Updated January 1, 2014

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Cover: Open S-shaped curve Geodesic is the shortest

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 Preface

Geodesy as a science has been a long-standing tradition for centuries. For

over three hundred years, almost all the research, concepts, and geodetic solutions
came from European geodesists.

After the World War II, in USA, it was felt that the country needed a full-
fledged program for geodesy education. Prof. W. Heiskanen from Finland was
invited and a new Department of Geodetic Sciences was established at The Ohio
State University, Columbus, Ohio, in 1952. Thus, a new era started for education in
geodesy in USA. The Department grew with eminent faculty and started graduating
students from all over the world with M.S. and Ph.D. degrees. However, the
undergraduate student base to feed the graduate study program never developed.
As a result the teaching of geodesy as a science is disappearing. Recently a retired
professor remarked We do not teach theory these days. Recently, one professor at
one U.S. University started teaching fundamentally wrong geodesy in a GPS course.
Even after admitting mistakes, no corrections were made. University condonedthe
professor and covered up.Graduates, past, present, and future, would have wrong
geodesy in their mind and wrong lecture notes in their portfolio. For education of
geodesy in USA, this could be the most unfortunate turned around.

In Europe, programs of teaching of geodesy at universities are functioning

well. In Asia, Africa, and South America, geodesy as a science at universities for
Ph.D. degree might be taught in only a few countries. In India, the science of
geodesy is not taught at any university.

Mostly, the geodesy is taught at undergraduate level to students in non-

geodesy programs, e.g., geographic information system, surveying, civil
engineering, and in GPS courses, where students learn the science through a few
elective courses. Thus, good and authentic books in English for geodesy are just
not there. Recognizing the need to fill the critical requirement, this book at
introductory level has been prepared for such students to understand the
fundamentals of geodesy and geodetic positioning. It also selectively brings out the
difference(s) in the basic approach for geodetic solution(s) in the pre- and post-
satellite eras, i.e. before and after the launching of first manmade satellite
SPUTNIK on October 4, 1957.

Also, good textbooks written and produced in USA were not available during
the glorious years of the program at the Ohio State University to support the
education of geodesy and they are still not available. One or two books, which came
out in 1960s, never had their second editions. Furthermore, mostly printed lecture
notes were used. The textbooks in geodesy for the undergraduate students have been
missing all the time.

i
Objective and Scope - The main objective is to provide an authentic textbook on the
science of geodesy in simple text, which is easy to understand. Only typical formulas
and equations have been included to familiarize students with the complexity of the
ellipsoidal computations. Derivation steps are kept to the minimum.

There is no intention to make any reader to be a geodesist. While studying

through undergraduate level, students will definitely require explanations from
professors with high-level knowledge of theoretical and practical geodesy to
understand concepts and fundamentals. Great care has been taken to write and
compile the text in a straightforward sequential progression. Ample supply of
figures has been included to visualize the ellipsoidal geometry and geodetic
solutions. Appendices have been provided for important related and supplemental
definitions, which are used in many algorithms, formulas, and geodetic products.

Lastly, Chapter 5 on Practical Geodesy is being introduced to inform the

students of the availability of the ellipsoidal-solutions. In this edition, the details
are provided via published papers (Appendices B1 to B4).

New Geodetic Terms Two terms are hemiellipsoid and semi-elliptic.

Alert Special - As MS Words capitalizes the first alphabet in a NEW line, special
care was taken to correct equations. Typical example is when the software
changed h to H in equation h H + N (Chapter 2). In few other instances,
software would over-ride already saved text.

If any such obvious over-ride changes by the software have escaped our
notice, professors are requested to correct them while teaching.

Special Request

Any specific suggestion, correction(s), improvement, and/or comment(s) for

the book from the academic profession/readers, students, and professionals would
be appreciated.
Finally, I along with co-authors sincerely thank students for selecting the
book in their quest to study and learn geodesy.

Muneendra Kumar.

ii

ii
 Acknowledgement

First and foremost acknowledgment belongs to Professors Ivan Mueller,

Richard Rapp, Urho Uotila, and Helmut Moritz for thorough teaching and
explaining the complexities of Geodesy, which helped introducing them at the
undergraduate level. Also, their books and lecture notes came handy as ready
source for typical formulas and figures.

We are also grateful to Professors James Reilly and Frank Derby for initial idea,
their contributory texts, which became the foundation for chapters 1 and 3, and
help in many figures. Our thanks go to Dr. S. Gopal and Prof. D. Saraswat for
reviewing Chapter 2, suggestions, and figures.

We acknowledge Mr. Ajit Singhs contribution by his thorough review of all

the chapters, suggestions, critique, and corrections for typos, which are missed
even by the spell check. Our heartiest thanks go to Miss Karen Milstein for her
timely support in reconciling figures with revised text and fixing re-edited typos.
All her support really helped to bring the book to its final version.

We also thank Ms. Linda Doerman, Spectrum Printing. for her professional
support in bring out the Second Edition of our book.

Muneendra Kumar
Satish K. Sharma
Chandra S. Khare

iii
This page has been intentionally left blank.

iv
 Table of Contents

Preface i
Acknowledgement .. iii
Table of Contents v

Chapters

0 Geodesy..0-1
0.1 What is Geodesy?......0-1
0.2 Evolution of Geodesy.. .....0-1
0.3 The Geodetic Problem .....0-1
0.4 The Geodetic Solution(s) .0-2
0.5 The Discovery ..0-2

1 Geometric Geodesy ......1-1

1.1 Introduction ..1-1
1.2 Earths Geometric Shape ....1-1
1.2.1 Historical Evolution of Ellipsoidal Shape ..1-2
1.2.2 Geodetic Anomaly .1-3
1.2.3 Geographic Anomaly....1-3
1.2.4 Pre-Manmade Satellite Era Determinations ..1-4
1.2.5 Post-Manmade Satellite Era Determinations .....1-4
1.2.6 Geodetic Reference System (GRS) Ellipsoids .1-5
1.3 Earths Size ...1-5
1.3.1 Using Local, National, and/or Regional Surveys ...1-6
1.3.2 Using Satellite Global Surveys 1-6
1.4 Geometry of the Ellipsoid .1-6
1.4.1 Axes, Flattening, and Eccentricity ..1-7
1.4.2 Arcs of an Ellipsoid ..1-7
1.4.3 Radii of Curvatures and Arc Lengths 1-9
1.4.4 Spherical Approximation to the Ellipsoid.......1-10
1.4.5 Normal and Reciprocal Normal Sections .......1-11
1.4.6 Spherical and Ellipsoidal Excess 1-14
1.5 Position Geometric Coordinates .1-14
1.5.1 1-D Ellipsoidal Height or Depth.1-15
1.5.2 2-D Horizontal Coordinates.1-15
1.6 3-D Coordinates.....1-16
1.6.1 3-D Rectangular Coordinates...1-16
1.6.2 3-D Geodetic Coordinates 1-17
1.6.3 Relationship between Rectangular and Geodetic Coordinates....1-17
1.7 Computations on Ellipsoid ..1-18
1.7.1 Medium and Long Lines .1-18
1.7.2 Geodetic Coordinates ..1-18
1.8 Pre-satellite Era 2-D Horizontal Datums ..1-22

v
1.8.1 Definition ..1-22
1.8.2 Defining Parameters ...1-23
1.8.3 Local or Regional or Continental Datums .....1-23
1.8.4 Definition Problems and Limitations .1-23
1.9 Post-Satellite Era Geocentric Horizontal Datum and Geodetic System .1-24
1.9.1 2-D North American Datum (NAD) 1983...1-24
1.9.2 3-D World Geodetic System (WGS) 1984...1-25
1.10 Geodetic Facts ...1-26

2 Gravimetric or Physical Geodesy .....2-1

2.1 Introduction ........2-1
2.2 Gravitational Attraction and Potential ....2-1
2.2.1 Attraction ....2-1
2.2.2 Potential ......2-2
2.2.3 Centrifugal Force and Potential ...2-3
2.2.4 Gravity Potential (W) 2-3
2.3 Gravity 2-4
2.3.1 Gravity Level Surface GEOP ...2-4
2.3.2 Plumb Line .....2-5
2.3.3 Deflection of the Vertical DoV ......2-6
2.3.4 Gravitational and Gravity Potential Representation ..2-6
2.3.5 Earth Gravitational Model (EGM) ...2-7
2.4 Normal Gravity Field......2-7
2.4.1 Normal Gravitational Potential (VN) ........2-7
2.4.2 Normal Gravity Potential (U) ........2-8
2.4.3 Normal Gravity ...2-8
2.4.4 Normal Gravity Level Surface SPHEROP.......2-8
2.5 Anomalous or Disturbing Potential (T) 2-8
2.6 Geoid and Spheroid 2-9
2.6.1 Geoid 2-9
2.6.2 Spheroid .......2-9
2.6.3 Geoidal Undulation (N) ..2-9
2.6.4 Geoid Determination or Modeling 2-10
2.7 Geopotential Number .2-11
2.8 Heights (+) and Depths (-) ......2-12
2.8.1 Land Area ...2-12
2.8.2 Ocean Areas 2-14
2.9 Relationship between Ellipsoidal Height (h) and
Orthometric Height (H) ........2-14
2.9.1 Between Heights h and H ... 2-14
2.9.2 Between Differential Heights h and H . 2-15
2.10 Leveling 2-15
2.10.1 Spirit Leveling . 2-15
2.10.2 GPS Leveling ... 2-17
2.11 Vertical Datum and Height System....2-17
2.11.1 Zero Reference Surface(s) ...2-18

vi
2.11.2 Vertical Datums... 2-19
2.11.3 Height Systems. 2-20
2.12 Gravity Reduction or Processing .. 2-21
2.12.1 Geodetic ... 2-21
2.12.2 Geophysical . 2.23
2.12.3 Geological 2-23
2.13 Gravity Anomaly and Disturbance .. .2-23
2.13.1 Gravity Anomaly (g) ... .2-23
2.13.2 Gravity Disturbance (g) .. .2-23
2.14 Fundamental Constants .2-23
2.15 Satellite Gravimetry .. 2.24
2.16 Geodetic Facts .2-24

3 Satellite Geodesy 3-1

3.1 Introduction ...3-1
3.1.1 Historical Evolution of Geodetic Satellites.3-1
3.1.2 Follow-Up Satellite Systems.3-2
3.1.3 NASAs Geodetic Satellites...3-2
3.1.4 Navys TRANSIT System.3-3
3.1.5 Constellations of Satellites3-3
3.2 Satellite Orbital Motion 3-3
3.3 Satellite Orbit or Trajectory 3-6
3.3.1 Keplers Orbital Elements...3-6
3.3.2 Normal Orbit.....3-8
3.3.3 Perturbed Orbit3-11
3.4 Observation Types 3-12
3.4.1 Visual .3-13
3.4.2 Photographic .3-13
3.4.3 Photoelectric .3-13
3.4.4 Electronic ......3-14
3.5 Reduction of Observations ......3-16
3.6 Satellite Positioning .....3-18
3.6.1 Positioning with GPS...3-18
3.6.2 Defining GPS Network3-21
3.6.3 GPS Leveling3-21
3.6.4 Accuracy of GPS Positioning..3-22
3.6.5 Coordinate System...3-22
3.7 Satellite Gravimetry 3-22
3.7.1 Satellite to Satellite Tracking (SST) ..3-22
3.7.2 Satellite with Gravity Gradiometer ..3-23
3.8 Geodetic Facts . 3-23

4 Marine Geodesy ..4-1

4.1 Introduction 4-1
4.2 Observations and Measurements ..4-1
4.2.1 On the Sea Surface .4-1

vii
4.2.2 Below the Sea Surface ....4-2
4.3 Marine Positioning .....4-3
4.3.1 On Ocean Surface ..4-3
4.3.2 Underwater or Below Sea Surface .,.4-4
4.3.3 On the Ocean Bottom 4-4
4.4 Coordinate Systems for Ocean Areas...4-5
4.5 Sea Floor or Ocean Depth d..4-6
4.5.1 Datums or Zero Reference Surfaces 4-8
4.5.2 Types of Depths .4-9
4.5.3 Comparative Accuracy Evaluation . .4-12
4.6 Temporal Effect on Marine Positioning 4-12
4.7 Tidal Effects on Marine Positioning 4-13
4.8 Practical Considerations ..4-13

