6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
It is obviously beyond the scope of this atlas to provide
a thorough explanation of human anatomy and physiology.
However, since this text is specifically aimed at non-pathologists,
it is appropriate to include a brief description of organ and tissue
structure and function to provide basic knowledge for readers
who have limited or no medical background.
Anatomy deals with the examination and study of the
shapes, structure, and morphology of tissues and organs.
Gross anatomy refers to the external and internal components
of the human body that can be seen with the naked eye. His-
tology is a term that refers to microscopic anatomy, or the
structure of tissues when examined under a microscope. When
a microscope is used a pathologist is able to see the arrangement
of groups of cells that make up tissues, as well as the internal
components of the cells such as the nuclei. Cell types can then be
classified based on their shape, size, character, location, arrange-
ment with other cells, and various staining characteristics. Cer-
tain cell types together in a particular arrangement with one
another form tissues, such as adipose tissue (fat), bone, or
muscle. When a variety of tissue types are arranged within
a distinct, grossly-evident structure that has specific functions,
the structure is called an organ. Examples include the liver,
spleen, or lungs. Organs and related tissues are also classified
according to systems; examples include the cardiovascular system
that is composed of the heart and blood vessels, the respiratory
system that consists of the lungs and attached airways, and the
genitourinary system that includes the kidneys, bladder, and
genitalia.
Each of the organs and tissues has characteristic gross as well
as histologicappearances that enable pathologists to identify both
normal and abnormal appearances in order to render diagnoses;
that is, when specific tissue changes are present a corresponding
diagnosis of a disease process or injury can be made.
Physiology is the study of how living organisms function,
from a structural and anatomic perspective, as well as from
a biochemical, nutritional, enzymatic, hormonal, electrical,
and molecular standpoint. It deals with how cells, tissues, and
organs communicate with one another, and how they interact
with their environment. Thus, while anatomy and histology
cover what a particular organ, tissue, or cell looks like (its
morphology), physiology investigates what that organ, tissue,
or cell actually does (its function).
Often the function of a particular tissue or organ can be
predicted from the morphology, however this is not always the
case. Tissues sometimes have only a limited range of responses to
a variety of different diseases or injuries, and some conditions
may produce illness without causing any morphological
changes, that is, some diseases are the result of purely physio-
logic derangements. In these circumstances, the cells are not
J.A. Prahlow, R.W. Byard, Atlas of Forensic Pathology, DOI 10.1007/978-1-61779-058-4_6,
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
functioning normally, but there is no anatomic abnormality
that can be identified grossly or microscopically. For this reason,
not every cause of death can be identified by gross or micro-
scopic examination.
During life it is possible to perform a great variety of labo-
ratory tests on blood, urine, or other fluids or tissues, in addition
to other types of tests, to evaluate the physiologic function of an
organ. While some laboratory tests can still be undertaken after
death, many of them cannot be as postmortem breakdown of
tissues and cells invalidates results. Electrical testing such as
electrocardiographic studies of the heart are also not able to be
done postmortem. The results of this are that it is much more
difficult to identify physiologic abnormalities after death, than it
is to diagnose anatomic problems.
The body has several distinct anatomical regions that are
supported by bone, cartilage, and connective tissue, with mus-
cles, joints and ligaments that permit movement, and blood
vessels that supply oxygen and nutrition. The head consists of
surrounding soft tissues, the skull with sinuses, the nasal cavity,
the oral cavity and pharynx (the back of the throat, where nasal
and oral cavities merge), and the intracranial cavity containing
the brain. The head is connected to the trunk by the neck
through which pass blood vessels, air passages, a portion of the
upper gastrointestinal system (the esophagus), and the spinal
cord. The trunk is composed of the chest and abdominal cavities
with their contained organs, and is connected to the upper
extremities or arms and lower extremities or legs.
The trunk includes four separate cavities with the dome-
shaped muscle, the diaphragm, separating the chest cavity from
the abdominal, or peritoneal, cavity. The chest is made up of two
pleural or thoracic cavities, containing the lungs, and the peri-
cardial cavity, the heart sac, containing the heart. The abdominal
or peritoneal cavity contains the majority of the organs of the
trunk including the liver, spleen, stomach, and the intestines.
The lowermost part of the peritoneal cavity containing the
bladder and internal genital organs (e.g., the uterus and pros-
tate) is the pelvic cavity.
While most of the organs of the trunk lie within the various
cavities, some are found in the tissues outside the pleural or
peritoneal linings. An example of this is the mediastinum of the
chest which is an area above and behind the pericardial sac and
medial to (toward the middle of) the pleural cavities. The
mediastinum contains major vessels such as the aorta and pul-
