English has two articles: the and a/an.

The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used to modify

non-specific or non-particular nouns. We call the the definite article and a/an the indefinite article.
the = definite article
a/an = indefinite article
For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say, "Let's read abook," I mean any book
rather than a specific book.
Here's another way to explain it: The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group. For example, "I
just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most
popular. Therefore, we use the.
"A/an" is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of the group. For example, "I would like to go
see a movie." Here, we're not talking about a specific movie. We're talking about any movie. There are many movies,
and I want to see any movie. I don't have a specific one in mind.
Let's look at each kind of article a little more closely.

Indefinite Articles: a and an

"A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For example:
"My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't know which dog because we
haven't found the dog yet.
"Somebody call a policeman!" This refers to any policeman. We don't need a specific policeman; we need any
policeman who is available.
"When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single, non-specific thing, in this case an
elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here.

Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. So...
a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog
an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan
a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y'
sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle
an + nouns starting with silent "h": an hour
a + nouns starting with a pronounced "h": a horse
o In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," you can use an. However, a is more commonly used
and preferred.

A historical event is worth recording.

Remember that these rules also apply when you use acronyms:
Introductory Composition at Purdue (ICaP) handles first-year writing at the University. Therefore,
an ICaP memo generally discusses issues concerning English 106 instructors.
Another case where this rule applies is when acronyms start with consonant letters but have vowel sounds:
An MSDS (material safety data sheet) was used to record the data. An SPCC plan (Spill Prevention
Control and Countermeasures plan) will help us prepare for the worst.

If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective
that immediately follows the article:
a broken egg
an unusual problem
a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound)
Remember, too, that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a group:
I am a teacher. (I am a member of a large group known as teachers.)
Brian is an Irishman. (Brian is a member of the people known as Irish.)
Seiko is a practicing Buddhist. (Seiko is a member of the group of people known as Buddhists.)

Definite Article: the

The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that
the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example:
"The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me.
"I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a particularpoliceman. Even if we
don't know the policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat.
"I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the
zoo.

Count and Noncount Nouns

The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely.
"I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water).
 "He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or "He
spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk).
"A/an" can be used only with count nouns.
"I need a bottle of water."
"I need a new glass of milk."
Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants a water," unless you're implying, say, a bottle of water.

Geographical use of the

There are some specific rules for using the with geographical nouns.
Do not use the before:
names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican
Republic, the Philippines, the United States
names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba, Miami
names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St.
names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes
names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or
unusual names like the Matterhorn
names of continents (Asia, Europe)
names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like theAleutians, the Hebrides,
or the Canary Islands
Do use the before:
names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific
points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole
geographical areas: the Middle East, the West
deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula

Omission of Articles
Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are:
Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian (unless you are referring to the
population of the nation: "The Spanish are known for their warm hospitality.")
Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball
Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science
A/an and the
A/an and the are articles. They are a type of determiner and they go before a noun.
A/an before a noun shows that what is referred to is not already known to the speaker, listener, writer and/or reader (it is the
indefinite article):
Do you have a car?
Do you live in a house?
No, actually, I live in an apartment.
The before a noun shows that what is referred to is already known to the speaker, listener, writer and/or reader (it is the defin ite
article):
Where did we park the car? (The speaker and the listener know what car is being referred to.)
We had to paint the apartment before we sold it. (The speaker and the listener know what apartment is being referred to.)
The makes a noun specific.
Compare

Have you been to anice Have you ever been to any ice rink? (an doesnt make the noun ice rink specific)
rink?

The speaker and listener know the ice rink which is being referred to (e.g. the one in their town/the
Have you been to the ice local one). The makes the noun ice rinkspecific.
rink?

Specific (the one you and I know)

Not specific
 Would you Would you like to try the apple pie?
like an apple?

Have you seen the cat?

Do you have a cat?

When do we use a and when do we use an?

In speaking, we use a // before a consonant sound:

a car a house a big truck a wheel a grey day
Warning:
Some words that begin with a vowel letter in writing have a consonant sound:
/ ju:natd / / ju:niv:sti/ / wn /
a united group a university a one-year-old child
We use an /n/ before a vowel sound:
an apple an old shoe an orchestra an umbrella
Warning:
Some words that begin with a consonant letter in writing have a vowel sound:

/n a(r)/ an hour /n empi:ri: / an MP3 player

How do we pronounce the?