5 Practical Geodesy ...5-1

5.1 Introduction 5-1
5.2 e-Solutions ...5-1
5.2.1 Direct Ellipsoidal Mapping.5-1
5.2.2 GPS Surveyed Ellipsoid Heights (h) Work5-1
5.2.3 GPS Surveyed Ellipsoid Depths (ed)..5-1

Appendices

Appendix A1 - Astronomical Definitions A1-1

Appendix A2 Time . A2-1
Appendix A3 - Terrestrial System and/or Terrestrial Reference Frame...A3-1
Appendix A4 - Tides and Tidal Effects.... A4-1
Appendix A5 - Temporal Effects . A5-1
Appendix A6 SIGNIFICANT DIGITS..A6-1
Appendix A7 - Precision and Accuracy ...A7-1
Appendix A8 - Errors and Accuracy ...A8-1
Appendix A9 - Units of Measurement ..A9-1
Appendix B1 Direct Ellipsoidal Mapping..B1-1
Appendix B2 GPS Surveyed Ellipsoid Heights (h) Work.B2-1
Appendix B3 GPS Surveyed Ellipsoid Heights and Engineering Projects .B3-1
Appendix B4 GPS Surveyed Ellipsoid Depth (ed).B4-1
Appendix C1 Prevailing Misunderstandings.C-1
Appendix C2 - Conflicting Definitions ..C2-1
Appendix C3 We need more than one GIS.....C3-1

Authors Bio Information

viii
 0 Geodesy

0.1 What is Geodesy?

Geodesy (Geo is Earth and desy is measurement in Greek) is the science

to determine and define the shape, size, and gravity field of the real Earth (Note:
The ONE that was created by God and on which we ALL live.).

Geodesy is a complete science by itself. The dictionary definition Geodesy is

a part of Applied Mathematics is incorrect. This only shows that dictionary
compilers are missing the significance of this important science, without which all
people would still be searching the answer to Where am I?

Geodesy is distinctly a different science than Geography. The commonality

between the two sciences is that they both deal with Geo. They along with
Geology, Geophysics, Geomagnetism, Geodynamics, and Geospatial all belong to
Geosciences.

0.2 Evolution of Geodesy

After satisfying their hunger, it must have been natural for any of our first
generation forefathers to ask the question Where am I? Once that inquisitiveness
got satisfied, the next query would have been Where is my spouse or friend, how
far, and in which direction? That was the start of the science of GEODESY.

In the same context, when the ancestors started a pictorial sketching to

depict Earths features, positions, distances, and directions, the maps and charts
became the practical bonuses from geodesy. The sketches, when drawn with
scale and orientation (or North direction) became maps and charts.

0.3 The Geodetic Problem

In quest of knowing where am I, or where is my spouse or friend, or how

far or in which direction, or for all other related factors anyone would care to ask,
the science of geodesy provides all the answers.

In a nutshell, the Geodetic Problem is to know all about exact shape and
size, positions including heights and depths, distances, and directions.

Historically for solving the problem, when our entire world was confined to a
neighborhood of a very limited extent, our approach was local or regional. The
determination of shape, size, and gravity was thus local or regional too. The geodetic
surveying techniques, known or developed through the centuries did not have the
capability to connect continents and far off islands. The geodetic problems could be
solved only in the relative sense.

After the launching of the first manmade satellite SPUTNIK on 4th October

0-1
1957, a new era dawned for solving the geodetic problem on global basis. In the
beginning, the observation and collection of geodetic data from the satellites were on
opportunity basis, which would arise with the launching of a new satellite. Geodetic
instruments were carried as piggy-back rides. As more and more satellites
became available, new ones specially designed and manufactured to solve the
geodetic problem were launched. Now, this trend is very common all over the world.

0.4 The Geodetic Solution(s)

A geodesy problem would be better solved with newer conceptual

techniques and ideas. However, new geodetic solutions, which were defined with
global consistency, and easy to realize, had been coming up in the recent past. And,
such solutions would be continually researched and available in the future.

In the 1950s and 1960s, tellurometers and geodimeters, as the new distance
measuring instruments, showed that the three measured sides of a triangle in
trilateration provided a complete and more accurate solution than three angles
of triangulation. When the manmade geodetic satellites got started, a new science
of satellite geodesy came along. In turn, it changed the local/regional datums
solutions to revolutionary 3-D geocentric global geodetic system(s). Or, in other
words, real Earth geodetic solution(s) became practical.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) reached its full potential of surveying
high accuracy 3-D positions in geocentric global datum in the late 1990s. On
combining GPS positions with the high-resolution satellite imagery brought in new
distortion-free mapping the real Earth directly on the ellipsoidal surface. Directly
surveyed ellipsoidal heights and depths now provide the most practical solutions for
the elusive third geodetic coordinate.

All such practical, easy to realize, and highly accurate solutions with globally
consistent definition(s) are becoming available. As replacements to centuries old,
traditional, and low accuracy solutions with large distortions, they would provide
new alternatives to many countries. This could be considered as the start of new
science of Practical Geodesy.

0.5 The Discovery

In 2008, Ellipsoidal Globe was discovered as The Perfect Map of the

Earth. As such a map is compiled directly on ellipsoid, it will have zero distortion
unlike projected ones.

0-2
 1 Geometric Geodesy

1.1 Introduction

Geodesy as a science starts with the determination of the Earths geometric shape and
size and their evolution over the time. With a view limited to their immediate surroundings
to visualize, the earliest ancestors first assumed the Earths shape as a flat pancake. As
they started to travel further and further on land and/or sail across the seas and oceans,
they concluded that the Earths shape was spherical. Around 17/18th century, when the
gravitational and gravity theories were being developed, the geodesists proposed a bulge
along one radius (of the sphere) and compression or shortening along the one
perpendicular to the first. Thus, this new figure ellipsoid became the third geometric
approximation as Earths shape. Around Mid-18th century, the bulge was determined to be
along the Equator. Since then, geodesists have accepted the 3-Dimension rotational
oblate ellipsoid as the best shape. And, since then their quest has ended.

The determination of the Earths size also started along with its shape, but it did not
stop once the ellipsoidal shape became the consensus. As our surveying and
measurement tools, instruments, and techniques evolved and improved, the Earths size
parameters (or dimensions of the Earths ellipsoid) and their accuracy estimates continued
to improve up to 1980s. Since then, no new estimate(s) have been released by the
researching geodesists.

This chapter discusses and explains the theoretical evolution in the geometric shape
and size of the Earth as an ellipsoid, computations, algorithms, and formulas, and
positioning of objects and features on it. Typical formulas and simple algorithms are
included without rigorous derivation(s). This is to keep the text at undergraduate study
level. The presentation is to provide basic understanding of the complex ellipsoid geometry,
equations and involved numbers, and accuracy improvement in computation and solutions
in geodetic positioning.

1.2 Earths Geometric Shape

A. Flat Pancake: Our pre-historic ancestors first visualized Earths actual surface
with mountains and valleys as a pancake (Figure 1.1 (a)), where there would be an end
along the edge(s). It is interesting to point out that there is a Flat Earth Society in
existence, whose members still believe in a flat shape for the Earth.

Figure 1.1 (a) - Flat Earth Figure 1.1 (b) - Spherical Earth

1-1
 B. Sphere: Around 5th century B.C., the visualization that the Earth is round got
accepted. Then, our ancestor scientists and learned thinkers (Note that Geodesy had not
developed as a separate science at that time.) proposed, as the second approximation, that
the Earths geometric shape was a 3-Dimension (3-D) Sphere (Figure 1.1 (b)).

In 230 B.C. Eratosthenes, Greek surveyor, made vertical angle observations to the
Sun and measuring ground distance between two land marks in Egypt was the first person
to compute the radius of the Earth, which was considered as a sphere at that time.

With Earths shape approximated as sphere, achievable accuracy would be in the

order of 1: 1000. Thus, spherical shape survived up to Mid-17th century (Section 1.2 C.).

C. Ellipsoid: Our predecessor geodesists around Mid-17th century thought of a new

concept that Earth is bulged along one of the diameter and compressed along the
second, which is perpendicular to the first. Thus, they decided that a better approximation
would be an ellipsoid of revolution (Figure 1.2). Here, one-half of the larger diameter is
called semi-major axis of length a and one-half of the compressed perpendicular axis
of rotation as semi-minor axis of length b.

Figure 1.2 - Ellipsoidal Earth

1.2.1 Historical Evolution of Ellipsoidal Shape

During the political rivalry between Britain and France in 17th century, geodesists
from the two countries also started a controversy about the ellipsoidal bulge. Newton of
Britain developing his gravitation and gravity theories postulated that the shape is an
oblate ellipsoid, i.e. the bulge is along the Equator EE (Figure 1.3 (a)). Richer also
from Britain made measurements with pendulum clock in 1672 and confirmed Newtons
postulation.

1-2
 Figure 1.3 (a) - Oblate Ellipsoid Figure 1.3 (b) - Prolate Ellipsoid

During 1683-1716, Cassini with his two French colleagues made measurements in
Europe and postulated that the longer axis of the ellipsoid is aligned along the Earths
rotational axis NS pointing towards the North Pole. Thus, they proposed the Earths
shape as a prolate ellipsoid (Figure 1.3 (b)).

To resolve the two diametrically opposite shapes, Britain and France agreed to
perform two special surveys. The first survey expedition (1736-37) by Britain measured
along the longitudinal arc in Lapland. The second expedition (1736-41) by France went to
Northwest Peru (now Ecuador) and measured a latitudinal arc.

These specific geodetic measurements finally settled the Earths geometric shape as a
3-D rotational oblate ellipsoid (Figure 1.3 (a)).

Reasoning for the Bulge In their spatial configuration, the Sun and Moon attract
the Earths masses and this resulted to produce the bulge along the Equatorial plane.

1.2.2 Geodetic Anomaly

Geodesists, most probably from Britain, somehow overlooked the gravimetric

definition of SPHEROID (Section 2.6). They started equating spheroid with sphere or
nearly spherical shape.

This geodetic anomaly then spread to the countries of the British Empire during its
glory days. And, unfortunately this misnomer still continues.

1.2.3 Geographic Anomaly

Even after the two actual measurements of the latitudinal and longitudinal arcs
between the years 1736 to 1741 (Section 1.2.1), geographers did not accept the geodetically
researched oblate ellipsoid as Earths shape. Instead, geographers only modified the old
spherical shape (Section 1.2.B) to an undefined nearly spherical or to an ambiguous non-

1-3
geometric pear-shaped (Note: Here, geographers could have easily adopted an ellipsoid.).

With both the modified shapes, geographers could not identify any defined and/or
non-ambiguous size parameter(s). This anomaly still persists in teaching Geography, in
geographic products, viz., atlas maps, and charts, in teaching and/or developing
Geographic Information System, and in making Globes.

Note: Developers of Geographic Information System with acronym GIS (Appendix

C.3) have retained Earths shape as sphere. Thus, as domino impact, this approach
has started corrupting and/or diluting the accuracy of global databases.

1.2.4 Pre-Manmade Satellite Era Determinations

Before the launching of the first manmade satellite, Sputnik, on 4th October 1957,
the ellipsoids were fitted to the actual shape of the Earths surface on local, regional,
and/or continental areas, as covered by respective survey(s). Such an ellipsoid was called
Best-Fitting Ellipsoid (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4 - Best-Fitting Ellipsoid

The size (Section 1.3) for best fitting ellipsoids varied depending on the areas
covered by the local, national, regional, or continental surveys. As could be obviously
expected, the best fit deteriorated as the area size increased. A very striking example is in
South America. In this case, the best fit started in Venezuela and by the time the surveys
reached South Chile and/or Argentina, the misfit between Earths surface and the
ellipsoid reached hundreds of meters.

1.2.5 Post-Manmade Satellite Era Determinations

After the launching of Sputnik, the manmade satellites provided new surveying
capabilities to link continents and far-off islands to determine the ellipsoidal shape and size
to fit the Earth globally. Such an ellipsoid is called Mean Earth Ellipsoid (Figure 1.5).

