EE 6501 POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

UNIT-I INTRODUCTION
1. What is an electrical power system
An electrical power system is a network of the interconnected components, design to convert
non electrical energy continuously into the electrical form, transmit the electrical energy over great
distance and convert electrical energy in to a usable non electrical form
2. What are the basic components of modern power system?
The components of power system are Generators, Power transformers, Transmission lines,
Distribution lines, Loads and compensating devices like shunt, series, and static VAR compensator.
3. What is single or one line diagram?
It is a diagrammatic representation of power system in which the components are represented by
their symbols and the interconnection between them are shown by a single straight line.
4. What do you mean by per phase analysis?
A balanced three phase system is always analyses on per phase basis by considering one of the
three phase lines and neutral.
5. Define per unit value
The per unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the actual value of the any quantity
to the base value of the same quantity as a decimal.

6. Define base current and write its formula.

Defined as the ratio of base power to base voltage
Base current = Base VA /Base V
7. Write the expression for p.u impedance of a power system component in terms of actual
value, KV & MVA ratings
Base Impedance = (Base KV)2 /Base MVA
8. Write the equation for converting the p.u. impedance expressed in one base to other base.
Zp.u (new) = Zp.u (old) X (MVA new/MVA old) X (KV old / KV new) 2
9. A generator rated at 30 MVA, 11 kV has a reactance of 20%. Calculate its p.u. Reactances for
a base of 50 MVA and 10kV.
MVA new = 50; KV new = 10 ; MVA old = 30; KV old = 11
X p.u = 20% = 20/100 = 0.2 p.u

10. A single phase transformer is rated 110/440V, 2.5 KVA. The leakage reactance measured from
the low voltage side is 0.06ohms. Determine leakage reactance in p.u
 Base Impedance = (Base KV) 2 /Base MVA
= (0.11)2 /0.0025 = 4.84 ohms
p.u impedance = leakage reactance/ base Z = j 0.06/4.84 = j 0.0124 p.u
11. Write the advantages and disadvantages of per unit systems
Computations become simpler.
P.u impedance refers to the primary of the T/F is equal to the per unit impedance of the
secondary
Most of the manufacturer , specifies the impedance of equipments values refer to their
equipment KVA and KV rating
It eliminates 3 (multiplication/division) required for three phase system rep by single phase
system.
12. The reactance of a generator is designated X is given as 0.2 per unit based on the generators
name plate rating of 20 KV, 500 MVA. The base for calculation is 22 KV,100 MVA. Find X on
the new base.
MVA new = 100; KV new = 22 ; MVA old = 500; KV old = 20
X p.u 0.2 p.u

13. Draw a one line diagram consisting of an alternator, step up transformer, transmission line,
step down transformer and a synchronous motor load

14. What is the need of modeling of various components of Power system?

By drawing the equivalent circuit is to evaluate the performance of the system under different
operating conditions
15. What is meant by impedance and reactance diagram?
Impedance diagram is the equivalent circuit of power system in which the various components
of power system are represented by its symbols and their inter connections.
After omitting all the static loads, resistances, shunt values and capacitance in a transmission
line, the impedance diagram is referred as reactance diagram
16. What are the factors that need to be omitted for an impedance diagram to reduce it to a
reactance diagram?
The neutral reactances are neglected.
The shunt branches in equivalent circuit of transformers are neglected.
The resistances are neglected.
All static loads are neglected.
 The capacitances of transmission lines are neglected.
17. What is the need for base values?
The components of power system may operate at different voltage and power levels. It will be
convenient for analysis of power system if the voltage, power, current ratings of
the components of the power system is expressed with reference to a common value called base
value.
18. What are the quantities whose base values are required to represent the power system by
reactance diagram?
The base values of voltage, current, power and impedance are required to represent the power
system by reactance diagram. Selection of base values for any two of the determines the base values
of the remaining two.
19. Describe primitive network.
Primitive network is a set of unconnected elements which provides information regarding the
characteristics of individual elements only. The performance equations of primitive network are
given below.
V + E = ZI (In Impedance form)
I + J = YV (In Admittance form)
where V and I are the element voltage and current vectors respectively.
J and E are source vectors.
Z and Y are the primitive Impedance and Admittance matrices respectively
20. What are the methods available to find Y bus?
Direct inspection method.
Singular transformation method. (Primitive network)
21. What are the advantage of per unit value.
a) The per unit impedance referred to either side of a single phase transformer is the same.
b) The chance of confusion b/n line and phase quantities in a three phase balanced system is
greatly reduced.
c) The manufacturers usually produce the impedance values in per unit.