We pronounce the in two ways depending on whether the sound which comes after the is a vowel or a consonant:
/i:/ before vowel sounds

/i: pl/ the apple

/i: ekst/ the exit

// before consonant sounds

/ ju:nin/ the union

/ ti:m/ the team

When do we use articles?

A/an and the with types of nouns
Countable nouns

We only use a/an with singular countable nouns:

I have a sister and a brother.
That was an excellent meal.
We can use the with singular and plural countable nouns:

The lion roared. The tree fell.

The trees fell.

The lions roared.

Uncountable nouns
We dont use a/an before uncountable nouns:
Could I have rice instead of potatoes with my fish?
Not: Could I have a rice
I hope we have nice weather.
Not: I hope we have a nice weather.
We can use the before uncountable nouns when they refer to a specific example:
The rice we bought in the Thai shop is much better than the supermarket rice.
The weather was awful last summer.
To talk about an individual quantity or more than one quantity of an uncountable noun, we use expressions such as a bit of, a piece
of or a [specific measure] of:
Thats an amazing bit of news.
Not: Thats an amazing news.
We just made a big bowl of pasta.
Not: We just made a pasta.
Could I have a litre of milk, please?
Not: Could I have a milk, please?
General nouns

We only use the with general plural nouns when we are referring to a specific set within a general class of people or things.
Compare

I mean all books in general.

Books are so important in my life.

I mean specific books (that you and I know).

The books were all over the floor.

We can make general nouns specific by using an article and adding more information after the noun.

The life of a soldier is full of danger. (specifically the life of soldiers, not life in
Life is wonderful. (life in general) general)
She had a life of hard work. (one specific life)

He wrote a book on the history of boxing. (specifically the history of boxing)

History sometimes repeats itself. (history in The country has a history of going to war. (one specific history of one country)
general)

Inventions, musical instruments and cultural institutions

When we talk in general about inventions, musical instruments or cultural institutions (such as the cinema, the theatre, the circus,
the opera, the ballet), we often use the:
The computer must be the greatest invention ever. (The computer as an invention in general, not a specific computer)
The violin sounds different to the viola.
I love a night at the opera.
See also:
Nouns
No article before determiners (any, some, my, this)

We dont use an article with other words that specify a noun (determiner), e.g. any, some, my, her, this, that:

I love my job. Does she want this book?

Not: I love the my job. Not: Does she want the this book?

See also:
Determiners (the, my, some, this)
The with things that are universally known

We use the with things known to everyone (the sun, the stars, the moon, the earth, the planet) because they are a part of our
physical environment or part of the natural world:
The earth moves around the sun.
We lay on the grass and watched the stars.
The with everyday things

We use the with things that we know as part of our daily lives. The does not refer to particular things in this context.
I dont buy the newspaper these days. Its free on the Internet. (newspapers in general)
They always take the train. (trains in general)
Jobs and professions

When we talk about a persons job, we use a:

Shes a gardener.
Hes an ambulance driver.
Places

We use the with mountain ranges and some mountains (the Alps, the Eiger), groups of islands (the West Indies), rivers (the
Danube), deserts (the Gobi Desert), seas (the Black Sea), geographical regions or habitats (the Amazon rainforest), motorways (the
M42), the names of some countries (the Peoples Republic of China).
We dont usually use articles with individual mountains or lakes when the name includes Mount or Lake: Mount Fuji, Lake Victoria.
We dont use articles with continents (Asia), countries (Romania), towns (Edinburgh), and streets (Lombard Street).
See also:
Geographical places
Nationalities, languages, countries and regions
Place names
The with groups within society

When we talk about particular groups or people within society, we use the + adjective:
I think the rich should pay more tax and that the poor shouldnt pay any.
The young need to be encouraged and supported in society.
The with dates

When we say a specific date, we use the, but when we write it, we dont use the:
Speaking: Ill see you on the twenty fourth of May.
Writing: Ill see you on 24th May.
When we talk about months, we dont use the:
My birthday is in September.
May is my favourite month of all.
When we talk about seasons in general, we can use either in or in the. In without the is often used in more formal or literary
contexts:
These birds arrive in Britain in summer, and leave as the winter begins.
In the summer, we usually go to the mountains.
We rarely get snow in the winter.
When we talk about a specific season, we use the:
The winter of 1947 was one of the coldest in Britain.
Well definitely visit you in the summer. (meaning next summer)
See also:
Nouns
The with Internet, radio and newspaper but mostly not with TV

I looked it up on the Internet.