1-4
 Figure 1.5 - Mean Earth Ellipsoid

It should be noted that some attempts were made to compute the globally fitted
ellipsoids during the first half of the 20th century (before the launching of Sputnik). Here,
an example is the International Ellipsoid 1924 by Hayford. But, in all such cases,
determinations turned out to be unsatisfactory.

1.2.6 Geodetic Reference System (GRS) Ellipsoids

The International Association of Geodesy (IAG) conducts global research through its
Special Study Groups and Commissions. It thus periodically provides (Section 2.14) the
best estimates of four fundamental constants as Geodetic Reference System (GRS), e.g.
GRS 1967 and GRS 1980. Though further research after 1980 has indicated an improved
estimate for semi-axis a, IAG has not released a new GRS since its Scientific Meetings
in December 1979.

Definition The GRS is a set of four fundamental constants, which define Earths
shape, size, gravitation and rotation in space:

1. Semi-major axis - a,
2. Gravitational constant - GM,
3. Second degree zonal harmonic coefficient of Earths gravitational model
(EGM) J20, and
4. Angular velocity - .

Note: The three constants GM. J20, and (at 2., 3., and 4., above) will also be
discussed and explained further in Chapters 2 and 3.

With these four constants, all other geodetic constants can then be computed with
geodetic algorithm(s) and are called derived constants. As all other constants are
derived, arbitrary change or any modification of the four fundamental constants by
individual geodesist(s) should not be attempted. For the GRS67 and GRS80 ellipsoids,
flattening f is first derived from J20 and then the semi-minor axis b from a and
f, as b = a (1 f).

1.3 Earths Size

The first authentic determination of the ellipsoidal Earths size could be attributed to

1-5
the two early 18th century British and French surveys, which were conducted to resolve the
controversy between oblate or prolate shape (Section 1.2.1). After that, the accurate size
determination became an integral part of computations when establishing positions of
local, national, and/or regional surveys.

1.3.1 Using Local, National, and/or Regional Surveys

To compute positions of Earths features and other objects, the ellipsoid used to be
approximated to best-fit the surveyed area, which could extend over a national territory,
designated region, or continent. In such cases, the ellipsoid will start to separate from the
actual Earths surface outside the surveyed area. During the local or regional geodetic
solutions the semi-major axis a and semi-minor axis b were used as the two defining
parameters for the shape and size of the best-fitting ellipsoid. There was no direct
method to determine the flattening f and thus, it used to be computed from a and b
as (a-b)/a (Note that semi-minor is NOT a radius).

Examples of such ellipsoids are Clarke 1866 for North American continent, Bessel
1841 for Japan and Korea, Krassowsky 1945 for Russia, and Everest for Indian sub-
continent.

It is surprising that in many cases the best-fit principle was completely forgotten or
overlooked, where geodesists would use the same ellipsoid outside the specific area for
which it was originally best-fitted. Examples are the Clarke 1866, which was used over
Philippines and Krassowsky used in Somalia.

1.3.2 Using Satellite Global Surveys

After October 4, 1957, when surveying with manmade satellites became possible,
geodesists could connect continental and island surveys by best-fitting the ellipsoid over
the whole Earth.

During the global geodetic solution(s), the semi-major axis a and flattening f were
used as the two defining parameters for shape and size of the ellipsoid. The approach
became possible, because the f could be derived directly from the fundamental constant
J20. In such a case, the most important example is the GRS 80 ellipsoid (Section 1.2.6).

1.4 Geometry of the Ellipsoid

Figure 1.6 shows an ellipsoid of axes a" and "b", which is centered at the origin O
of a 3-Dimensional (3-D) rectangular axes ZXY. Here, first the Z-axis is to coincide with
the Earths daily rotational axis, which points towards North Pole. Second, X-axis,
perpendicular to Z-axis, is to point towards the zero longitude and lay in the Earths
Equatorial plane. Then, Y-axis as the third, perpendicular to both the Z- and X-axes, lies in
the Equatorial plane, and points towards the direction East.

1-6
 Figure 1.6 - Geometry of a Geodetic Ellipsoid

Here, F1 and F2 are two foci on the major or Equatorial axis of the 2-D ellipse
(Figure 1.6). When rotated around Z-axis, it will generate the 3-D oblate ellipsoid. Then,
for any point P on the ellipse, the following relationship exists:

F1P + F2P = Constant = 2a 1.1

NOTE: In present global geodesy, the semi-major axis a and flattening f (Section
1.2.5) are considered as the primary parameters to define the shape and size of an
ellipsoid.

1.4.1 Axes, Flattening, and Eccentricity

For the 3-D ellipsoid (Figure 1.6), the following relationships between its parameters,
with respect to semi-major axis a, are defined and established for subsequent use in
geodetic algorithms and formulas:

Semi-minor axis b = a (1 f) 1.2

Eccentricity e2 = (a2 - b2)/a2 1.3
= (2f - f2) 1.4
Second eccentricity e2 = (a2 - b2)/b2 1.5
(1 - e2) (1 + e2) = 1 1.6

1.4.2 Arcs of an Ellipsoid

Figure 1.7 (a) shows the latitude () and longitude () arcs (Note that longitude is
also known as meridian), and prime vertical or E-W arc on an ellipsoid.
PQ= p

1-7
 NP ( = 90)
Latitudinal Arc
P ( = 75, = 90)
Q

=0 Meridinal Arc

Equator ( = 0)

R
Prime Vertical
( = - 45)

SP ( = - 90)

Figure 1.7 (a) - Three Arcs of an Ellipsoid

Latitudinal Arc The arcs shown for the southern hemiellipsoid are the
Equator (0 latitude) and -45 of latitude. Arc length for -90 of latitude at
South Pole will be of zero length. For the northern hemiellipsoid, arcs of 75
of latitude and 90 of latitude at the North Pole are shown. Like South Pole,
arc length at the North Pole will also be zero. PQ, usually denoted by p,
is the radius of 75 parallel of latitude (Section 1.4.3).

Note that the length of 1-degree latitudinal circular arc decreases from
being the largest at the Equator to zero at North and South Poles.

Longitudinal or Meridinal Arc Arc shown is for = 0. Arcs for 90 E,

270 E, and 360 E are not shown, but they can be traced (like 0
longitude) around the Earth from East to West. 360 E will coincide with 0.

Note that the 1-degree semi-elliptic arc length for any longitude (0 to
360) does not change between any two latitudes. But, 1-degree arc length increases
along any longitude from Equator (latitude 0) to North and South Poles (latitudes
+/- 90). Also, length of 1-degree longitudinal arc will never be zero.

Prime Vertical Arc - This ellipsoidal arc is along the East to West direction
for any point P on Earths surface.

As there are no East or West directions at the Poles, there will NOT be any
prime vertical arcs at both the Poles (Section 1.4.3).

In Figure 1.7 (b), the geodetic latitudes (), longitude () and ellipsoidal height (h) for
any point P on the actual Earths surface are defined.

1-8
 Z P Topographical
Surface
h
Q
Zero
Meridian

Equator
X

Figure 1.7 (b) - Geodetic Coordinates (, , h) of a Point P

Here, height h is positive (+) as measured from the Point Q on the ellipsoid to
outside Point P on the Earths actual surface (Note: This type of height will be discussed
again in Section 2.8).

Traditionally, during the pre-satellite era, the zero longitude or meridian used to be
defined by the arc passing through Greenwich Observatory, UK. During 1960s, the Bureau
International de LHeure (BIH), Paris, France, started defining the zero meridian by the
ZX plane of the Conventional Terrestrial System CTS (Appendix A3).

Note that the name Greenwich is still associated, keeping the old tradition, with the
zero meridian, even though current 0-meridian does NOT pass through the telescope
of the Observatory.

1.4.3 Radii of Curvatures and Arc Lengths

A. Radii of Curvatures of Latitude, Longitude, and Prime Vertical Arcs

In Figure 1.7 (a), the radii PQ, denoted as p, of latitudinal arc and radius PR,
denoted as N, of prime vertical arc start from Point P and end at the semi-minor axis.
Radius M for longitudinal or meridinal ellipsoidal arc, as it varies from one point to
another, is not shown. Radii for all three arcs are functions of latitude () only.

a. Radius M of Longitudinal or Meridinal Semi-elliptic (N-S) arc:

M = a(1 - e2 ) / (1 - e2 sin2 )3/2 1.7

Note that M increases from the Equator {= a (1 f) 2} to the Poles {= a/(1-f)}.

Polar radius M (Latitude = +/- 90) is NOT equal to semi-minor axis b[(= a(1-f)].

b. Radius PR of Prime Vertical Ellipsoidal (E-W) arc:

N = a / (1 - e2 sin2 )1/2 1.8

Note: As at Poles there is no E-W direction, there is no N. At the Equator, N = a.

1-9
 c. Radius PQ of Latitudinal Circular arc:

p = N cos 1.9

Notes: (1) For any point on the Equator, both N and p are equal to
the semi-major axis a.
(2) Latitudinal arcs, except for Equator, are NOT along E-W.
(3) All longitudes intersect Equator at 90.

B. Arc Lengths of Longitude and Latitude

a. Longitudinal or Meridinal Arc Length

Arc length s between latitudes 1 and 2 is:

s = a (1 - e2) [ G (2 - 1 ) H/2 ( sin 22 - sin 21 )

+ J/ 4 (sin 42 - sin 41) - .] 1.10

Where

G = 1 + 3 / 4 e2 + 45/64 e4 + 175/256 e6 +
H = 3 / 4 e2 + 15/16 e4 + 525/512 e6 +
J = 15 / 64 e4 + 105/256 e6 +

Note that the Equation 1.10 is simple and straightforward and the higher accuracy
can be achieved by adding more terms.

b. Latitude Arc Length (d)

d = N cos d 1.11

1.4.4 Spherical Approximation to the Ellipsoid

In many geodetic algorithms and computations on an ellipsoid for distances up to 150

km a spherical approximation of the corresponding ellipsoid is used without significant loss
of accuracy. Two most commonly used radii are:

RA = (a + a + b) / 3 1.12
RG = (MN) 1.13

where M and N are radii of the longitudinal and prime vertical arcs. RG is also known
as Gaussian Mean Radius.

NOTE: Spherical approximation is used ONLY to simplify computations of ellipsoidal

distances and horizontal coordinates.

1-10
1.4.5 Normal and Reciprocal Normal Sections

The curved line generated by the intersection of a plane containing the normal at any
point A with the ellipsoidal surface is known as Normal Section.

In geodesy, two specific sections are studied, viz., the Normal section at A, which
passes through another point B, and the Reciprocal Normal section at B which
passes through A (Figure 1.8).

Figure 1.8 - Normal and Reciprocal Sections

The normal section can then be considered as the observed direction from A to B
and reciprocal section as the direction from B to A. These sections are different
because the two normals at A and B intersect the minor axis at two different points
nA and nB (Figure 1.8).

These two sections coincide when the two points A and B are on the same
meridian or same parallel of latitude.

Note: The simple formulas included in following Sections 1.4.5.1 to 1.4.5.5 are to
familiarize students. They are for distances up to 300 km. The inclusion of more terms will
be needed for better accuracy. Other more rigorous formulas also exist.

1.4.5.1 Angular and Linear Separation

Figure 1.9 shows the angular difference and maximum linear arc separation d
between two normal sections.

Figure 1.9 - Angular and Linear Separations

1-11
 The points k2 and k of the wedge shaped triangle are located on the ellipsoid,
where the two sections have maximum linear separation d.

The formula to compute the angular difference, , between Normal Sections

at A and B (Figure 1.9) is:

= 1/4 e2 (S / NA) 2 cos2 m sin 2AB 1.14

where m is the mid-latitude and AB the azimuth, which is the angle between the
meridian at A and normal section AB from A to B. Also, S is the arc distance
AB and NA the prime vertical radius at A.

Examples:
(1) is about 5.4 at mid-latitude 45, azimuth 45, and a distance of 100 km
between A and B.
(2) The maximum linear distance d on the ellipsoid between two normal sections is
about 4 mm at mid-latitude 45, azimuth 45, and a distance of 100 km between A and B.