22. What is meant by bus admittance matrix?

The matrix consisting of the self and mutual admittances of the network of a power system is
called bus admittance matrix.
23. What is bus impedance matrix?
The matrix consisting of driving point impedances and transfer impedances of the network of
power system is called bus impedance matrix.
24. What is a bus?
 The meeting point of various components in a power system is called a bus. The bus is a
conductor made of copper having negligible resistance. The buses are considered as a point of
constant voltage in a system.
UNIT-II POWER FLOW ANALYSIS
1. Define load flow solution
It is the solution of the network under steady state condition subject to certain in equality
constraints under which the system operates. It is the determination of the voltage, current, power,
power factor and reactive power at various points in an electrical network under existing or
contemplated condition of normal operation
2. What is need for load flow study?
The load flow study of a power system is essential to decide the best operation of existing
system and for planning the future expansion of the system. It is also essential for designing a new
power system.
3. Why direct solution of load problem is not possible? Give reason
The load (or power) flow equations are nonlinear algebraic equations and so explicit solution is
not possible. The solution of nonlinear equations can be obtained only by iterative numerical
techniques.
4. Write the most important mode of operation of power system and mention the major problems
encountered with it.
Symmetrical steady state is the most important mode of operation of power system. Three major
problems are encountered in this mode of operation. They are,
1) Load flow problem
2) Optimal load scheduling problem
3) Systems control problem
5. Name the various types of buses in power system
The buses of a power system can be classified into three types based on the quantities being
specified for the buses, which are as follows:
a. Load bus or PQ bus (P and Q are specified)
b. Generator bus or voltage controlled bus or PV bus (P and V are specified)
c. Slack bus or swing bus or reference bus (|V| and are specified)
6. Why power flow analysis is made?
Power flow analysis is performed to calculate the magnitude and phase angle of voltages at the
buses and also the active power and reactive voltamperes flow for the given terminal or bus
conditions. The variables associated with each bus or node are,
a. Magnitude of voltage |V|
b. Phase angle of voltage
c. Active power, P
 d. Reactive voltamperes, Q
7. What do you mean by flat voltage start?
In iterative method of load flow solution, the initial voltages of all buses except slack bus
assumed as 1+j0 p.u. This is referred to as flat voltage start
8. What is the need for slack bus in power systems?
The slack bus is needed to account for transmission line losses. In a power system the total
power generated will be equal to sum of power consumed by loads and losses. In a power system
only the generated power and load power are specified for buses. The slack bus is assumed to
generate the power required for losses. Since the losses are unknown the real and reactive power are
not specified for slack bus.
9. State the known and known quantities of different buses
.

Types of bus Known or specified Unknown quantities

or
quantities
quantities to be
determined
Slack or Swing or Reference bus V, P,Q

Generator or Voltage control or PV P, V Q,

bus
Load or PQ bus P, Q V,

10. What is P-Q bus in power flow analysis?

Load bus
11. What is the information that is obtained from Load Flow studies
The information obtained from a load flow study is magnitude and phase angle of voltages, real
and reactive power flowing in each line and the line losses. The load flow solution also gives the
initial conditions of the system when the transient behavior of the system is to be studied.
12. What are the constraints to be satisfied to solve load flow solutions for a given bus
configuration
Voltage magnitude at various buses must be within limits
Active and reactive generator power at different buses must be within the maximum and
minimum limits
Total generation must equal to addition load bus and losses