Not: on internet
She was on the radio once.
Not: on radio
Did you see that story about parrots in the newspaper?
Not: in newspaper
Theres usually nothing on TV. (TV means television)
Theres usually nothing on the television. (less common)
The with go to, be at, be in hospital, school, prison

When we talk about the activity that happens in a building rather than about the building itself, we dont use the.
Compare

with the
without the

She didnt want to be in the hospital (in the

She didnt want to be in hospital but she was too ill to go home. (in hospitalmeans being in the building)
hospital means being there as a patient)

When I was at the school (at the school means being

When I was at school, we didnt have computers. (at school means in the building)
being there as a student)

We dont use the with bed when we go there to sleep:

I always go to bed at eleven oclock.
Not: I always go to the bed
We dont use the before work when we talk about the place where we do our job:
They go to work at 8 am every morning.
Not: They go to the work
See also:
At, on and in (time)
Possessive expressions

We dont use the to refer to an individuals behaviour or to parts of an individuals body:

He spends most of his free time playing computer games.
Not: He spends most of the free time
I must wash my hands.
Not: I must wash the hands.
This, that and articles

We can use this instead of a/an or the, and these instead of zero article or some when we tell stories and jokes to create a sense of
the present:
[beginning of a joke]
There was this chicken who wanted to cross the road (compare There was a chicken who wanted to cross the road )
These tourists came into the restaurant once and they ordered fifteen Irish coffees. (compare Some tourists came into the
restaurant once and they ordered )
Spoken English:
In informal speaking, we can use that as an alternative to the in stories when we refer to something familiar or known to the
listener. That highlights the fact that the thing being referred to is known to the speaker and listener:
Where did you buy your skirt? I really like it.
I got it at that new shop next to Greens Hotel. (compare I got it at the new shop next to Greens Hotel.)
A/an and the: typical errors

We dont use the with plural nouns when we are referring to things in general:
We have to protect wild animals. (referring to wild animals in general)
Not: the wild animals.
We dont use the when we refer in general to something abstract or uncountable:
I love Japanese food. (all Japanese food/Japanese food in general)
Not: I love the Japanese food.
We dont use the when the noun is not known to the listener or reader:
Last Sunday, we saw a film called Nightmare. (The speaker doesnt think that the listener knows of this film.)
Not: we saw the film called Nightmare.
We dont use the instead of a possessive pronoun:
The police asked us to put our hands up.
Not: The police asked us to put the hands up.
We dont use an article with go to bed:
I go to bed at eleven most nights.
Not: I go to the bed at eleven most nights.
Main Difference Noun vs Pronoun
Nouns and pronouns are the words that act as the subjects and objects of sentences. Both nouns and pronouns are important concepts
in grammar and are studied under the parts of speech. The main difference between noun and pronoun is that a noun names a person,
place or thing whereas a pronoun replaces a noun. However, it is important to notice that although pronouns are generally defined as
words that replace nouns, this definition doesnt refer to all the types of pronouns. These different types of pronouns will be discussed in
the latter part of the article.

What are Nouns

Nouns can be simply the names of people, objects, places or ideas. Everything that we see or feel is represented by a name. Noun is such
a naming word. Nouns include people (child, mother, doctor), objects (chair, pencil, radio), places (London, hotel, garden), animals (tiger,
bee, parrot), materials (glass, diamond, plastic), qualities (bravery, cruelty, intelligence).
Nouns can be classified into different categories. Given below are some of these categories.