monary arteries, major airways such as the trachea and main
stem bronchi, parts of the esophagus, and the thymus. Similarly
with the abdominal cavity where the kidneys, adrenal glands,
most of the pancreas, parts of the intestines, and the aorta and
inferior vena cava are situated behind the peritoneal lining, in an
area known as the retroperitoneum.
64 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
Specific Organ Systems
Integumentary (Cutaneous) System (Skin)
The skin is the largest organ in the human body and is composed
of overlying epidermis and underlying dermis. The skin controls
many important functions including protection against external
trauma, temperature and body water regulation, and various
metabolic processes.
Musculoskeletal System
The bones of the body provide the structural framework for
supporting and protecting the internal organs as well as facilitat-
ing movement. In addition, bones are important in various met-
abolic processes and in housing marrow for blood formation.
Bones connect with one another via fixed sutures in flat bones
such as those forming the skull, or by articulations (joints) and
ligaments in the long bones of the limbs. The skeletal muscles of
the musculoskeletal system that are found in the limbs and trunk
are different from the other muscle types of cardiac (heart) and
smooth muscle. Skeletal muscles connect to long bones such as
the femur (thigh) by tendons and provide movement of the
skeletal system by coordinated contraction and relaxation.
Smooth muscle is found in internal organs and in blood vessels.
Nervous System
The nervous system comprises the brain and spinal cord known as
the central nervous system (CNS), and the peripheral nervous
system (PNS) which is made up of nerves to organs and tissues.
Each area of the body has nerves attached to it that allow the various
parts to function normally. There are two basic forms of nerve
signals: those that travel from an area of the body providing
information on sensations such as pain and temperature to the
brain (sensory nerves), and those that travel outward from
the brain and spinal cord toward a body part enabling that part
to perform a particular function such as movement (motor
nerves).
Cardiovascular System
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and the blood
vessels that include arteries, veins, and capillaries. The heart
functions as a pump that results in blood moving through
vessels to all parts of the body, so that oxygen and nutrients are
supplied to cells and carbon dioxide and waste products are
removed. Blood that has passed through organs and tissues has
very reduced levels of oxygen. It enters the heart via the venous
system and is pumped through the right atrium and right
ventricle into the pulmonary arteries to the lungs where it is
oxygenated. Oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the
pulmonary veins and is then pumped through the left atrium
and left ventricle to the aorta where it is then distributed to the
rest of the body. The pumping action of the heart is coordinated
by specialized conduction system cells in the sinoatrial and
atrioventricular nodes that function as internal pacemakers.
These areas of the heart are also influenced by the nervous
system and circulating substances in the blood.
Respiratory System
The upper respiratory tract consists of the nose, nasal cavities,
sinuses, mouth, throat (pharynx), and larynx (voicebox). The
lower respiratory tract includes the trachea, the main stem
bronchi, and the lungs that are themselves composed of bronchi,
bronchioles, and alveoli (air sacs). The entrance to the airway is
protected by a leaf-like structure formed of cartilage, the epi-
glottis, which covers the air passage when swallowing occurs,
thus preventing food from entering the trachea and lungs. The
lungs enable gas to be exchanged between the air and the blood,
with oxygen diffusing into the blood and carbon dioxide waste
diffusing out. Oxygen binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells
and then circulates to the tissues.
Gastrointestinal System
The gastrointestinal (GI) system enables food to be broken down
and absorbed by the body to provide sustenance (energy). The
process involves the ingestion of water and nutrients (protein,
carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and trace minerals) which are then
broken-down by digestion into absorbable particles that transfer
through the lining of the intestines into the blood stream. Any
material that is not absorbed, along with certain waste products
that are excreted into the GI system, are expelled as feces.
Anatomically, the GI system commences at the oral cavity and
terminates at the anus. The oral cavity consists of the mouth,
with tongue, teeth, and salivary glands, that serves as the
entrance to the GI tract and the area where food is initially
broken down into smaller particles. From the oral cavity, food
passes through the pharynx (throat) and then the esophagus,
which transports food to the stomach, where further digestion
occurs. Most enzymatic digestion (utilizing pancreatic
enzymes and liver secretions) and nutrient absorption occurs
in the small intestine, which has three parts: the duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum. Water resorption occurs in the large
intestine, the cecum, colon, and rectum, where solid feces are
formed.
Hepatobiliary System
The hepatobiliary system consists of the liver, the gallbladder,
and the ducts that drain the liver and gallbladder (the biliary
ducts). The liver is a large organ found in the upper right side of
the peritoneal cavity beneath the diaphragm and is the center of