13. What is the need for acceleration factor?

Acceleration factor is used in gauss seidal method of load flow solution to increase the rate of
convergence. Best value of =1.6
14. When the generator bus is treated as load bus? What will be the reactive power and bus
voltage when the generator bus is treated as load bus?
 If the reactive power of a generator bus violates the specified limits, then the generator bus is
treated as load bus. The reactive power of that particular bus is equated to the limit it has violated
and the previous iteration value of bus voltage is used for calculating current iteration value.
15. what are the advantages and disadvantages of gauss seidal method?
Advantages: Calculations are simple and so the programming task is lessees. The memory
requirement is less. Useful for small systems;
Disadvantages: Requires large no. of iterations to reach converge .Not suitable for large
systems.
Convergence time increases with size of the system
16. How the disadvantages of N-R method are overcome?
The disadvantage of large memory requirement can be overcome by decoupling the weak
coupling between P- and Q-V (i.e., using decoupled load flow algorithm). The disadvantage of large
computational time per iteration can be reduced by simplifying the decoupled load flow equations.
The simplifications are based on the practical operating conditions of a power system.
17. What is Jacobian matrix? and how the elements are computed
The matrix formed from the first derivatives of load flow equations is called Jacobian matrix.
The elements of Jacobian matrix will change in every iteration. In each iteration the elements of
the jacobian matrix are obtained by partially differentiating the load flow equations w.r.t a unknown
variable and then evaluating the first derivatives using the solution of previous iteration
18. What are the advantages of NR method over GS method?
a. The N-R method has quadratic convergence characteristics and so converges faster than
G-S method.
b. The number of iterations for convergence is independent of the system in N-R method.
c. In N-R method, the convergence is not affected by the choice of slack bus.