1.4.5.2 Difference between Azimuths

Difference between azimuth from A to B and reverse azimuth is equal to 180 .

= e2/4 (S/ NA)2 cos2 m sin 2AB 1.15

Example: For point A at latitude 0, azimuth 45, and a distance of 100 km, the
difference is about 0.08 second of arc.

1.4.5.3 Correction to Azimuth due to Height (h) of Observed Point:

The correction is:

h - = - (h/ 2Mm ) e2 cos2 m sin 2AB 1.16

Examples:
(1) At mid-latitude 45o and h as 1000m, the correction is 0.05.
(2) For azimuth 327 40, distance 270 km, and h as 3482 m, the correction is
0.225.

1.4.5.4 Lengths of Normal Section (S) and Chord (C)

The two distances are computed in an iterative mode:

S = C [ 1 + C2 / 24 NA2 { 1+ 2 A2 cos2 AB } - ... ] 1.17

C = S [ 1 - S2 /24 NA2 { 1 + 2 A2 cos2 AB } + ... ] 1.18

1-12
Where

A = e2 NA sin m 1.19

1.4.5.5 Geodesic or Shortest Distance Curve

The shortest distance between two points on a plane is represented by a straight

line and on a sphere by great circle arc. But, on an ellipsoid the shortest distance is a
wavy shaped curve and is called Geodesic.

a. Between Two Close Points

Consider a set of points A, B, C and D, which are extremely close to each

other on the ellipsoid. Then, the two normal sections between the two extremely close
points will be practically un-separable from each other (Figure 1.10(a)).

Figure 1.10(a) - Constructing a Geodesic on an Ellipsoid

First, the shortest distance curve will start close to the normal section a from
point A and then end close to b nearing B. Thus, it will lie between the two normal
sections a and b. Similarly, it can be traced between B and C and so on to D. If
all these small curves between A, B, C, and D are joined, they will form the total
GEODESIC from A to D.

b. Between Any Two Points

Figure 1.10 (b) shows the total geodesic, as it would look, between any two
points A and B on an ellipsoid.

Figure 1.10 (b) - Geodesic between Two Points on an Ellipsoid

1-13
1.4.6 Spherical and Ellipsoidal Excess

As compared to a plane triangle, the sum of three angles of a triangle on a sphere or

ellipsoid will be greater than 180. The angular excess increases with the area of the
triangle.

a. Spherical Excess

If , and are angles of a triangle ABC on a sphere and A, B and C are the
corresponding angles of a plane triangle in degrees, the spherical excess (Figure 1.11)
is:

= ( + + ) - (A + B + C)
= ( + + ) - 180 1.20

Figure 1.11 - Spherical Excess for a Spherical Triangle

Examples:

1. For an equilateral triangle of 20 km side, the excess is about 1.

2. For an equilateral triangle of 110 km side, the excess is about 27.

b. Ellipsoidal Excess

Here, the excess varies from one point to another and also on the location of the
triangle in a very complex manner.

Example: For an ellipsoidal triangle with sides of 70 km, 85 km and 105 km, the
excess is about 5 at each corner and totals to 15.

1.5 Position Geometric Coordinates

Parameters, which are used to define the location or position of a point

pertaining to answer the geodetic query, Where am I? are called COORDINATES.

1-14
They can be 1-D as height or depth, 2-D as latitude and longitude, and 3-D as
latitude, longitude, and height. In areas like California, where fault movements are
changing the location of points on the Earths surface continuously, the time t is
associated with the determination of the position coordinates and is then considered as the
4th dimension.

NOTE: 2.5-D and 2.75-D are INVALID coordinates in Geodesy.

Here, in this Section two types of 2-D coordinates are discussed, defined, and
explained.

1.5.1 1-D Ellipsoidal Height or Depth

The ellipsoidal height (h) for the land areas and ellipsoidal depth (ed) over oceans are
defined as 1-D vertical coordinate, as it is now possible to directly survey them using
GPS.

Ellipsoidal heights will be discussed with gravimetric heights in Section 2.8 and depth
with other types of depths in oceans (Section 4.5).

1.5.2 2-D Horizontal Coordinates

The 2-D geometric horizontal coordinates are defined as Astronomical and

Geodetic.

1.5.2.1 2-D Astronomic Coordinates

Considering the motion of the Earth as a celestial body in space, the 2-D position
(, ) for any point is computed with observations made with stars. These coordinates are
called Astronomic.

Notes:

(1) The vertical direction during the observations of stars is aligned along the
plumb line (Section 2.3.2).
(2) In pre-manmade satellite era, these coordinates at the initial Point were
used as defining parameters for 2-D horizontal datums (Section 1.8).

1.5.2.2 2-D Geodetic Coordinates

Here, an ellipsoid is fitted to approximate the Earths shape and size and the semi-
minor axis is aligned along or parallel to the daily axis of rotation, then the northern end of
the axis points towards the North Pole. Then, the semi-major axis lies in the Equatorial
plane (Figure 1.12). In this case, the 2-D position coordinates (,) are called Geodetic.

1-15
 Figure 1.12 - 2-D Geodetic Coordinates

1.6 3-D Coordinates

1.6.1 3-D Rectangular Coordinates

Figure 1.13 shows a 3-D rectangular coordinate ZXY with its origin at point O,
which may not be Earths center of mass.

Figure 1.13 - 3-D Rectangular Coordinates

Notes:

1. When the origin O is defined to coincide with the Earths center of mass, the
3-D coordinates are known as geocentric. First, the Z-axis is defined and
then second, X-axis as perpendicular to Z-axis in an assigned direction.
Third, Y-axis is defined to be perpendicular to both Z- and X-axes and
positive in East direction.
2. In Photogrammetry, Y-axis is defined in opposite direction to the Y-axis in
geodesy, i.e., positive in West direction.

The alignment of the three axes will be discussed and explained again in Section 1.9.2.

1-16
1.6.2 3-D Geodetic Coordinates

Figure 1.14 shows the 3-D geodetic coordinates with the ellipsoid origin located at
Z
Topographical
P surface
h

Q
Zero
Meridian

O
Y

Equator

Figure 1.14 - 3-D Geodetic Coordinate System

The origin O of the 3-D rectangular system X, Y, Z (Note that the Point O
may or may not be at Earths center of mass) may or may not be the center of the ellipsoid.
Here, for any point P on the Earths actual surface, the ellipsoidal height PQ or h is
then defined as its third geodetic coordinate. PQ is in the direction of the normal at Q.

NOTE: At the Poles, there is NO zero longitude.

1.6.3 Relationship between Rectangular and Geodetic Coordinates

a. Rectangular (X, Y, Z) and Geodetic (,, h)

X = (N + h) cos cos 1.21a

Y = (N + h) cos sin 1.21b
Z = [N (1 e2) + h] sin 1.21c

b. Geodetic (, , h) and Rectangular (X, Y, Z)

= cos-1 (X2 + Y2)1/2 1.22a

(N + h)

= tan-1 (Y/X) 1.22b

h = (Z / sin ) N (1 e2) 1.22c

In this case, first h = 0 is assumed and then is computed. Then, h is computed

again. After this, two or three iterations between equations for and h will be
sufficient to converge to about 1-2 mm. Equation 1.22b shows there will NOT be zero
longitude at the Poles, as both X and Y are zero there.

1-17
1.7 Computations on an Ellipsoid

1.7.1 Medium and Long Lines

The computations of distance s for medium & long lines, i.e., greater than 400 km,
between two points and/or the geodetic coordinates, (, ) of any points P and Q on an
ellipsoidal surface are complex and involve lengthy algorithms. For undergraduate level,
these computational algorithms are not included in this book.

1.7.2 Geodetic Coordinates

Computations are done on an ellipsoidal polar triangle (Figure 1.15).

Figure 1.15 - Ellipsoidal Polar Triangle

There are two types of problems to solve for the geodetic coordinates:

A. Direct Solution Knowing the latitude and longitude of the first point P1,
distance from P1 to the second or unknown point P2, and the azimuth of P2 from
P1, compute the latitude and longitude of P2 and the reverse azimuth of P1 from
P2.
Known Data: 1, 1, s12, and 12
To be computed: 2, 2, and 21.

B. Inverse Solution Given the latitude and longitude of two points P1 and P2,
compute the distance s, azimuth of P2 from P1 and reverse azimuth from P2 to
P1.

Known Data: 1, 1, and 2, 2

To be computed: s12, 12, and 21

On the ellipsoid, such computations involve lengthy derivations, which increase in

complexity as the distance s increases. Here, only step-wise computational technique(s)
for distances up to 150 km are explained and set up.

1.7.2.1 Direct Solution

A. Series Development Involving powers of s

1-18
 The starting assumption is that a curve on the ellipsoid can be expressed as a function
of s. Thus, the equations between first and second points are developed as Mclaurin
Series** about the first point as an origin:

2 = 1 + d 1 s + d2 1 s2 + 1.23a
ds d2s 2

2 = 1 + d 1 s + d2 1 s2 + 1.23b
ds d2s 2

21 - 12 = 180 + d 1 s + d2 1 s2 + 1.23c
ds d2s 2

** The symbol 1 is used for McLaurin Series.

Note: For lines up to 125 km, latitudes and longitudes need to be computed with
derivatives up to 4th order and for azimuth up to 5th order. Retaining more terms, this
method can be extended to 400-500 km lines.

B. Puissant Formula

This method is adequate for lines less than 100 km. Here, start is made with a sphere
(shown by dash line) of prime vertical radius N1 and tangential at the first point P1.
The sphere will be approximately tangent at the second point P2 and intersect the polar
axis at P (Figure 1.16(a)).

Figure 1.16 (a) - Sphere of Radius N1 at Point P1

The azimuths and distances are assumed to be the same on the sphere and the
ellipsoid. Using cosine law with spherical triangle, following equation is obtained:

Sin 2 = sin 1 cos (arc P1 P2) + cos 1 sin (arc P1 P2) cos 12 1.24

1-19
 Here, N1 on the sphere is approximately assumed to be equal to the arc on the
ellipsoid and this gives the following:

N1 = Mm 1.25

where is a small increment in . The longitudinal radius Mm at the mid-point

(Equation 1.25) is solved as under:

Mm = M1 + 3 (M1 e2 sin 1 cos 1 . 1.26

(1 - e2 sin2 1)
= (Mm M1) 2 (1 - e2 sin2 1) 1.27
3 M1 e2 sin 1 cos 1

To compute , consider a sphere of radius N2 (Figure 1.16 (b).

Figure 1.16 (b) - Sphere of Radius N2 at Point P2

In this case, the sphere (shown by dash line), which is tangential at point P2,
intersect the polar axis at P and passes through the first point P1. Azimuths and
distances on the sphere and ellipsoid can be considered approximately equal. Then,
applying the law of sines for triangle P1PP2, the following equation is obtained:

sin = sin 12 1.28

sin (s/N2) cos 2

sin = sin 12 sin (s/N2) sec 2 1.29

Now, for the azimuth, the resulting equation is:

tan = sin m tan 1.30

2 cos ( / 2) 2

1-20
 C. Gauss Mid-Latitude Formula

Here, computations are done on a sphere of radius Nm at the mid-latitude point

between points P1 and P2 and then on the spherical triangle P1P2P in place of
ellipsoidal polar triangle P1P2P (Figure 1.16 (c)).

Figure 1.16 (c) - Ellipsoidal Polar and Spherical Triangles

Also, azimuths and distances are assumed to be the same on the sphere and ellipsoid.
Even though 1 and 2 are not equal to 1 and 2, the arcs between them are equal. Thus,
the following equation is obtained:

m = (1 + 2) = (1 + 2) 1.31

The above leads to the following assumption:

Nm (2 - 1) = Mm (2 - 1) 1.32

Using Gauss equation, following equations are obtained:

Sin ( s ) cos (12 + ) = sin { Mm } cos

2Nm 2 2Nm 2 1.33

s sin (12 + ) = Nm cos m 1.34

2

s cos (12 + ) = Mm cos 1.35

2 2

1.7.2.2 Inverse Solution

For this type of solutions, only one formula is described and explained. It is
comparatively straightforward and easier in derivation of equations than the others.