the bodys metabolic processing. This includes complex bio-
chemical transformation of nutrients and the detoxification of
waste material. Bile that is generated in the liver is stored in the
gallbladder, prior to being excreted into the duodenum to par-
ticipate in the further digestion and breakdown of material that
has been subjected to the acid and enzyme-rich environment of
the stomach.
Reticuloendothelial System (Including the
Immune System)
The reticuloendothelial system is a highly complex system com-
posed of a number of organs and tissues that interact in pro-
ducing and maintaining the appropriate composition and
function of the blood and immune system. The generation of
. Fig. 6.1
The upper trunk as viewed at autopsy, after opening incisions and
removal of the anterior (front) chest plate. Each lung (L) is visible.
The pericardial sac (P) surrounding the heart has not yet been
opened. The diaphragm (D) separates the chest from the
abdomen. Just beneath the diaphragm, a portion of liver (arrow) is
evident, as is a portion of stomach (S)
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 65
blood components (including red and white blood cells and
platelets) occurs in the marrow which is located in the medullary
(inner) regions of certain bones. The spleen is located in the
upper left side of the peritoneal cavity, toward the rear. The
spleen is responsible for filtering the blood and removing aged
or defective red and white blood cells. It has two components
known as the red and white pulp and is also responsible for
a number of immunological functions that include antibacterial
activities. The thymus is an organ found in early childhood in
the upper, anterior (front) part of the chest called the mediasti-
num that is involved with controlling cellular immunity. The
lymphatic system consists of a network of fine vessels that drain
fluid from the interstitial spaces (areas outside cells and blood
vessels) throughout the body. Lymph nodes are collections of
lymphoid tissues along these vessels that filter lymph and act as
immune surveillance checkpoints.
. Fig. 6.2
An autopsy dissection showing the four body cavities of the trunk,
after organ removal. The pericardium (heart sac) and diaphragm
(arrows) have been left in place. There are two pleural (chest)
cavities (PL), a single pericardial cavity (P), and a single abdominal
(peritoneal) cavity (ABD)
66 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
Endocrine System
The endocrine system is formed by a diverse group of glands
located in all parts of the body that produce hormones which are
chemical substances that regulate metabolism and growth. The
pituitary gland (also called the hypophysis) has been called the
conductor of the endocrine symphony as it secretes many
hormones that act on a number of other glands, such as the
adrenal and thyroid glands. It is encased in an area of bone, the
sella turcica, in the base of the skull immediately underneath and
attached to a part of the brain called the hypothalamus. The
pineal gland is found attached to the posterior part of the brain
and is involved with responses to daily cycles related to light and
dark. The thyroid gland is found in the front of the neck wrapped
around the trachea, below the Adams apple or thyroid cartilage.
Hormones produced by the thyroid gland are responsible for
maintaining normal metabolism, including calcium balance.
Calcium and phosphorous levels are also maintained by the
parathyroid glands, four (or more) small glands located behind
the thyroid gland. The adrenal glands are small, flattened to
triangular-shaped glands that are situated above the kidneys;
hence the alternative name of suprarenal glands. On sectioning
the glands can be seen to have a distinct outer golden yellow
cortex, which produces mineralcorticoids (e.g., aldosterone),
glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol), and sex steroids (e.g., estrogens
and androgens). The inner part or medulla secretes epinephrine
(adrenaline) and norepinephrine. The pancreas performs a dual
function, being both part of the digestive system and also a part of
the endocrine system. In its endocrine role the pancreas has Islets
of Langerhans which produce insulin, glucagon, and other hor-
mones related to the control of blood sugar (glucose) levels.
Genitourinary System
The genitourinary system includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder,
and urethra, as well as the sex organs (the ovaries, fallopian
tubes, uterus, and vagina in females; and the testes, epididymis,
vas deferens, and prostate in males). The kidneys filter the blood
removing waste material in the urine. The internal genital
organs are involved in reproduction.
Special Sensory Structures
Special sensory organs include the eyes, ears, and nose which are
involved in transmitting external stimuli to various parts of the
brain for analysis and response.
. Fig. 6.3
A high-power microscopic view of the skin with
an outer layer of keratin
. Fig. 6.4
An example of a long bone (femur)
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 67