19. Write the equation for power flow in the transmission line.
The equation for power low in the transmission line (say p-q) at bus p is given by,
Spq = Ppq-jQpq
= Ep* ipq
= Ep*[Ep-Eq]Ypq + Ep*Ep.(Ypq/2)
Sqp = Pqp-jQqp
= Eq* iqp
= Eq*[Eq-Ep]Ypq + Eq*Eq.(Ypq/2)
20. What are all the approximations made in fast decoupled load flow solution?
2
Cos pq = 1 : Sin pq =0 : Gpq Sin pq Bpq : Qp Bpp Vp
21. Explain bus incidence matrix.
For the specific system, we can obtain the following relation (relation between element voltage
and bus voltage).
 V = A VBUS
where A is the bus incidence matrix, which is a rectangular and singular matrix. Its
elements are found as per the following rules.
aik = 1, if ith element is incident to and oriented away from the kth node (bus).
= -1, if ith element is incident to but oriented towards the kth node.
= 0, if ith element is not incident to the kth node.
22. Which method is superior for load flow solution?
Fast decoupled load flow method is superior
23. What is slack bus or swing bus?
In this bus voltage magnitude |v| and phase angle are specified whereas real and reactive
power PG and GG are obtained through load flow solution.
UNIT III FAULT ANALYSIS-BALANCED FAULTS
1. What is the need for short circuit studies or fault analysis?
The short circuit studies are essential in order to design or develop the protective schemes for
various parts of the system. The protective scheme consists of current and voltage sensing devices,
protective relays and circuit breakers. The selection of these devices mainly depends on various
currents that may flow in the fault conditions.
2. What is the reason for transients during short circuits?
The faults or short circuits are associated with sudden change in currents. Most of the
components of the power system have inductive property which opposes any sudden change in
currents, so the faults are associated with transients.
3. What is meant by a fault?
A fault in a circuit is any failure which interrupts with the normal flow of current. The faults are
associated with abnormal change in current, voltage and frequency of the power system. The faults
may cause damage to the equipments, if it is allowed to persist for a long time. Hence every part of a
system has been protected by means of relays and circuit breakers to sense the faults and to isolate
the faulty part from the healthy part of the network in the event of fault
4. Why faults occur in a power system?
Faults occur in a power system due to insulation failure of equipments, flashover of lines
initiated by a lightening stroke, permanent damage to conductors and towers or accidental faulty
operations.
5. How are the faults classified?
In one method, the faults are classified as,
1. Shunt faults - due to short circuits in conductors
2. Series faults - due to open conductors.
In another method,
1. Symmetrical faults - fault currents are equal in all the phases and can be analyzed on per phase
basis
2. Unsymmetrical faults fault currents are unbalanced and so they can be analyzed only using
symmetrical components.
6. List the various types of shunt and series faults.
Various types of shunt faults are
1. Single line-to-ground fault
2. Line-to-line fault
3. Double line-to-ground fault
4. Three phase fault
Various types of series faults are,
1. One open conductor fault
2. Two open conductor fault
7. What is meant by symmetrical fault?
The fault is called symmetrical fault if the fault current is equal in all the phases. This fault
conditions are analyzed on per phase basis using Thevenins theorem or using bus impedance matrix.
The three-phase fault is the only symmetrical fault.
8. For a fault at a given location, rank the various faults in the order of severity.
In a power system, the most severe fault is three phase fault and less severe fault is open
conductor fault. The various faults in the order of decreasing severity are,
1) 3 phase fault 2) Double line-to-ground fault 3) Line-to-line fault 4) Single line-to-ground fault
5) Open conductor fault
9. What is meant by fault calculations?
The fault condition of a power system can be divided into sub transient, transient, and steady
state periods. The currents in the various parts of the system and in the fault locations are different in
these periods. The estimation of these currents for various types of faults at various locations in the
system is commonly referred to as fault calculations.
10. What are the assumptions made in short circuit studies of a large power system
network?
The phase to neutral emfs of all generators remain constant, balanced and unaffected by the
faults.
Each generator is represented by an emf behind either the subtransient or transient reactance
depending upon whether the short circuit current is to be found immediately after the short
circuit or after about 3 4 cycles.
Load currents may often be neglected in comparison with fault currents.
All network impedances are purely reactive. Thus the series resistances of lines and
transformers are neglected in comparison with their resistances.
Shunt capacitances and shunt branches of transformers are neglected. Hence, transformer
reactances are taken as their leakage reactances.
11. What is synchronous reactance?
The synchronous reactance is the ratio of induced emf and the steady state rms current (i.e., it is
the reactance of a synchronous machine under steady state condition). It is the sum of leakage
reactance and the reactance representing armature reaction. It is
given by,
Xs = Xl + Xa
Where,
Xs = Synchronous reactance
Xl = Leakage reactance
Xa = Armature reaction reactance.
12. Define sub transient reactance.
The sub transient reactance is the ratio of induced emf on no-load and the sub transient
symmetrical rms current, (i.e., it is the reactance of a synchronous machine under sub transient
condition). It is given by,

Where
Xl = Leakage reactance
Xa = Armature reaction reactance
Xf = Field winding reactance
Xdw = Damper winding reactance.
13. Define transient reactance.
The transient reactance is the ratio of induced emf on no-load and the transient symmetrical rms
current. (i.e.,it is the reactance of synchronous machine under transient condition). It is given by,
 Where
Xl = Leakage reactan Xa = Armature reaction reactance Xf = Field winding reactance

14. What is the significance of subtransient reactance and transient reactance in short
circuit
studies?
The sub transient reactance can be used to estimate the initial value of fault current immediately
on the occurrence of the fault. The maximum momentary short circuit current rating of the circuit
breaker used for protection or fault clearing should be less than this initial fault current. The transient
reactance is used to estimate the transient state fault current. Most of the circuit breakers open their
contacts only during this period. Therefore for a circuit breaker used for fault clearing (or protection),
its interrupting short circuit current rating should be less than the transient fault current.
15. Write down the equation determining fault current in a generator when its reactance is
known.
The equation is,

where
I = Steady state symmetrical fault current
I ' = Transient symmetrical fault current
Xd = Direct axis synchronous reactance
Xd = Direct axis transient reactance
Eg = RMS voltage from one terminal to neutral at no load.