Gauss Mid-Latitude Formula

First, the radii Mm and Nm are computed and then F is computed as:

1-21
 F = (1/12) sin m cos2 m 1.36

After this, the differential coordinates are computed as under:

= sin m sec + F ()3 1.37

2

= {sin () / ()} 1.38

2 2

= {sin () / ()} 1.39

2 2

X1 = Nm cos m 1.40

X2 = Mm cos ( ) 1.41
2

S12 = (X12 + X22) 1.42

Then, the following relationships are obtained:

s = S1 (S1/2Nm) / sin (S1 / 2 Nm) 1.43

12 = tan-1 (X1/X2) - 1.44

2

21 = 12 + 180 1.45

1.8 Pre-satellite Era 2-D Horizontal Datums

It will be difficult to pinpoint when and where the first 2-D geodetic horizontal
datum was adjusted and officially adopted by a country for its maps and charts.
However, Mid-19th century could be attributed when geodesists would have started to
make moving towards such a datum.

1.8.1 Definition

A set of parameters, which are used to compute the horizontal geodetic coordinates
(,) of the surveyed stations and to bring them into consistent geodetic relationship,
defines a 2-D geodetic Horizontal Datum.

Up to the launch of Sputnik satellite on October 4, 1957, the horizontal datums were
defined over local, regional, national territories, continents, and isolated islands and/or
island chains. Thus, the origin could not be made to coincide with the Earths center of

1-22
mass and the ellipsoidal semi-minor axis could not be aligned with the Earths rotational
axis. As the ellipsoids were best-fitted geometrically over different sized areas, the
ellipsoids shape and size differed from one datum to another. However, in many instances,
geodesists did adopt same defining parameters to different datums ignoring the
fundamental geodetic pre-requisites.

Note: The ellipsoid in such cases is designated as Best-fitting.

1.8.2 Defining Parameters

To define a 2-D horizontal datum, a minimum of five parameters is required as

under:

1. A Reference ellipsoid (a, b) for computing the geodetic coordinates,

2. Coordinates of an Initial point or station, which in turn defines the origin of
the ellipsoid inside the Earth,
3. An azimuth of a station from the Initial point to define the North
orientation.

During the pre-satellite era, the starting coordinates of the Initial point used to be
the astronomic coordinates (Section 1.5.2.1). In addition, the ellipsoid was considered as
tangential to the geoid at the initial point of the datum.

Note: There will be more to learn about geoid in the Chapter 2.

1.8.3 Local or Regional or Continental Datums

Examples of such 2-D horizontal datums are:

Local: Old Hawaii (Pacific Ocean)

National: Bogota (Colombia, South America)
Regional: Tokyo (Japan and Korea, Asia)
Continental: North American Datum 1927.

1.8.4 Definition Problems and Limitations

These 2-D geodetic horizontal datums due to their non-global definition had the
following geodetic definition problems and limitations right from the start:

1. Origins were not at the Earths center of mass.

2. Orientations were misaligned with respect to the True North.

3. True relationship between the ellipsoid and the geoid** at the Initial point was
forced to be zero.

1-23
 4. Deflection of the Vertical (DoV) ** or the angle between the ellipsoidal normal
and the plumb line at the Initial point was also set to be zero.

5. Computed coordinates were not truly geodetic.

** Geoid and DoV will be discussed and explained in Chapter 2.

These datums have also developed large distortions. Due to crustal motion in states
like California; geodetic positions of benchmarks have also changed.

1.9 Post-Satellite Era Geocentric Horizontal Datum and Geodetic System

The manmade satellites have provided surveying capabilities to connect the continents
and islands and allowed the following types of solutions:

a. To adjust old 2-D horizontal datum(s) to 3-D geocentric definition.

b. To define and realize 3-D geocentric geodetic system.

Note: The name datum has changed to geodetic system for 3-D solutions.

The salient definitions/characteristics of the two types of geodetic solutions, viz., 2-

D geocentric horizontal datum and 3-D geocentric geodetic system, are described and
explained below:

1.9.1 2-D North American Datum (NAD) 1983

This 2-D geocentric horizontal datum was defined using all the old data sets of the
North American Datum (NAD) 1927 and the supplemental data observed to fill up the
geodetic gaps, existing weak links, and sections destroyed due to crustal motion and
vandalism. The data sets were computed using a Mean Earth ellipsoid. Navy Navigation
Satellite System (NNSS) Doppler data was used to adjust the new datum to the geocentric
definition.

Defining Parameters

a. Bureau International de LHeure (BIH) realized Conventional Terrestrial System

(CTS) 1984 for the X-, Y-, and Z-axes (Appendix A3).

b. International Association of Geodesy (IAG) defined Geodetic Reference System

(GRS) 1980 (Section 1.2.4) Ellipsoid (a = 6378137 m; 1/f = 298.257222101).

Geodetic Critique

In the 2007 update, the following definition and tidal effect modeling deficiencies were
not resolved:

1-24
 1. Incorrect implementation of ITRF.

2. Non-implementation of IAG Resolution No. 16 of 1983 on tidal modeling.

3. Overlooking of International Earth Rotation Service (IERS) Conventions on

tide model used, which makes the NAD 83 positions non-real and not observable.

1.9.2 3-D World Geodetic System (WGS) 1984

Immediately after the launching of Sputnik in 1957, the U.S. Army Map Service
(AMS) started a new project to define 3-D geocentric geodetic system to cover the whole
globe. The new solution was named WGS 1960. The positioning accuracy achieved was
in the range of about 500 meters.

Then, WGS 66 and WGS 72 followed and the absolute accuracy improved to about
100 m in the first and to about 10-15 m in the 1972 solution. The data sets used for the
WGS 72 came from a number of geodetic satellites available at that time. A substantial
amount of data came from the NNSS, which still had not reached the desired accuracy
range of 1-2 m.

Around 1978, Defense Mapping Agency (DMA), successor to AMS, launched a new
project using new research to update the WGS 72 with satellite data of then fully
operational NNSS. After eight years of efforts, the WGS 84 (Original) was officially
released in September of 1987. The accuracy achieved was about 1-2 m.

Defining Parameters

a. BIH Conventional Terrestrial System (CTS) 1984.0 for the X-, Y-, and Z-axes
(Appendix A3). The defining characteristics are:
Origin is at the Earths center of mass.
Z-axis is oriented in the direction of BIH Conventional Terrestrial Pole
(CTP), Epoch 1984.0.
X-axis is at right angle to Z-axis and along the intersection of the BIH
Reference Zero Meridian, Epoch 1984.0, and the plane passing through the
Origin and containing the Equator.
Y-axis is perpendicular to both the Z- and X-axis, lies in the Equatorial
plane, and points towards East, completing the Right-
Handed System (RHS)1.

1 In a Right Handed System (RHS), the right thumb is pointed towards Z, index
finger towards X, and middle finger towards Y or East.

Note: In a Left Handed System (LHS), left middle finger points towards West or Y-
axis is in opposite direction vis--vis the RHS.

1-25
 b. WGS 1984 Ellipsoid** (a = 6378137 m; 1/f = 298.257223563).

**Note: In defining WGS 84 (Original), the four fundamental constants of GRS 80 were
adopted. However, while deriving the flattening f, Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) used
an algorithm, which involved an additional 5 term in the computations of f. As this
involved rounding of digits in 5, it changed the f from that of GRS 80. Thus, DMA
defined a new ellipsoid for WGS 84.

WGS 84 (Original) has since been updated for accuracy improvement as WGS 84
(G730) in 1994, WGS 84 (G873) in 1996, and WGS 84 (G1150) in 2001. It is important to
note that in these three updates, two of the GRS 80 fundamental constants GM and J20
have also been changed. However, the derived constant f, which should have followed the
J20, has been retained to its original value of 1984. The present accuracy claimed is about
5-10 cm.

Geodetic Critique

In the past three updates of 1994, 1996, and 2001, the following definition and tidal
effect modeling deficiencies are still not resolved:

1. Incorrect implementation of ITRF.

2. Non-implementation of IAG Resolution No. 16 of 1983 on tidal modeling and

IERS Conventions, which make WGS 84 positions non-real and not observable.

Note: If the above corrective actions are not taken, they will affect the fundamental
geodetic definition of the GPS positions (Section 3.6).

1.10 Geodetic Facts

1. Sun is stationary and Earth rotates daily around the imaginary polar axis.
2. Period of daily rotation, i.e., Length of Day (LoD) is 24 hours +/- few micro-
seconds.
3. As Earth travel round Sun, varying LoD varies the length of the year.
4. Earth has an Equatorial Bulge. Thus, the best-fitting geometric shape is an
OBLATE ellipsoid.
5. 2.5D and 2.75D do not pertain to geodetic positions.
6. North Pole has been walking secularly southward at the rate of about 13.5 cm
per year.
7. Equator also slides changing the positional coordinates continuously.
8. Time is here for a Living WGS.
9. The Perfect Map is now here.

1-26
 2 Gravimetric or Physical Geodesy

2.1 Introduction

Earths gravity affects practically every geodetic measurement. Thus, this chapter
deals with the study of gravity, its physical properties, and its effect on measurements.

The Earths masses inside its actual outer surface are in constant motion, e.g. fluid
core mantle around Earths center, molten rocks, lava etc. A full knowledge of density of
such different types of masses, as it varies from point to point, below a few km from the
Earths crust is practically impossible. Likewise, the gravity cannot be measured inside the
Earth. Furthermore, the Earths gravity shows a very puzzling discontinuity from a
point just inside to a point just outside its outer surface. Thus, the understanding of the
Earths gravity field, its variations, and its behavior from point to point is the most difficult
aspect of learning and/or studying geodesy.

To determine the Earths total gravity field, the study is carried out in two steps.
First, gravity is modeled as a symmetrical field, not geometrically but gravimetrically, of an
ellipsoid of revolution, because this can be handled mathematically. Then, as the remaining
deviations of the total gravity from the ellipsoidal normal field are very small, they can
be modeled as linear. The total field is thus split into the ellipsoidal normal and
disturbing components. This approach simplifies and makes it easier for the
determination of Earths total gravity field.

This chapter presents the fundamentals of gravimetric or physical geodesy, potential

theory, normal and total gravity, and their modeling and determination. Then, it discusses
geoid, heights, depths, and vertical datums in simple steps.

2.2 Gravitational Attraction and Potential

Here, first the attraction between the Earths masses is discussed and then potential
theory is explained.

2.2.1 Attraction

The study of Earths gravity starts from the following episode:

While sitting under an apple tree, British scientist Newton noticed that when an apple
fell, it came down towards the ground. After some thinking and analyzing, he enunciated
the following law:

Newtons Law of Gravitation (or attraction) Two stationary point masses m1 and
m2, separated by a distance d, attract each other with force AF (Figure 2.1).

2-1
 Figure 2.1 - Attracting Masses and Force AF

AF = G m1m2 2.1
d2

Where G is Newtons Universal Gravitational Constant.

The force AF is directed along the line joining the two end points, where the two
masses are located at its ends.

Here, let the first mass m1 be called the attracting mass and the second as attracted
of unit mass, i.e., m2 = 1. The distance d1 (between the two masses) is considered
positive from the mass m1 to the unit mass and as d1 increases, the force decreases. Thus,
the force AF1 due to mass m1 becomes:

AF1 = -Gm 1 2.2

d12

2.2.2 Potential

The gravitational potential V1 is so defined that its derivative along the direction
d1 is equal to the force AF1 (Equation 2.2):

AF1 = V1 = Gradient V1 (with respect to d) 2.3

d1

or V1 = Gm1 2.4.1
d1

The Earth can be considered as made up of infinite number of point masses (m1, m2,
m3 .). Then, the total of such individual potentials, due to attraction of all the masses on a
unit mass outside the Earths surface, will represent Earths combined gravitational
potential (Equation 2.4.2):

2-2
 i=
V = G [mi/di] 2.4.2
i=1

Note that for a unit mass located outside at infinite distance, the Earth attracts that
mass, as if its total mass M is located at its center.