. Fig. 6.5
The end of a long bone (tibia) from a child.
Note that the growth (epiphyseal) plate is
readily visible (arrow)

. Fig. 6.6
A childs skull, showing the various bones
that fuse with one another at suture lines
(F frontal, P parietal, T temporal, and
O occipital)
68 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.7
A low-power microscopic section of bone,
including the dense cortex and the bony
trabeculae. Bone marrow with blood-producing
cells and fat cells, which are clear, are also present

. Fig. 6.8
Microscopic appearance of cartilage showing
cartilage cells lying in small spaces (lacunes)
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 69

. Fig. 6.9
Gross appearance of skeletal muscles at autopsy; the yellow areas represent adjacent fat

. Fig. 6.10
Microscopic appearance of skeletal muscle. Cross sections of multiple fibers are seen toward the top of the photo, while longitudinal
sections with characteristic cross-striations are seen toward the bottom
70 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.11
A photograph of the inside of the skull after scalp reflection and skull cap removal. During removal of the top of the skull (the calvarium)
the dura mater was peeled away from the inner aspect of the skull, leaving it covering the brain

. Fig. 6.12
The brain after reflection of the scalp and removal of the overlying skull and dura mater. A thin, translucent arachnoid membrane covers
the brain
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 71

. Fig. 6.13
The brain shown in > Fig. 6.12 with the arachnoid
membrane peeled away from the underlying cortex

. Fig. 6.14
A fresh (unfixed) brain after removal from the
cranial cavity at autopsy. Visible are the inferior
aspects of the frontal lobes (F), the temporal lobes (T),
and the cerebellum (C), as well as the medulla (M),
pons (P), and midbrain (MB) of the brainstem.
The arrows indicate the olfactory tracts (nerves for
the sense of smell)
72 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.15
Normal, formalin-fixed brain, showing the cerebrum (composed of the frontal [F], parietal [P], temporal [T], and occipital [O] lobes), the
cerebellum [c], and a small portion of the brainstem (arrow)

. Fig. 6.16
Gross appearance of a cross section of a fresh (unfixed) cerebrum at autopsy. The outer darker areas are the gray matter, while the lighter
inner areas are the white matter
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 73

. Fig. 6.17
A medium-power microscopic section of
the brain (cerebrum) showing the outer
gray matter containing neurons

. Fig. 6.18
A cross section of the posterior part of the
brain, the cerebellum
74 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.19
A cross section of the midbrain (the uppermost part of the brainstem)

. Fig. 6.20
A cross section of the pons (the middle part of the brainstem)
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 75