16. Write the equation for subtransient and transient internal voltage of the generator.
The equation for subtransient internal voltage is,

Transient internal voltage is,

where
Eg = Subtransient internal voltage of generator
Eg = Transient internal voltage of generator
 Vt = Terminal voltage
IL = Load current
Xd =Direct axis subtransient reactance
Xd =Direct axis transient reactance
17. How symmetrical faults are analyzed?
The symmetrical faults are analyzed using per unit reactance diagram of the power system.
Once the reactance diagram is formed, then the fault is simulated by short circuit or by connecting
the fault impedance at the fault point. The currents and voltages at various parts of the system can be
estimated by any of the following methods.
1) Using Kirchhoffs laws
2) Using Thevenins theorem
3) By forming bus impedance matrix.
18. Define doubling effect and DC off-set current.
Doubling effect:
If a symmetrical fault occurs when the voltage wave is going through zero then the maximum
momentary short circuit current will be double the value of maximum symmetrical short circuit
current. This effect is called doubling effect.
DC off-set current:
The unidirectional transient component of short circuit current is called DC offset current.
19. Differentiate between sub transient and transient reactance.
SUB TRANSIENT REACTANCE TRANSIENT REACTANCE
1) This is the ratio of induced emf and 1) This is the ratio of induced emf and
sub transient current. transient current.
2) Flux created by induced currents in the 2) There is no damper winding and hence
damper winding is included. no flux is created
3) This is the smallest reactance among the 3) This is larger than the subtransient
reactance values. reactance.
4) This cannot be extrapolated. 4) This can be extrapolated backwards in
time

20. What assumption is made at the star / delta transformer?

It is that the positive sequence quantities on the HV side lead their corresponding positive
sequence quantities on the LV side by 30o. The reverse is the case for negative sequence quantities
wherein HV quantities lag the corresponding LV quantities by 30o.
 UNIT- IV FAULT ANALYSIS-UNBALANCED FAULTS
1. What is an unsymmetrical fault? List the various unsymmetrical faults.
The fault is called unsymmetrical fault if the fault current is not equal in all the phases. The
unsymmetrical faults in a power system are,
1) Single line-to-ground fault.
2) Line-to-line fault.
3) Double line-to-ground fault
4) Open conductor faul
2. What are the symmetrical components of a 3 phase system?
In a 3 phase system, the unbalanced vectors (either currents or voltage) can be resolved into
three balanced system of vectors.They are
Positive sequence components
Negative sequence components
Zero sequence components
Unsymmetrical fault analysis can be done by using symmetrical components.
3. What are the positive sequence components?
It consists of three components of equal magnitude, displaced each other by 120 in phase and
having the phase sequence abc .

Ic1

120

120 Ia1

120

Ib1

4. What are the negative sequence components?

It consists of three components of equal magnitude, displaced each other by 120 in phase and
having the phase sequence acb .

Ib2

120

120 Ia2

120

Ic2
5. What are the zero sequence components?
It consists of three phasors equal in magnitude and with zero phase displacement from each
other.
Ia0
Ib0
Ic0 Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0

6. What is sequence operator?

In unbalanced problem, to find the relationship between phase voltages and phase currents, we
use sequence operator a.
a = 1120 = = - 0.5+j0.866

7. Write down the equations to convert symmetrical components into unbalanced phase
currents.
(Or) Determination of unbalanced currents from symmetrical currents.
Let, Ia, Ib, Ic be the unbalanced phase currents
Let, Ia0, Ia1, Ia2 be the symmetrical components of phase a

8. Write down the equations to convert unbalanced phase currents into symmetrical
components.
(Or) Determination of symmetrical currents from unbalanced currents.
Let, Ia, Ib, Ic be the unbalanced phase currents
Let, Ia0, Ia1, Ia2 be the symmetrical components of phase a