2.2.3 Centrifugal Force and Potential

Earth revolves in its 24-hour daily motion around the Earths rotational axis, which
joins North and South Pole, with a velocity . It generates a centrifugal force CF,
which acts only in the latitudinal plane, on a unit mass, at distance p from the rotational
axis (Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2 - Earths Centrifugal Force CF

CF = 2p 2.5

Here, the corresponding potential is:

(X,Y) = 2p2 2.6

2

2.2.4 Gravity Potential (W)

The total of the gravitational potential V and centrifugal potential is known as

the Earths gravity potential W:

Gravity Potential = Gravitational Potential + Centrifugal Potential

or
W (X, Y, Z) = V (X, Y, Z) + (X, Y) 2.7

where (X, Y, Z) are the 3-D rectangular coordinates of the unit point mass (Figure 2.2).
The W is an infinite degree polynomial.

2-3
2.3 Gravity

The gravity g is the total force, i.e., gravitational plus centrifugal, which acts on a
unit mass located at point A outside the Earth (Equation 2.8). It has both the magnitude
and direction. Figure 2.3 shows the configuration for g as the combined gravitational and

Figure 2.3 - Gravity Force g at Point A on Earth Surface

centrifugal forces on a unit mass located at A on the Earths surface (Equation 2.8). It
has both magnitude and direction (Figure 2.3).

g= gradient W 2.8

The magnitude of gravity has the dimensions of acceleration and is measured in

gals (in honor of Galileo Galilei):

1 gal = 1 cm / sec2 2.9

In geodesy, commonly used unit is milligal or mgal. The value of g at the Equator
(or at the end of semi-major axis a) is of the order of about 978 gals and at the poles (or
at the end of semi-minor axis b) is about 983 gals, where b < a.

Note that the gravity g varies from one point on the Earths surface to another for
two main reasons, viz., first, due to variation of the mass density inside the Earth and
second, the varying distance p of the point mass from the rotational axis.

2.3.1 Gravity Level Surface GEOP

Equation 2.10 defines a family of surfaces, on which gravity potential is constant.

W (X, Y, Z) = Constant 2.10

One such member is called an equipotential or level surface GEOP.

2-4
 Figure 2.4 shows two GEOPs passing through two sets of points, viz., PQ and PQ.

Figure 2.4 - Two Level Surfaces GEOPs

Notes:

(1) The magnitude of g is NOT constant and it varies from one point to
another on any equipotential surface.
(2) As the magnitude of g varies from point to point on an equipotential
surface, the distance between two GEOPs at points P and P will be
different compared to other two points Q and Q. Here, an
important consideration is that the points P and Q are on one
GEOP while their corresponding points P and Q are on the
second GEOP (Figure 2.4). Thus, any two GEOPs are NOT parallel to
each other.

2.3.2 Plumb Line

At any point on a GEOP, the direction of the gravity g is perpendicular or normal

to it. This alignment is known as Plumb Line. As two GEOPs are not parallel to each other
(Figure 2.4), the plumb line, which is in the direction of the gravity, at any point P,
passing through a number of successive GEOPs (Figure 2.5), will become a curved line.

Figure 2.5 - Curved Plumb Line

2-5
2.3.3 Deflection of the Vertical DoV

The angle between the ellipsoid normal and the plumb line at any point P on the
Earths surface (Figure 2.6) is known as Deflection of the Vertical (DoV).

Figure 2.6 - Deflection of Vertical DoV

Angle DoV can be split in two components, viz., one in the meridian plane () and
the other in the prime vertical (). These two components are then used to study the
differences between astronomic and geodetic latitudes and longitudes.

2.3.4 Gravitational and Gravity Potential Representation

A. Gravitational Potential (V)

To represent Earths gravity potential W (=V + ), one needs the representation

for V, which is very complex. For a point (r, , ) on the Earths actual surface, the
gravitational potential V can be represented by spherical harmonic functions as:

n= m=n
V = GM 1- (a/r)n Jnm Rnm (, ) + Knm Snm (, ) 2.11
r n=1 m=0

Where: M = Earths Total Mass

a = Semi-major axis

r = Distance from Earths center of mass

n, m = Degree and order

Jn m, Kn m = Constant Coefficients.

Rnm, Sn m = Gravitational coefficients.

The harmonic functions can also be arranged as a matrix of dimension (n, m).

2-6
 B. Gravity Potential (W)

The total gravity potential W (combining equations 2.6 and 2.11) is:

n= m=n
W = GM 1 - (a/r)n Jnm Rnm (,) + K nm Snm (, ) + 2p2 2.12
r n=1 m=0 2

2.3.5 Earth Gravitational Model (EGM)

The most complete EGM, computed up to n=m=360, was modeled as a component of

the World Geodetic System (WGS) 1984 in October 1996. It has been released with the
official name as WGS 84 EGM96.

NOTE: In EGM, the G represents gravitational and NOT gravity.

2.4 Normal Gravity Field

If the Earths gravity field is considered to have rotational symmetry or that of an

ellipsoid of revolution, it is then known as Normal Gravity field. This allows this gravity
field to be determined mathematically.

2.4.1 Normal Gravitational Potential (VN)

For normal gravity field, all non-diagonal or non-zonal terms (Equation 2.11) become
zero. In such a case, if the second-degree zonal term J20 is known, all other terms for
VN can be computed mathematically. However, the spherical harmonic series still
contains infinite number of terms. Then the normal gravitational potential VN is:

VN = GM 1 - J2 a2 P2 (cos ) - J4 a4 P4 (cos ) - ..
r r2 r4

VN = GM 1 - J2n (a/r)2n P2n (cos ) 2.13
r n=1

where

J2n = Zonal Harmonic Coefficients

P2n (cos ) = Legendre Functions.

2-7
2.4.2 Normal Gravity Potential (U)

The total normal gravity potential (U) is defined as:

U (X, Y, Z) = VN (X, Y, Z) + (X, Y) 2.14

Note that U, similar to W, is also an infinite degree polynomial.

2.4.3 Normal Gravity

The normal gravity () is a function of the latitude only, because of its rotational
symmetry. For any point (,) on Earths surface, its value is given as under:

= aa cos2 + bb sin2 2.15

(a2 cos2 + b2 sin2)1/2
where,

a (at the Equator) = GM ( 1 - 3 m - 3 e2 m) 2.16

ab 2 14

b (at the Pole) = GM ( 1 + m + 3 e2 m) 2.17

a2 7

where

Constant m = 2ab 2.18

GM

2nd eccentricity e2 = a2 - b2
b2

2.4.4 Normal Gravity Level Surface SPHEROP

The equation as under

U (X,Y,Z) = Constant 2.19

defines a family of surfaces on which the normal gravity potential U is constant. One
such family member is called an equipotential or level surface SHEROP.

2.5 Anomalous or Disturbing Potential (T)

The small difference between Earths gravity potential W and normal gravity
Potential U is called the anomalous or disturbing potential T (Equation 2.20).

T = W - U 2.20

2-8
 NOTE: Thus, the gravimetric modeling of W becomes easier by first determining
U mathematically and then modeling the residual anomalous potential T.

2.6 Geoid and Spheroid

2.6.1 Geoid

From the family of equipotential surfaces GEOPS (Section 2.3.1), the surface
defined by:

W (X,Y,Z) = W0 2.21

is called the Geoid and the defining constant W0 is known as geoidal constant.

Note that the International Association of Geodesy (IAG) defines the value of the
geoidal constant W0.

2.6.2 Spheroid

From the family of equipotential SPHEROPs (Section 2.4.4), any one particular
surface (of the family) defined by the following equation:

U (X,Y,Z) = W0 2.22

is called the Spheroid.

Historical evolution Bruin was the first geodesist to define the spheroid U2 = W0
(using only J2). It is important to note here that this simplest spheroid is a 14-degree
polynomial surface. Thus, as an ellipsoid is only 2-degree surface, it is incorrect to equate a
spheroid to an ellipsoid. Helmert was the second geodesist who defined the next spheroid
with U4 = W0 by including the fourth zonal J4. This spheroid is a more complex 23-
degree polynomial surface.

By dropping all terms containing 2nd-degree and higher powers of f in U2 field,

Bruin could make it an ellipsoidal normal gravity potential. This set the limit for
fundamentally achievable geodetic absolute accuracy at about 60 m. Helmert made the
next higher approximation by retaining f2 and dropping f3 in U4. Thus, he could
raise the achievable accuracy limit to about 20 cm (Note that this accuracy level set
around 1905-06 was actually achieved in geodetic positioning using GPS around 1998).

2.6.3 Geoidal Undulation (N)

Figure 2.7 shows a point Q (,,h=0) on the ellipsoid and a point R on the geoid,
where the distance QR is measured along the ellipsoidal normal. The separation QR is
called the geoidal undulation N. It is also the ellipsoidal height (hG) of point R.

2-9
 Figure 2.7 - Geoid Undulation N

The geoidal undulation N is defined as:

N = T / m 2.23

where m is the mean normal gravity from point Q to R (Figure 2.7).

Notes:

1. N, which is also the ellipsoidal height of point R (,,N) on the geoid, is

positive (+) outside the ellipsoid.
2. By any definition or consideration, the undulation N is NOT equivalent to
any gravimetrically defined height HG (Section 2.7).

2.6.4 Geoid Determination or Modeling

The global gravity data sets are required for modeling Earths true or absolute
geoid. From the local or regional dense gravity data sets and using the global geoid model,
it is possible to compute a Higher Resolution (HR) geoid for that area. But the HR geoid
and its definition still remain an integral part of the global geoid.

For all usages in practical applications, there is ONLY one geoid. Local or regional
models, unless defined and tied to the global geoid, are relative geoids.

Note that using the WGS 84 EGM96 gravitational model (Section 2.3.5), National
Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) released a global geoid in October 1996. It is
known as WGS 84 (EGM96) Geoid, where (EGM96) is used to identify the version.
The accuracy estimates of geoidal undulations for Earths different regions are:

a. West Europe and Continental USA - +/- 50 cm

b. Other areas - +/- 1 2 m
c. Ocean areas. - +/- 15 25 cm.

2-10
 Notes:

(1) A HR geoid model captures the high frequency variations, but any such
model does not improve the absolute accuracy of N.

(2) A realistic value for (N) between any two points is very difficult to obtain.

2.7 Geopotential Number

Figure 2.8 shows Earths actual surface with a point P on it, the GEOP through
P, and the geoid through Q, where the plumb line from P intersects the geoid.

Figure 2.8 - Earths Actual Surface, GEOP (W=WP) through P and the Geoid

Then, the geopotential number C of the point P is defined as:

CP = W0 - WP 2.24

As C will be the same for all points of a level surface, it is thus considered as the
natural or physical measure of gravimetric height (HG) of point P, even though it does
not have dimension of length. It is measured in geopotential units (g.p.u) where:

1 g.p.u. = 1000 gal meter 2.25

Since g 0.98 gal all over the globe and if height H is defined in length unit, the
following Equation provides the relationship between C and H:

CP 0.98 HG 2.26

Using Equation 2.26, gravimetric heights are then defined as under:

HG = CP 2.27
gm

2-11
where gm is the average gravity between P and Q (Figure 2.8). Thus, gravimetric heights
HG will differ in their definition according to how the gravity value gm, true or normal,
is chosen or modeled.

NOTE: Thus, an unlimited number of height systems can be defined by modeling

the true gravity gm in different ways.

2.8 Heights (+) and Depths (-)

2.8.1 Land Areas

Here, different types of heights are discussed and explained, which can be defined as
geometrically (Chapter 1) and as gravimetrically by Equation 2.27.

A. Ellipsoidal Height (+/- h)

This type of height was defined in geometric geodesy (Figure 1.6 (b), Chapter 1), when
the geodesists agreed on Earths shape as an oblate ellipsoid. However, in pre-satellite era,
these heights could not be directly surveyed. Hence, their use in practice was not even
mentioned or considered until mid-1990s.

In post-satellite era, satellite survey techniques (Chapter 3) made it possible to survey

h directly. As GPS can now provide accurate h, these heights should be given full
consideration for using in geodetic projects. Also, recent research has shown that these
heights will work in many applications including engineering (Appendices B2 and B3).

B. True Orthometric Height (+/- H)

These heights are theoretically defined in the gravity field of the Earth with the
Geoid as the zero reference surface. H is positive (+) outside the geoid and negative
inside the geoid.