. Fig. 6.21
Normal appearance of the inner aspect of the base of the skull, following brain and dura mater removal. Note the anterior cranial fossa
(ACF), the middle cranial fossa (MCF), and the posterior cranial fossa (PCF). The single arrowhead indicates the petrous ridge of the
temporal bone, while the double arrowhead indicates the lesser wing of the sphenoid bone. The arrow indicates the location of the
pituitary gland. The asterisk denotes the location of the foramen magnum, where the brainstem connects to the spinal cord
76 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.22
The vascular circle at the base of the brain, the Circle of Willis. Portions of the cerebellum (C), brainstem (BS), and temporal (T) and frontal
(F) lobes of the cerebrum are visible. The vertebral arteries (yellow arrows) and basilar artery (black arrow) are immediately adjacent to
the front of the brainstem. The carotid arteries (black arrowheads) have been cut during brain removal. The Circle of Willis is composed of
the anterior cerebral arteries (white arrowheads), the anterior communicating artery (yellow arrowhead), the middle cerebral arteries
(blue arrowheads), the posterior communicating arteries (pink arrowheads), and the posterior cerebral arteries (white arrows)
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 77

. Fig. 6.23
A portion of the spinal cord seen within the vertebral column after the
anterior (front) of the vertebral column has been removed at autopsy.
The cervical (neck) (white arrow) and thoracic (chest) (black arrow)
portions of the spinal cord are visible

. Fig. 6.24
Gross external appearance of the heart
78 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.25
Microscopic appearance of the heart composed of numerous cardiac myocytes (heart muscle cells) with dark nuclei and pink cells
(cytoplasm)

. Fig. 6.26
The right atrium (RA), tricuspid valve (TV), and right ventricle (RV) of the heart
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 79

. Fig. 6.27
The right ventricle (RV) of the heart, pulmonary valve
(PV), and pulmonary artery (PA)

. Fig. 6.28
The left atrium (LA), mitral valve (MV), and left ventricle
(LV) of the heart

. Fig. 6.29
The left ventricle (LV) of the heart, aortic valve (AV), and
aorta (A). Note the coronary artery ostia (the openings
where the coronary arteries arise) (arrows)
80 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.30
Normal gross appearance of the larynx with the epiglottis above and the trachea below,
leading to the two main bronchi (viewed from behind)

. Fig. 6.31
A normal formalin-fixed lung that has been sectioned at autopsy

. Fig. 6.32
Trachea (T), right and left main stem bronchi (B), and lungs (posterior view from behind)
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 81

. Fig. 6.33
Microscopic appearance of a lung. The air sacs are called alveoli. Two blood-filled vessels are evident on the right

. Fig. 6.34
Microscopy of normal respiratory epithelium in the airways of the trachea and bronchi
82 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.35
Initial view of the gastrointestinal system at autopsy, as viewed
following autopsy incision and removal of the anterior chest plate.
The arrowheads indicate the location of the diaphragm, while the
arrow indicates the liver. A portion of the stomach is visible
immediately adjacent to the liver, while the fatty omentum prevents
visualization of the intestines

. Fig. 6.36
In this photograph, which corresponds to > Fig. 6.35, the omentum
has been lifted upward to reveal the transverse colon (part of the
large intestine) (arrowheads). Multiple loops of small intestine are
visible in the lower half of the photo
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 83

. Fig. 6.37
A photograph taken at autopsy following
removal of the heart, lungs, diaphragm, liver,
omentum, large intestine, and a majority of
the small intestines. Remaining intact are the
esophagus (white arrow), the stomach, which is
distended by gas, the duodenum (hidden from
view), and the pancreas (the head of the
pancreas is denoted by the black arrow)

. Fig. 6.38
Fan-shaped fatty mesentery which attaches to
the small intestine
84 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.39
Normal microscopic appearance of the esophagus (medium
power). Like the epidermis of the skin, it is lined by stratified
squamous epithelium; however, the esophageal epithelium
does not form a keratin layer on its surface

. Fig. 6.40
Normal gross appearance of the stomach (gastric) lining
(mucosa) showing numerous folds
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 85

. Fig. 6.41
Medium- to high-power microscopic appearance of the gastric (stomach) mucosa (lining)