Common Nouns and Proper Nouns

Common nouns are nouns that indicate the class of a person, place or thing.
Ex: dog, mother, milk, tree, computer
Proper nouns are nouns that indicate the specific name of a person, place or thing.
Ex: Luxemburg, Charlie Chaplin, Ferrari, Milan, Microsoft

Concrete Nouns and Abstract Nouns

Concrete nouns refer to things that can be perceived through the five senses.
Ex: baby, lion, Rose, teacher, Madrid, water, ice cream
Abstract nouns refer to things that cannot be perceived by the five senses; they refer to ideas, concepts or state of things.
Ex: childhood, education, freedom, culture, truth, energy, bravery

Collective Nouns
Collective nouns are words that denote groups.
Ex: team, herd, school, staff, pack
Countable Nouns and Uncountable Nouns
Countable nouns are the nouns that can be counted using numbers.
Ex: children, mice, teeth, teachers, books
Uncountable nouns are the nouns that cannot be counted using numbers.
Ex: water, sugar, music, food, knowledge, research
What are Pronouns

Pronouns are words that can replace nouns. Pronouns can refer to nouns that have already been mentioned or about to be mentioned.
For example,
John didnt want to go to school. So he lied to his mother.
After he had spoken to the teacher, Martin felt relieved.
Personal pronouns are the most common pronouns; they are the words that first come to our mind when we first hear the word pronoun.
Personal pronouns can be mainly classified as subject pronouns and object pronouns.

Object Pronouns
Subject Pronouns

me
I

you
you

him/her/it
he/she/it

us
we

them
they
Apart from personal pronouns discussed above, there are several other types of pronouns. They are,
Demonstrative Pronouns: Pronouns that refer to specific noun antecedents.
Ex: This, These, That, Those
Interrogative Pronouns: Pronouns that are used to ask questions
Ex: What, Which, Who, Whom, Whose
Possessive Pronouns: Pronouns that indicate possession
Ex: my, your, his, her, its, our, their
Relative Pronouns: Pronouns that are used to add more information to a
sentence
Ex: which, whom, who, that, whose
Indefinite Pronouns: Pronouns that refer to a non-specific thing or

person
Ex: some, any, none, many, several, few
Difference Between Noun and Pronoun

Noun is a name that denotes a person, object, place, or idea.

Pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun.

Number
There are many nouns in the language.
There is a limited number of pronouns in the language.

Case

Nouns remain the same in both subjective case and objective case.
Pronouns change according to the subjective case and objective case.

Nouns and pronouns

Several users have asked about the difference between nouns and pronouns. Below is a brief overview of these two
kinds of words.
Nouns
Nouns are the names of things, people, animals, places, qualities, actions, and ideas. They are usually single words,
but not always. The words below are all nouns:
cake
shoes
literacy
school bus
post-traumatic stress disorder

A noun phrase is a string of words, consisting of a noun plus any modifiers, that functions as a noun in a sentence. A
noun phrase can act as a subject or an object. In the sentence below, "ten of her friends from college" is a noun
phrase that acts as the object of the verb invited.
Rachel invited ten of her friends from college to her wedding.

Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun or noun phrase. Pronouns refer to nouns that have already been
mentioned or are about to be mentioned. For instance, in example 1, below, the pronoun she in the 2nd sentence
refers to the noun phrase the school principal in the 1st sentence. In example 2, he in the 1st clause refers
to Nathan in the 2nd clause.
1. The school principal spoke at the special assembly in the auditorium. She also asked some students to speak.
2. After he handed in his exam, Nathan was both anxious and relieved at the same time.

The most common pronouns are the personal pronouns. They are divided into subject pronouns, like she, which are
used as the subjects of verbs, and object pronouns, like her, which are used as objects of verbs and of
prepositions. The subject and object pronouns are listed below.
Subject pronouns Object pronouns
I me
you you
he/she/it him/her/it
we us
they them

A plural possessive noun represents more than one thing or person, place, or thing and shows ownership. Lets look at how you make a
noun plural and possessive and the rules that apply to their uses.
Types of Nouns

Nouns are words that name people, places, things, and ideas. There are different ways to categorize them, and many nouns will fit into
several categories. For example, dog is a common, countable, concrete noun. Continue on for explanations of these and other kinds of
nouns.