Here, in Equation 2.27, gm = g* is selected, where g* is the modeled average of

the gravity values as measured along the plumb line from point P on Earths surface to
point Q on the geoid (Figure 2.8). Then, the True orthometric height (H) is defined as:

H = C / g* 2.28

As gravity g cannot be observed at all points along the plumb line, only g* can be
modeled. The most commonly used model is Helmerts. However, the point to note is that
every model will result in a different orthometric height H for the same point. A few
other well-known models, named after the geodesists who researched them, are Maders,
and Niethammers. The most rigorous model is attributed to Niethammer.

Due to lack of the required dense gravity data for computing true orthometric
heights, this height system has not been established in the past and still it is rare to find it in

2-12
most of the countries around the world. The qualifier True is generally not used in
practice.

Figure 2.9 shows that the height H differs for any two points P and Q on the
same level surface, i.e., HP is NOT equal to HQ.

Figure 2.9 - Heights H differ on the Same Level Surface

PARADOX If the height difference is the ONLY condition for water to flow, it will
flow between P and Q, though the points are on the same level surface (Figure 2.9).

C. Normal Height (+/- H*)

Normal height (H*) is defined in the normal gravity field. Here gm =m is selected,
which is the average normal gravity along the ellipsoidal normal. Then, the normal height
H* is positive (+) outside the ellipsoid and defined as:

H* = C / m 2.29

Almost all the countries around the world have been using this height system for
centuries. Even though Western Europe has the densest gravity coverage as compared to
the rest of the world, it still has preferred the normal heights H* over orthometric H.

D. Dynamic Height (HD)

In this system, the gm is a selected constant, which is defined by the normal

gravity of any latitude within the designated area. Thus, the dynamic height is

defined as:

HD = C / 2.30

Thus, the dynamic height differs from geopotential number C only in scale. In
this case, C in g.p.u. unit is divided by a constant to convert it to HD in units of
length. These artificial heights have no physical meaning. However, The Great Lake
Datum around the five lakes in Mid-West of USA is defined in this system to ensure
equal heights for all points on all the shores of all the 5 Great Lakes.

2-13
 NOTE: Dynamic heights are NOT defined with the geoid as zero reference surface.

MOST IMPORTANT ALERT: As sphere is NOT a valid geometric shape for the
Earth since Mid-18th century and geoid is ONLY defined with respect to an ellipsoid,
heights referenced to sphere as ZERO reference surface are also INVALID as Geodetic
Information.

2.8.2 Ocean Areas

These heights or depths will be defined and explained in Chapter 4.

2.9 Relationship between Ellipsoidal Height (h) and Orthometric Height (H)

2.9.1 Between Heights h and H

Ellipsoidal height (h) is the vertical component of the geodetic position of any point
on the Earths surface (Chapter 1). The geometric relationship between h, orthometric
height H, and undulation N is shown in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10 - Relationship between Ellipsoidal and Orthometric Heights

An important point to consider is that orthometric height (H) is measured along

the curved plumb line and height (h) and undulation (N) are measured along straight
lines. Then, for any point P on Earths surface, the following relationship can be
established between h, H, and N:

h H + N 2.31

2-14
 NOTES:

1. As the left hand side will NEVER be equal to the right hand side, hence
the approximately equal sign is included instead of the old practice of
using =.
2. The most important point is that all three heights (h, H, and N) must be
consistently defined in one geodetic system.

2.9.2 Between Differential Heights h and H

Similar to Equation 2.31, the following relationship between the two differential
heights between two points can be established as:

h H + N 2.32

where, h is surveyed from GPS leveling (Chapter 3) and H from spirit leveling
(Section 2.10).

NOTE: In a recent study of real data sets over 11 U.S. States, viz., Washington,
California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Georgia, Tennessee, Virginia, New York,
and Kansas, it was found that for distances up to 1-2 km, the N hardly varies. Or, for
short distances between any two points, N in Equation 2.32 is practically zero.
Thus, the above comparison shows that the geoid is approximately parallel to the
ellipsoid for distances less than 1 km. And, the difference h can be used in place of
H in engineering applications (Appendix B3). This alternative use would be very time
and cost saving.

2.10 Leveling

The main objective of height leveling technique is to measure the difference of

heights H or h between any two points A and B located on the Earths surface.

2.10.1 Spirit Leveling

With this technique, first the linear separation n or W between the two GEOPs
for any two points is measured. Then, the measured difference is converted to
gravimetric height difference H.

Survey Technique The level lines are generally surveyed along paved roads. A spirit
Level instrument and two level rods, either graduated in feet or meters, are required.
Figure 2.11 shows the observational setup at ith station along the road.

1. During observations, equal distance placement of the leveling instrument from

both the rods is maintained to cancel the refraction and collimation errors

2-15
 Rod F

Rod R

f BM B
ri GEOP through F
Fi
ni=ri-fi
GEOP through R
BM A Ri

Figure 2.11 - Instrument and Rods Setup along a Spirit Level Line

2. Survey Drill -

(1) Set the rear rod R, as pertaining to the direction of the level line, on the
starting Bench Mark (BM) A (Figure 2.11).
(2) Measure a distance about 40-50 meters (Note: The greater is the slope of
the road, the shorter will be the distance.), set the instrument, and level it
ensuring that its lower and upper wire read between 0.5 m and 2.5 m
marks on the rod R. If they do not, shorten the distance.
(3) Measure the same distance ahead, set the forward rod F, and read the
rod. If the two readings of the lower and upper wire are not between 0.5 m
and 2.5 m, shorten both the rear and forward distances by the same
amount.
(4) Level the instrument with the attached spirit level, point it towards the
rear rod R, read the three wires of the telescope (Figure shows only the
mid-wire reading at the ith instrument setup as ri). Record the three
readings in a field book.
(5) Rotate the instrument towards the forward rod F and check again the
bubble. Adjust it, if required. Read the three wires on rod F (Figure
shows only the mid-wire reading at the ith instrument setup as fi).
Record three readings.
(6) Then, move ahead on the road where the forward rod now becomes the
rear rod. Repeat the observation drill of the Steps 1 to 5 as above.
(7) Continue till the forward rod reaches on a second BM B (Note: In
practice, the distance between any two BMs is kept about 1 to 1.5 km. But,
it should be shortened on steep slopes.).
(8) Closed loops from level line segments between BMs then fill up the
survey area. Spur (or non-closing) lines are avoided as far as possible.

General Note: Knowing all about the level instrument and level rods, and learning the
observation drill is a practical lab exercise.

2-16
 3. Observations The observed difference n = (ri fi), as shown in Figure 2.11,
between all the rods from sequence of all instrument setups is summed between any two
bench marks A and B. This total is converted to potential differences WB-A.

NOTE: The observed n at each instrument station is the separation between

the two non-parallel equipotential surfaces passing through bottom end points of the rods.

4. Conversion to Difference of Height

For two points, Equations 2.28 and 2.29 become:

WB-A = gn = g (-HB-A) 2.33

-HB-A = gn/g n 2.34

Thus, Equation 2.34 shows that there is NO direct relation between the observations
(as obtained in spirit leveling) and the orthometric height H. Thus, to obtain the best
conversion, g is to be observed at each instrument set up or at selected leveling stations
between any two BMs (Note: This is a very costly survey requirement, which is generally
never adhered to). Then, the following relationship is obtained:

B
WB WA = - gn 2.35
A

B
= - gn 2.36
A

NOTES: (1) Integral (A to B) is independent of the path followed by a level line.

(2) The sum of observed n along a closed loop will not be zero.
(3) It is ONLY the sum of observed WA-A, starting from BM A and
closing back on A around any leveling loop, will close to zero.

2.10.2 GPS Leveling

The GPS surveying techniques provide direct measurement of ellipsoidal heights (h)
and differential heights (h). This direct high accuracy measurement of h thus allows
another alternate method for leveling (Note: More detail will be discussed in Chapter 3).

2.11 Vertical Datum and Height System

A vertical datum or height system of orthometric, normal and/or ellipsoid heights can
be established by defining only one zero reference surface. Before the advent of 3-D
surveys using GPS, it was NOT possible to directly survey ellipsoidal heights and as such
they were never considered in any application. It is only in recent times that their use has

2-17
been proposed with algorithms and explanation(s) for how to use them with very distinct
advantages over orthometric heights, especially in non-engineering applications.

2.11.1 Zero Reference Surface(s)

A. Mean Sea Level

In olden times, before the geodesists could compute or model an accurate global geoid,
it was customary to use the Mean Sea Level (MSL) as an approximation of the geoid and
consider it as a zero reference surface for defining vertical datum(s).

MSL is determined as an average of hourly readings of the sea level on a graduated

staff, located at a coastal tidal station, over a cycle of 18.67 or 19 years. If observations are
taken for any cycle, the Sun, Moon, and Earth, as located in a space configuration relative
to each other at the start, after 19 years they are almost back in the same configuration.
It is time-dependent and time-variant and used as zero differs from one coast to another
and also along the same coast. MSL has slope, e.g. height at a BM along the coast of
Florida is about 3 m lower than at a BM near the New York coast (Note: Oceanographic
explanation is that the Gulf Stream is taking millions of gallons of sea water with it from
South to North}.

Notes:

a. MSL is also NOT an equipotential surface.

b. Though MSL is determined as an average of 19-year cycle as a time-
dependent and time-variant surface, still no epoch of time has ever
been associated to it.
c. Another major definition conflict is that Caspian Sea is about 30 m
below sea level. But, no geodesist or oceanographer has ever
specified which sea level.
d. As MSL can ONLY be used to define heights over land areas, it
leaves a gap for about 70% of Earths surface.
e. It is a poor choice to retain MSL as a zero reference for heights,
especially when high accuracy geoid is available.

B. Geoid

Prior to October 1996 (Section 2.6.4), there was no accurate global geoid model
available. However, though the option to define with the geoid is now available, no local,
national, regional, or continental vertical datum has been defined as yet with geoid as zero
reference.

C. Ellipsoid

This is the new zero reference surface, which has been recently proposed for using
ellipsoidal heights in many specified applications.

2-18
 Note that the ellipsoidal heights are still waiting to be accepted in practice by users, as
all new changes or procedures take time.

2.11.2 Vertical Datums

Here, three vertical datums, which span from early 20th century to late 1980s to
beginning of the 21st century, have been included. First two represent multi-national
continental size projects, first one with normal heights and second with orthometric heights
using Helmert model. Third example is U.S. National Geodetic Survey (NGS) latest
initiative to create a universal type through integrating all types of height datums and
no-height datums. These examples show typical characteristics, strengths, and geodetic
limitations.

(1) National Geodetic Vertical Datum (NGVD) 1929

The leveling networks, as existed in USA and Canada up to Mid-1920s, were included
in the adjustment. MSL elevations of 21 Tidal Bench Marks (TBM) in USA and 5 in
Canada were held fixed at 0.0 meter to define and establish the NGVD 29 Datum.

Geodetic Critique As the MSL surfaces at the 26 TBMs do NOT define the same
zero reference, the entire leveling network thus got distorted. The heights were computed
with the normal gravity. Later on as the years passed, due to many natural causes, e.g.,
crustal movement, frost effect on BMs especially in the northern latitudes, and
subsidence created more distortions.

(2) North American Vertical Datum (NAVD) 1988

This project was started to replace the old NGVD 1929. Some of its salient details and
features are included here to show what constitutes to adjust and establish a continental
size datum. In addition, a few geodetic defining limitations are identified for students to
note as part of their learning.

1. Start Year: October 1977.

2. Closing Year: June 1991.
3. Extent: Canada, USA, and Mexico.
4. Softcopy: Coding of all leveling data and Bench Mark (BM) descriptions.
5. Software: Special software developed.
6. Leveling Data: Approximately 106, 000 km of level lines of pre-1929 and 625, 000
km of post-1929 era were used.
7. Bench Marks: Approximately 505, 000 permanent benchmarks and 204, 000
temporary bench marks.
8. Re-leveling: About 81, 000 km, ending in the geo-dynamically active California.
9. Defining Constraint: MSL at Fathers Point TBM in the St. Lawrence River, which
runs along the boundary between Canada and USA.