9. What are sequence impedance and sequence network?

The sequence impedances are the impedances offered by the power system components or
elements to +ve, -ve and zero sequence current.
The single phase equivalent circuit of power system consisting of impedances to current of any
one sequence only is called sequence network.
10. For a fault at a given location, rank the various faults in the order of severity.
In a power system, the most severe fault is three phase fault and less severe fault is open
conductor fault. The various faults in the order of decreasing severity are,
3 phase fault, Double line-to-ground fault, Line-to-line fault,
Single line-to-ground fault, Open conductor fault
11. Name the fault in which zero sequence network is zero
Line Line fault
12. Draw the connection of sequence networks for line-ground fault through a fault
impedance Zf

13. Draw the connection of sequence networks for double line-ground fault through a fault
impedance Zf

14. Draw the connection of sequence networks for double line-ground fault without fault
impedance

UNIT- V STABILITY ANALYSIS

1. What is power system stability?
The stability of an interconnected power system means is the ability of the power system is to
return or regain to normal or stable operating condition after having been subjected to some form of
disturbance.
2. What is rotor angle stability?
Rotor angle stability is the ability of interconnected synchronous machines of a power system to
remain in synchronism.
3.What is steady state stability?
Steady state stability is defined as the ability of the power system to bring it to a stable condition
or remain in synchronism after a small disturbance.
4. How power system stability is classified?

5. What is steady state stability limit?

The steady sate stability limit is the maximum power that can be transferred by a machine to
receiving system without loss of synchronism

6. What is transient stability?

Transient stability is defined as the ability of the power system to bring it to a stable condition or
remain in synchronism after a large disturbance.

7. What is transient stability limit?

The transient stability limit is the maximum power that can be transferred by a
machine to a fault or a receiving system during a transient state without loss of synchronism.
Transient stability limit is always less than steady state stability limit

8. What is dynamic stability?

It is the ability of a power system to remain in synchronism after the initial swing (transient
stability period) until the system has settled down to the new steady state equilibrium condition

9. What is voltage stability?

It is the ability of a power system to maintain steady acceptable voltages at all buses in the
system under normal operating conditions and after being subjected to a disturbance.

10. State the causes of voltage instability.

A system enters a state of voltage instability when a disturbance, increase in load demand, or
change in system condition causes a progressive and uncontrollable drop in voltage.The main factor
causing instability is the inability of the power system to meet the demand for reactive power.
11. Write the power angle equation and draw the power angle curve.
 Where, P Real Power in watts
Vs Sending end voltage; Vr- Receiving end voltage
XT - Total reactance between sending end receiving end
- Rotor angle.

12. Write the expression for maximum power transfer.

13. Write the swing equation for a SMIB (Single machine connected to an infinite bus bar)
system.

Where H = inertia constant in MW/MVA

f = frequency in Hz
M = inertia constant in p.u
14. Define swing curve.
The swing curve is the plot or graph between the power angle and time t. From the nature of
variations of the stability of a system for any disturbance can be determined.

15. In a 3 machine system having ratings G 1, G2 and G3 and inertia constants M1, M2 and
M3.What
is the inertia constants M and H of the equivalent system.
 Where G1, G2, G3 MVA rating of machines 1, 2, and 3
Gb = Base MVA or system MVA
16. State the assumptions made in stability studies.
Machines represents by classical model
The losses in the system are neglected (all resistance are neglected)
The voltage behind transient reactance is assumed to remain constant.
Controllers are not considered ( Shunt and series capacitor )
Effect of damper winding is neglected.
17. State Equal Area Criterion
The equal area criterion for stability states that the system is stable if the area under P curve
reduces to zero at some value of .
This is possible if the positive (accelerating) area under P curve is equal to the negative
(decelerating) area under P curve for a finite change in . hence stability criterion is called equal
area criterion.

18. Define critical clearing angle.

The critical clearing angle , is the maximum allowable change in the power angle before

clearing the fault, without loss of synchronism.

The time corresponding to this angle is called critical clearing time, .It can be defined as the

maximum time delay that can be allowed to clear a fault without loss of synchronism.
19. List the methods of improving the transient stability limit of a power system.
Reduction in system transfer reactance
Increase of system voltage and use AVR
Use of high speed excitation systems
Use of high speed reclosing breakers