Proper noun: These nouns refer to a specific person, place, thing, or idea. They are always capitalized. Examples include: General
Patton, Statue of Liberty, Nile River, or Avatar.
Common noun: This is your run-of-the-mill noun. Everyday things go in this group, like: cat, moon, daisy, boys, forest, and power.
Countable noun: These are pretty easy to figure out. These are things that can be counted, like books, trees, miles, girls, and
buildings. A singular countable noun is preceded by a determiner, like: a, an, the, one, our, my, which, or that. Plural countable nouns
can have a number in front of them and may have a quantifier, like: some, every, few, many, or much.
Uncountable noun: These nouns are neither singular nor plural. They are used in the singular tense and may have quantifiers, like:
some, much, or any. Examples are: water, luggage, money, sadness, coffee, and flour.
Collective noun: This noun represents a group of things or people. Since they refer to the whole group as a unit, they are used as a
single noun. Of course, if there are more than one unit, then you would use the plural. Some of these are: jury, family, class, troupe,
gaggle, herd, faculty, and society.
Concrete nouns: These are things that can be experienced through your senses. They are physical and include: song, computer,
senate, Maria, houses, salt, and family.
Abstract nouns: These refer to things that cannot be seen, felt, tasted, smelled, or heard. They are emotions, ideas, beliefs,
ideologies, and character traits. Examples include: trust, deceit, peace, sympathy, bigotry, strength, maturity, liberty, silliness, and
democracy.
Rules for Plural Possessive Nouns

The function of a noun in a sentence can be the subject or an object. They can modify by being possessive or an appositive. They can
also modify by acting like an adverb or an adjective. For example, in I went home the noun home modifies the verb went, so it is
acting like an adverb, telling where. A storm drain has the noun storm modifying the word drain, so it acts like an adjective.
To make a noun plural, which means there is more than one of them, you normally add an s. Certain nouns than end with an s, x, ch,
or sh need an es added. Examples are:
witches, buses, kisses, boxes, bushes, or Joneses
There are special nouns that have irregular or mutated plurals. Some of these are:

child - children
woman - women
person - people
goose - geese
mouse - mice
deer - deer

Finally, some words keep their Greek or Latin form when making a plural. A few of these are:

nucleus - nuclei
syllabus - syllabi
cactus - cacti
thesis - theses
fungus - fungi
 criterion - criteria
Here are the rules for making nouns possessive which shows ownership. These include the rules for making a plural possessive noun.

To make a singular noun possessive, add an apostrophe and an s. This applies to plural nouns that do not end with an s, like
children - childrens and men - mens.
When making plural possessive nouns, add only an apostrophe if the noun ends with an s, like buses and countries.
Hyphenated and compound nouns need an apostrophe and s added to the last noun, like fathers-in-laws.
If two nouns are joined together, then add an apostrophe and s to only the last one. Example: Jack and Jills.
If you have two nouns together, but they have different ownership, each will need an apostrophe and s added. This one rarely
comes up, but here is an example: Jans and Tonys cars are yellow and blue.
Remember:The two key points to a plural possessive noun are that it represents more than one and it shows ownership.

Plurals and Possessives

Forming and using plural words:
Most words: Add s (students, professors, buildings).
After a hard ch: Add only s (monarchs).
Words ending in ch, s, sh, ss, x and z: Add es (benches, dresses, boxes).
Words ending in is: Change is to es (thesis/theses; crisis/crises; parenthesis/parentheses).
Words ending in y: If y is preceded by a consonant or qu, change y to i and add es (babies, cities, synergies). Common nouns
ending in y preceded by a vowel take only the s (alloys, days, attorneys).
Words ending in o: If o is preceded by a consonant, most plurals require es (tomatoes, echoes). Pianos is an exception. Words
ending in o, directly after a vowel, take the s (folios, radios).
Some words ending in f: Add s (briefs, reefs, roofs). Other words ending in f have irregular plurals with ves (hooves, shelves, lives).
Proper Names: The plurals of most proper names are formed by adding s ( the Greens, the Browns, the McDermotts). If the name
ends in s or z, form the plural by adding es (the Rosses, the Rodriguezes, the Charleses). In forming plurals of proper names ending
in y, ordinarily keep the y (the Kennedys, the Lowrys and the Bradys). Some exceptions are: Alleghenies and Rockies).
Some words are the same in the plural as in the singular: chassis, corps, deer, moose, sheep).
Latin endings: Latin-root words ending in us change us to i: alumnus, alumni. Most ending in a change to ae: alumna,
alumnae (formula andformulas make for an exception). Most ending in um add s (memorandums, referendums, stadiums).
Possessives
Plural nouns not ending in s: Add s (the alumnis newsletter, the childrens playground).
Plural nouns ending in s: Add only an apostrophe (the girls locker room, the students newspaper).
Singular nouns not ending in s: Add s (the books pages, the pens ink).
Singular common nouns ending in s: Add s unless the next word begins with s (the witnesss chair, the witness seat).
If a singular proper noun ends in s: Add an apostrophe (The University of Texas at Dallas campus).
Pronouns: Personal interrogative and relative pronouns have several forms for the possessives that do not involve an apostrophe
(mine, ours, your, yours, his, hers, its, theirs, whose). If you are using an apostrophe with a pronoun, make sure that the meaning calls
for a contraction: (youre, its, theres, whos).
Case refers to the form a word takes and its function in a sentence. The English language has just three cases: subjective, possessive and objective.
Most nouns, many indefinite pronouns and it andyou have distinctive forms only for the possessive case. For most nouns and indefinite
pronouns, that form usually is indicated by an apostrophe: John's coat; states' powers; someone's house; another's task. For it. the possessive is
formed by adding s; for you the possessive is formed by adding r or rs to the word.
(Never use an apostrophe to form a possessive for it, you or the personal pronouns noted below.)
Six personal pronouns have a distinctive form for each of the three cases:

Subjective
I, we, he, she,who and they are the forms used for subjects and subject complements.
Examples:
Subjects He and I were great friends. We grew uptogether. They lived next door. Who teaches that course?
Complements of the subject The ones responsible are Joe and she. It is I. Joe Smith, that's who.

Possessive
My/mine, our/ours, his, her/hers, their/theirs and whose are the formsused to show ownership.
Examples:
Before noun My car broke down. Our boat leaks.His dog is ugly. Her back is wet. Their name is Mudd. Whose job is that?
Possessors in the noun position Mine is green. Ours is over there.His looks heavy. Hers was last inline. Theirs sank yesterday.Whosewill be
chosen?

Objective
Me, us, him, her, them and whom are the forms reserved for use as objectsof verbs or prepositions.
Examples:
Sue likes me. Elaine drove to the airport to meet us. For him this is no problem. Sam wanted her to leave. Jim was introduced to them.
Finding whom I was looking for, I returned to my favorite pastime.

Case refers to the form a noun or pronoun takes depending on its function in a sentence. English pronouns have three cases:
subjective, objective, and possessive.
Subjective Pronouns
The subjective (or nominative) pronouns are I, you (singular), he/she/it, we, you (plural), they and who. A subjective pronoun acts as a
subject in a sentence. See the sentences below for illustration:
I have a big chocolate bar.
You have some ice cream.
He has a cake.
We could have a party.
They could come, too.
Who should be invited?
Objective Pronouns
The objective (or accusative) case pronouns are me, you (singular), him/her/it, us, you (plural), themand whom. (Notice that form
of you and it does not change.) The objective case is used when something is being done to (or given to, etc.) someone. The sentences
below show this use of the objective case:
Give the chocolate to me, please.
Why should I give it to you?
You could give it to him, instead.
Please share it with all of us.
Do we have to share it with them?
Possessive Pronouns
There are two types of possessive pronouns. The first type is used with nouns my, your (singular), his, her, your (plural), its, their, our.
The other type of pronouns are sometimes called independent possessive pronouns, because they can stand alone. They are mine,
yours (singular), his, hers, ours, yours (plural) and theirs. The possessive pronouns show that something (or someone) belongs to
someone (or something).
Thats my shirt.
That shirt is mine.
The house is theirs.
Its their house.
The dog is scratching its ear.

William Strunk, Jr. (18691946). The Elements of Style. 1918.

II. ELEMENTARY RULES OF USAGE

1. Form the possessive singular of nouns with 's.

Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write,

Charles's friend

Burns's poems

the witch's malice

This is the usage of the United States Government Printing Office and of the Oxford University Press.

Exceptions are the possessives of ancient proper names in -es and -is, the possessive Jesus', and such forms as for conscience' sake,
for righteousness' sake. But such forms as Achilles' heel, Moses' laws, Isis' temple are commonly replaced by

the heel of Achilles

 the laws of Moses

the temple of Isis

The pronominal possessives hers, its, theirs, yours, and oneself have no apostrophe.

2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last.

Thus write,

red, white, and blue

honest, energetic, but headstrong

He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its contents.

This is also the usage of the Government Printing Office and of the Oxford University Press.