. Fig. 6.42
High-power microscopic section showing normal gastric mucosa with abundant mucus secreting cells on the surface
86 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.43
Histologic appearance of the normal small intestine (medium-high power) showing long villi

. Fig. 6.44
A liver removed at autopsy
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 87

. Fig. 6.45
A cross section of normal liver

. Fig. 6.46
Microscopic appearance of the liver. Liver cells are called hepatocytes. Blood courses between hepatocytes in vascular channels called
sinusoids. A central vein is in the middle of the picture
88 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.47
A microscopic section of the liver. Note the central vein (CV) and the portal triad (P). The hepatic sinusoids are filled with red blood cells

. Fig. 6.48
Histologic section of bone marrow. Note the bony trabeculae (large scaffolding-like structures) surrounded by bone marrow cells and fat
(clear cells)
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 89

. Fig. 6.49
Normal microscopic appearance of a bone marrow
smear. Note the fat cells (clear cells), the numerous
blue cells (blood precursor cells), red blood cells
(arrows), and the single large cell (a megakaryocyte
[M], which produces platelets)

. Fig. 6.50
Gross appearance of the spleen
90 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.51
Microscopic appearance of the spleen. Most of the cells seen are white and red blood cells. The red blood cells appear pink/red, while the
white blood cells stain blue. The pink scaffolding-like supportive structures are the trabeculae (T)

. Fig. 6.52
Gross appearance of the thymus in situ (in its normal location within the body) (arrows)
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 91

. Fig. 6.53
Microscopic appearance of the thymus. Most
of the cells are lymphocytes (staining blue),
with occasional pink, swirled structures
referred to as Hassals corpuscles (arrows).
The clear cells are fat cells

. Fig. 6.54
Gross appearance of normal lymph nodes
(arrows) within the hilum (central portion) of
the lung. Typically, normal lymph nodes are
relatively small and inconspicuous
92 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.55
Microscopic appearance of a lymph node, primarily composed of lymphocytes and histiocytes. The rounded structures are called
lymphoid follicles or germinal centers

. Fig. 6.56
Gross appearance of the thyroid gland dissected off the airway
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 93

. Fig. .6.57
Gross appearance of an adrenal
gland that has been sectioned

. Fig. 6.58
A microscopic section of the
adrenal gland, showing three
zones of cortical cells (zona
glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and
zona reticularis), and a small
portion of medulla (upper left
corner)
94 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.59
Gross appearance of a longitudinally-sectioned pancreas

. Fig. 6.60
Microscopic section of the pancreas. A majority of the cells are glandular cells of the exocrine pancreas (producing digestive enzymes).
The rounded area of other cells is referred to as an Islet of Langerhans (arrows) and contains cells of the endocrine pancreas. An exocrine
duct is indicated by the arrowhead
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 95

. Fig. 6.61
Gross appearance of the kidneys in situ. Note that the right (R) and left (L) kidneys are attached to the aorta (A) by renal arteries.
The arrowheads indicate the ureters that drain urine into the bladder
96 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.62
Gross appearance of a normal kidney removed at autopsy

. Fig. 6.63
A longitudinal section of a kidney, showing the outer cortex,
the inner medulla, and the urine collecting system
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 97

. Fig. 6.64
Microscopic appearance of the kidney. Note the
rounded filtering unit, the glomerulus, as well as
numerous surrounding tubules

. Fig. 6.65
Gross appearance of a uterus (U), with attached
fallopian tubes (arrows) and ovaries (arrowheads)

. Fig. 6.66
Microscopic appearance of an ovary of
a postmenopausal woman
98 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.67
Gross appearance of a sectioned testicle

. Fig. 6.68
Microscopic appearance of a testis, with numerous
sperm visible within the seminiferous tubules
 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology 6 99

. Fig. 6.69
Microscopic appearance of the prostate gland
showing glands surrounded by smooth muscle and
fibrous tissue

. Fig. 6.70
Gross appearance of an opened urinary bladder (B)
and prostate gland (P) at its base
100 6 Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

. Fig. 6.71
Microscopic appearance of a normal retina showing many different levels

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