for structured interview
Focused interview : meant to focus on the given experience of the respondent
interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence of questions to be asked
confine the respondent to a discussion on issues to which he is conversant- generally used in the
development of hypotheses and constitute a major type of unstructured interview
Clinical Interview : is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the
course of individuals life experience generally left to the interviewers discretion
Non-directive interview: the interviewers function is just to
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encourage the respondent to talk about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct
questioning interviewer is acting as a catalyst
Telephone Interview :
Questionnaires
Collection of data through Schedules :
Some other methods of data collection :
1. Warranty Cards : Usually postal sized card used by dealers of consumer durables to collect
information regarding their products. It is printed form of questions on the warranty cards
which is placed inside the package along the products with a request to fill in the card and send it
back to the dealer.
2. Distributor or Store Audits : These are performed by distributors as well as manufacturers
through their salesmen at regular intervals Retail stores are audited through salesmen and use
such information to estimate market size, market share, seasonal purchasing pattern and so on
either by observation or by copying from shop records for compilation of sales trend most
effective way of evaluating the effect on sales of variations of different techniques of in-store
promotion.
3. Pantry Audits :
It is used to estimate consumption of the basket of goods at the consumer level the investigator
collects an inventory of types, quantities and prices of commodities consumed data are
recorded from the examination of consumers pantry objective is to find out what type of
consumers buy certain products and certain brands this method may be supplemented by direct
questioning relating to reasons and circumstances under which particular products were
purchased to know the purchase habits
4. Consumer Panels :
An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular basis is known as Consumer Panels a
set of consumers are arranged to maintain detailed daily records of their consumption and it is
made available to the investigator on demand same consumers are interviewed repeatedly over
a period of time are of two types:
a) Transitory consumer panel :
Is set up to measure the effect of a particular phenomenon conducted on a before-and-after
basis to study consumer behavior and attitude
b) Continuing consumer pattern : Is often set up for an indefinite period with a view to collect
data on a particular aspect of consumer behaviour over time radio listening and watching TV.
5. Use of Mechanical devises :
Eye camera ( to record the focus the eyes of respondent) Pupilometric camera ( to record dilation
of the pupil as a result of a visual stimulus) Psychologalvanometer ( used for measuring the
extent of body exitement as result of the visual stimulus Motion picture camera ( to record
movement of body of a buyer while deciding to buy consumer goods from a shop influence of
packaging or information given on the label would stimulate a buyer ) Audio meters ( used by
TV concerns to find out the type of programmes preferred by the people)
6. Projective Techniques :
It is develop by the Psychologists to use projections of respondents for inferring about
underlying motives, urges or intentions which are such that the respondents either resists to
reveal them or is unable to figure out himself important in motivational research use of this
technique require training
Important projective techniques are :
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a) Word association techniques:
b) Sentence completion tests:
c) Story completion tests
d) Verbal projection tests
ANALYSIS OF DATA :
The data, after collection, has to be processed and analysed in accordance with the outline laid
down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. The analysis planning
should be done earlier at the research design stage itself.
Processing involves editing, coding, classification and tabulation of data.
1. Editing : First step in the analysis of raw data editing detects errors and omissions and
corrects them when possible it involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaire. The
purpose of editing is to ensure that the data are-
Accurate, consistent with other facts collected, uniformly entered, complete and arranged to
simplify coding and tabulation.
Field editing and central editing
2. Coding: Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so
that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Eg. 1 for male and 2 for
female or M for male and F for female. The first one is numeric coding and the second one is
alphanumeric coding.
Coding helps the researcher to reduce several thousand replies to a few categories containing the
critical information needed for analysis.
Coding can either be done on the margin of questionnaire or transcribe the data from the
questionnaire to a coding sheet.
3. Classification: Reducing raw data into homogenous groups it is the process of arranging data
in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics
a. Classification according to attributes : They are descriptive in nature (qualitative), like literacy,
sex, honesty etc. these cannot be measured qualitatively only their presence or absence in an
individual item can be noticed.
b.Classification according to class intervals : These refer to quantitative phenomenon which can
be measured through some statistical units eg. data relating to income, production, age, height
& weigh etc.
4. Tabulation : It is a concise, logical and orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows
summarising raw data and display them in compact form it provides a basis for starting
statistical comparisons it could be one way , which furnishes answers to questions about one
characteristic of the data only Two-way, three-way and manifold tables deal with two, three or
several interrelated characteristics of the data. These are known as cross-tabulation.
Charts and Graphs :
REPORT WRITING :
Report helps to know what has been done, why it was done, how it was done, what results were
obtained and what conclusions and recommendations have been arrived at. It should be written
in a clear and unambiguous language so that the readers can objectively judge the adequacy
and validity of the research
Steps in Report Writing :
1.Logical analysis of the subject matter
2.Preparation of the final outline
3.Preparation of the rough draft
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4.Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft
5.Preparation of the final bibliography
6. Wring the final draft
Cluster Analysis
It is a set of techniques for grouping similar objects or people originally applied in taxonomy
but later extended to economics, marketing etc.
This analysis starts with an undifferentiated group of people, events or objects and attempts to
recognise them into homogenous subgroups.
- Cluster analysis is used to classify persons or objects into a small number of mutually exclusive
and exhaustive groups or clusters.
- There should be high internal (Within cluster) homogeneity and high external (between cluster)
heterogeneity.
- One of the important uses of cluster analysis in marketing is market segmantation.
- The main task involved in segmentation is to classify people, materials etc. into groups based
on certain common characteristics.
- This analysis also provides a better understanding of buyer behaviour to identify homogenous
groups of buyers.
- This is used in the development of potential new products.
Steps in Cluster analysis :
1. Selection of the sample to be clustered
2. Definition of the variable on which to measure the objects. Events or people.
3. Computation of similarities among the entities through correlation
4. Selection of mutually exclusive clusters
5. Cluster comparison and validation.
Path Analysis :
The objective of this analysis is to get a clear picture of the direct and indirect effects of the
independent variables on the dependent variable

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