In the names of business firms the last comma is omitted, as

Brown, Shipley and Company

The abbreviation etc., even if only a single term comes before it, is always preceded by a comma.

3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas.

The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to travel on foot.

This rule is difficult to apply; it is frequently hard to decide whether a single word, such as however, or a brief phrase, is or is not
parenthetic. If the interruption to the flow of the sentence is but slight, the writer may safely omit the commas. But whether the
interruption be slight or considerable, he must never omit one comma and leave the other. Such punctuation as

Marjorie's husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit yesterday,

or

My brother you will be pleased to hear, is now in perfect health,

is indefensible.

Non-restrictive relative clauses are, in accordance with this rule, set off by commas.

The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and more interested.

Similar clauses introduced by where and when are similarly punctuated.

In 1769, when Napoleon was born, Corsica had but recently been acquired by France.
 Nether Stowey, where Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner,is a few miles from Bridgewater.

In these sentences the clauses introduced by which, when, and where are non-restrictive; they do not limit the application of the words on
which they depend, but add, parenthetically, statements supplementing those in the principal clauses. Each sentence is a combination of
two statments which might have been made independently.

The audience was at first indifferent. Later it became more and more interested.

Napoleon was born in 1769. At that time Corsica had but recently been acquired by France.

Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner at Nether Stowey. Nether Stowey is only a few miles from
Bridgewater.

Restrictive relative clauses are not set off by commas.

The candidate who best meets these requirements will obtain the place.

In this sentence the relative clause restricts the application of the word candidate to a single person. Unlike those above, the sentence
cannot be split into two independent statements.

The abbreviations etc. and jr. are always preceded by a comma, and except at the end of a sentence, followed by one.

Similar in principle to the enclosing of parenthetic expressions between commas is the setting off by commas of phrases or dependent
clauses preceding or following the main clause of a sentence. The sentences quoted in this section and under Rules 4, 5, 6, 7, 16,
and 18 should afford sufficient guidance.

If a parenthetic expression is preceded by a conjunction, place the first comma before the conjunction, not after it.

He saw us coming, and unaware that we had learned of his treachery, greeted us with a smile.

4. Place a comma before and or but introducing an independent clause.

The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.

The situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of escape.

Sentences of this type, isolated from their context, may seem to be in need of rewriting. As they make complete sense when the comma is
reached, the second clause has the appearance of an after-thought. Further, and, is the least specific of connectives. Used between
independent clauses, it indicates only that a relation exists between them without defining that relation. In the example above, the relation
is that of cause and result. The two sentences might be rewritten:

As the early records of the city have disappeared, the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.

Although the situation is perilous, there is still one chance of escape.

Or the subordinate clauses might be replaced by phrases:

Owing to the disappearance of the early records of the city, the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.

In this perilous situation, there is still one chance of escape.

 But a writer may err by making his sentences too uniformly compact and periodic, and an occasional loose sentence prevents the style
from becoming too formal and gives the reader a certain relief. Consequently, loose sentences of the type first quoted are common in
easy, unstudied writing. But a writer should be careful not to construct too many of his sentences after this pattern (see Rule 14).

Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by as (in the sense of because), for, or, nor, and while (in the sense of and
at the same time) likewise require a comma before the conjunction.

If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off by a comma, precedes the second independent clause, no comma is
needed after the conjunction.

The situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to act promptly, there is still one chance of escape.

For two-part sentences connected by an adverb, see the next section.

5. Do not join independent clauses by a comma.

If two or more clauses, grammatically complete and not joined by a conjunction, are to form a single compound sentence, the proper
mark of punctuation is a semicolon.

Stevenson's romances are entertaining; they are full of exciting adventures.

It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark.

It is of course equally correct to write the above as two sentences each, replacing the semicolons by periods.

Stevenson's romances are entertaining. They are full of exciting adventures.

It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark.

If a conjunction is inserted, the proper mark is a comma (Rule 4).

Stevenson's romances are entertaining, for they are full of exciting adventures.

It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before dark.

Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as accordingly, besides, so, then, therefore, or thus, and not by a
conjunction, the semicolon is still required.

I had never been in the place before; so I had difficulty in finding my way about.

In general, however, it is best, in writing, to avoid using so in this manner; there is danger that the writer who uses it at all may use it too
often. A simple correction, usually serviceable, is to omit the word so, and begin the first clause with as:

As I had never been in the place before, I had difficulty in finding my way about.

If the clauses are very short, and are alike in form, a comma is usually permissible:

Man proposes, God disposes.

The gate swung apart, the bridge fell, the portcullis was drawn up.
6. Do not break sentences in two.

In other words, do not use periods for commas.

I met them on a Cunard liner several years ago. Coming home from Liverpool to New York.

He was an interesting talker. A man who had traveled all over the world, and lived in half a dozen countries.

In both these examples, the first period should be replaced by a comma, and the following word begun with a small letter.

It is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression serve the purpose of a sentence and to punctuate it accordingly:

Again and again he called out. No reply.

The writer must, however, be certain that the emphasis is warranted, and that he will not be suspected of a mere blunder in punctuation.

Rules 3, 4, 5, and 6 cover the most important principles in the punctuation of ordinary sentences; they should be so thoroughly mastered
that their application becomes second nature.

7. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject.

Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two children.

The word walking refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the woman. If the writer wishes to make it refer to the woman, he must
recast the sentence:

He saw a woman, accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the road.

Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition, nouns in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases come under the
same rule if they begin the sentence.

On arriving in Chicago, his friends met him at the station. When he arrived (or, On his arrival) in Chicago, his friends
met him at the station.

A soldier of proved valor, they entrusted him with the A soldier of proved valor, he was entrusted with the
defence of the city. defence of the city.

Young and inexperienced, the task seemed easy to me. Young and inexperienced, I thought the task easy.

Without a friend to counsel him, the temptation proved Without a friend to counsel him, he found the temptation
irresistible. irresistible.

Sentences violating this rule are often ludicrous.

Being in a dilapidated condition, I was able to buy the house very cheap.

8. Divide words at line-ends, in accordance with their formation and pronunciation.

 If there is room at the end of a line for one or more syllables of a word, but not for the whole word, divide the word, unless this involves
cutting off only a single letter, or cutting off only two letters of a long word. No hard and fast rule for all words can be laid down. The
principles most frequently applicable are:

A. Divide the word according to its formation:

know-ledge (not knowl-edge); Shake-speare (not Shakes-peare); de-scribe (not des-cribe); atmo-
sphere (not atmos-phere);

B. Divide "on the vowel:"

edi-ble (not ed-ible); propo-sition; ordi-nary; espe-cial; reli-gious; oppo-nents; regu-lar; classi-fi-ca-
tion (three divisions possible); deco-rative; presi-dent;

C. Divide between double letters, unless they come at the end of the simple form of the word:

Apen-nines; Cincin-nati; refer-ring; but tell-ing.

The treatment of consonants in combination is best shown from examples:

for-tune; pic-ture; presump-tuous; illus-tration; sub-stan-tial (either division); indus-try; instruc-tion; sug-ges-
tion; incen-diary.

The student will do well to examine the syllable-division in a number of pages of any carefully printed book.

rule 1
Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding 's.
(Charles's friend; Burns's poems)
rule 2
In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last.
(red, white, and blue; gold, silver, or copper)
rule 3
Enclose parenthetical expressions between commas.
(The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to travel on foot.)
(essential = no commas needed. not essential = use commas)
rule 4
Place a comma before a conjunction introducing an independent clause.
(The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.)
(The situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of escape.)
(If they have the same subject, you don't need a comma.)
rule 5
Do not join independent clauses with a comma.
(Two independent thoughts without a conjunction = semicolon.)
(Two independent thoughts with a conjunction = comma.)
rule 6
Do not break sentences in two.
(I met them on a Cunard liner many years ago. Coming home from Liverpool to New York. WRONG!)
rule 7
Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list of particulars, an appositive, an amplification,or an illustrative
quotation.
rule 8
Use a dash to set off an abrupt break or interruption, and to announce a long appositive or summary.
(His first thought on getting out of bed - if he had any thought at all -
was to get back in again.)
rule 9
The number of the subject determines the number of the verb.
(The bittersweet flavor of youth - its trials, its joys, its adventures - is not soon forgotten.)
rule 10
Use the proper case of a pronoun.
rule 11
A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject.
(Young and inexperienced, I thought the task easy. RIGHT!)
(Young and inexperienced, the task seemed easy to me. WRONG!)