2-19
 10. Adjustment: Minimum constraint with one Tidal Bench Mark (TBM) in St.
Lawrence River.
11. Adjustment Technique: Helmert blocking.
12. Height System: Helmert orthometric heights.

Geodetic Limitations:

a. Mean River Level (MRL), selected as MSL of a TBM in the St.

Lawrence River, is a very poor choice. MRL can never be
equivalent to MSL.
b. Entire continental network is defined with respect to ONLY one single
BM and thus it is flapping towards West and South.

(3) The V-Datum

This 21st century initiative is to integrate all types of vertical datums, as they exist
over the USA, viz., NAD 83, WGS 84, and also ITRFs (Note that the ITRFs are NOT
datums of any type.). Different types of heights and depths, which have distinctively
different definitions and MSL and tidal datums from widely separated time domains, just
cannot be combined with any valid geodetic algorithm.

Here, NAD 83 is a horizontal datum with NO heights. WGS 84 is a 3-D geodetic

system while ITRFs are 3-D ZXY reference frames.

NOTE: The V-Datum is not a geodetically viable vertical datum.

2.11.3 Height Systems

A. World (Orthometric) Height System (WHS)

The World (Orthometric) Height System (WHS) 1996 is now defined with the high
accuracy global WGS 84 (EGM96) Geoid (Section 2.6.4). Though the WHS 96 is a 3-D
world vertical datum, it cannot be realized in practice through a combined adjustment of
the leveling lines and networks of all the countries. However, it is a feasible system through
national and regional networks separately defined with the Geoid as the zero reference.

Note that heights defined in WHS 96 are now used frequently, but no country has
officially adopted it as yet.

B. World Ellipsoidal Height System (WEHS)

World Ellipsoid Height System (WEHS) is now defined with the highly accurate GRS
80 ellipsoid with its origin at Earths center of mass (Note: This ellipsoid was used in NAD
83, WGS 84, and the South American SIRGAS). This height system is globally consistent
and works both on land and ocean areas. But, no country has adopted it for use as yet.

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2.12 Gravity Reduction or Processing

The gravity g measured on the actual or physical surface of the Earth has limited
number of applications. It is also not directly amenable for further study. For this, the
observed g at any point P on Earths surface is reduced to a corresponding point
R, which is at the end of the plumb line on the geoid (Figure 2.12).

Figure 2.12 - Gravity Reductions or Processing

As there are topographic masses between the P and R, the gravity reduction
depends on the process, by which these masses are removed to compute the value of g
at the point R on the geoid. The reduction is required for many geodetic, geophysical,
and geological applications.

2.12.1 Geodetic

The two main geodetic applications are:

a. Determination of the geoid in an iterative mode, as the height H between

P and R is not known to start the reduction.
b. Interpolation and/or extrapolation of g.

The gravity reduction is done in two steps:

Step 1 - Removal of topographical masses outside the geoid. For this, incomplete knowledge
of density () is a problem. Thus, either a standard density ( = 2.67 gm/cm2) or a modeled
one is used. Third option is to consider that there are no masses between P and R.

Step 2 - Moving the gravity station P to R.

Here, the two important reduction processes are discussed and explained as under:

A. Free-Air Reduction

Step 1 It is assumed that there are no masses between stations P and R, or there
is vacuum.

2-21
 Step 2 - After assuming that there are no topographic masses, the station P can be
considered to have moved in Free-Air. Then, the change dgF-Air in g by moving the
P to R is computed as under:

dgF-Air = - g H 2.37
H
- H 2.38
H
+ 0. 3086 H mgal 2.39

Note that the gradient (+0.3086) is computed using the normal gravity gradient.

This process is known as Free-Air Reduction. Thus, the gravity at the Point
R on the geoid after free-air reduction is:

gR(F-Air) = gP + dgFAir 2.40

= gP + .3086 H mgal 2.41

B. Bouguer Reduction

Step 1 Here, the masses from the ground station P to the Point R on the geoid
are assumed compressed in a horizontal and flat plate of infinite radius (Figure 2.12).
This plate of uniform density is known as Average Bouguer Plate (BP).

Thus, removing the BP of the standard density ( = 2.67 gm/cm2), the change in
gravity for moving Point P to R is given as:

dgBP = - 2GH

= - 0.1119 H mgal 2.42

This reduction is known as Incomplete Bouguer Reduction.

Step 2 After removal of topographic masses as contained in BP, the station P

can be considered as in Free-Air. Thus, dgF-Air (Equation 2.39) gives the change in
gravity g from moving from P to R.

Combining Equations 2.39 and 2.41, the reduced gravity gRB at Point R is
given as:
gRB = gP - dgBP + dgF-Air 2.43
= gP + 0.1967 H 2.44

This 2-step processing is known as Complete Bouguer Reduction.

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2.12.2 Geophysical

The process very commonly used is Bouguer Reduction (Section 2.12.1).

2.12.3 Geological

The reduction process(s) for this application are not explained here.

2.13 Gravity Anomaly and Disturbance

2.13.1 Gravity Anomaly (g)

A. Bouguer Anomaly

The Bouguer anomaly (gB) is defined as:

gB = gRB - Q 2.45

where is the normal gravity at the corresponding point Q on the ellipsoid.

Note that Bouguer anomalies are mainly used in geological prospecting, e.g., oil and
gas explorations.

B. Free-Air Anomaly

The Free-Air anomaly (gF) is defined as:

gF = gP + dgFAir - Q

= gRF-Air - Q 2.46

NOTE: Free-Air anomalies main application is for geoid determination.

2.13.2 Gravity Disturbance (g)

The gravity disturbance (g) at any gravity station P is defined as:

g = gP - P 2.47

Note that the gravity disturbance is used in inertial positioning surveying.

2.14 Fundamental Constants

In geodesy, all determinations, derivations, and modeling of Earths shape, size, and
gravity field require four Fundamental Constants. To start, they are adopted and then
all other constants are derived from these four.

2-23
 The International Association of Geodesy (IAG) conducts global research through its
Special Study Groups and Commissions. It periodically provides (Section 1.2.4, Chapter 1)
the best estimates of these four fundamental constants under its Geodetic Reference
System (GRS), e.g. GRS 1967 and GRS 1980.

A set of four fundamental constants, which define Earths shape, size, gravitation and
rotation in space, are:

1. Semi-major axis - a,
2. Gravitational constant - GM,
3. Second degree zonal harmonic coefficient of Earths gravitational field J20,
4. Angular velocity - .

Important Consideration Adding or deleting zero(s) to any fundamental constant(s)

is WRONG.

Note: Any individual geodesist or agency should not do arbitrary modification of any
constant, fundamental and/or derived, of the GRS 80, which is the latest system as released
by IAG in its Scientific Meetings in Canberra, Australia, in December 1979.

2.15 Satellite Gravimetry

This topic is discussed and explained in Section 3.7.

2.16 Geodetic Facts

1. MSL is NOT a Level surface.

2. Gravimetric multiple-degree surface Spheroid is NOT equivalent to a
geometric 2-degree surface Ellipsoid.

2-24
 3 Satellite Geodesy

3.1 Introduction

Satellite geodesy is one of the newest additions to what was called 'Classical
Geodesy' in the past. However, in its basic concept, Satellite Geodesy is not a recent or
new topic. Surveyors and astronomers have used occultation of stars as they passed behind
the moon, to determine geodetic ties between far off places e.g. the west coast of the US to
Hawaii. Mason and Dixon used observations of satellites of distant planets to help them
establish the Mason Dixon line. These topics are of historical interest now.

This chapter discusses and explains science limited to observations to near-earth

manmade artificial satellites. With the launch of first manmade satellite Sputnik on
October 4, 1957, a whole new arena of geodesy became possible. In the first basic
configuration of satellites, a large balloon, illuminated by the Sun, was observed from
both the East coast of the USA and West coast of Europe and the two continents were
geodetically tied. With the same balloon satellite, the islands in the Pacific were also tied
to the West coast of USA. It is quite pertinent to point out that the balloon was used just as
a target in the sky.

This opened up a new era in geodesy and satellite technology evolved. From the days
when geodetic instruments used to ride as piggy back on other planetary and/or balloon
satellites in the sky, a large number of manmade constellations of satellites are now
available dedicated for geodesy.

3.1.1 Historical Evolution of Geodetic Satellites

On October 4, 1957, the first artificial satellite Sputnik was launched by the Soviet
Union. Launching of this satellite was planned for scientific research during the International
Geophysical Year, which was conducted from July 1957 through December 1958.

Here, it is quite pertinent to trace sequential development and launching of U.S

geodetic satellites through the initial years.

A. Explorer I on January 31, 1958

U.S. Army launched the first satellite Explorer 1 using a Jupiter-C rocket. The
principal scientific investigator for Explorer 1, James A. Van Allen, discovered the Van Allen
Radiation Belts from Explorer 1 data. There were a total of 29 Explorer satellites launched
between 1958 and 1965.

B. TRANSIT IA on September 17, 1959 -

The scientists at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) demonstrated
that the satellite orbit could be determined from the analysis of the Doppler shift of
transmitted signals from the satellite. Noting the accuracy with which the orbits could be

3- 1
determined by measuring the Doppler shift at a station of known position, they found that it
would also be possible to determine the position of a second station by simultaneous
observations at a known station and the unknown station. APL was then contracted by the
U.S. Navy to develop a Navy Navigation Satellite System (NNSS) using the Doppler
technique. By 1959, APL designed and constructed its first experimental satellite, TRANSIT
1A. Unfortunately, it failed to acquire orbital velocity after launch on September 17, 1959.
The next satellite, TRANSIT 1B, was successfully launched on April 13, 1960. Other satellites
successfully put into orbit were TRANSIT 2A, 3B, 4A, 4B, and 5A. All were launched in 1960
and 1961. NNSS, which started as an all weather navigational system, kept on developing and
achieved its full potential for geodetic positioning in the second half of the 1970s.

3.1.2 Follow-Up Satellite systems

The PC-1000 - The U.S. Air Force developed a system with PC-1000 cameras to use
ballistic cameras to take photographs of illuminated satellites against a star background.

The SECOR System The U.S. Army system was called SECOR (Sequential Collation
of Range).

The BC-4 - During this same time period, the National Oceanographic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) had developed their own satellite positioning system
using WILD ballistic BC-4 camera, mounted on the alidade of a Wild T4 theodolite.

The MOTS NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center developed the MINITRACK
Optical Tracking System (MOTS) cameras.

The Baker-Nunn - Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) developed a

photographic system using Baker-Nunn cameras, operated on a sidereal mount.

During the early 1960s, ANNA and Explorer satellite systems also contributed very
successfully in the continued saga of geodetic positioning using manmade satellites. All these
satellite projects gave unexpected good results towards determination of Earths polar
flattening (f), asymmetries in the zonal gravity field (the "pear-shape" component), and value
for the ellipticity, which is the angle between the equator and the Earths elliptical orbit
around the Sun. The first interconnection of major geodetic datums through computation of
transformation parameters to a global 3-D geodetic system was achieved in 1966.

3.1.3 NASAs Geodetic Satellites

In 1964, at the recommendation of the National Academy of Sciences and U.S.

Congress, the NASAs National Geodetic Satellite Program was launched.

The GEOS A and B The GEOS satellites were the direct descendent of ANNA 1B
and differed only in external configuration. As they used gravity gradient stabilization, one
face of the satellite was always towards the Earth. This allowed the solar cells to be

3- 2
concentrated on those faces that did not face the Earth, while the antennae, flashing lights,
and laser reflectors could be mounted on the Earth-facing side of the satellite.

3.1.4 Navys TRANSIT System

The TRANSIT, Navy Navigation Satellite System (NNSS), was first designed in 1958 and
was declared operational for the U.S. Navy in 1964 and released for world wide civil use in
1967. The satellites themselves were called OSCAR and they grew in numbers to form the
first constellation of manmade satellites. The system became of interest for geodetic
applications around 1970.

3.1.5 Constellations of Satellites

The success of NNSS started a new approach towards satellite geodetic positioning.
Thus, around 1978-79, the U.S. Air Force started the development of the Global Positioning
System (GPS) constellation of satellites. This 24- satellite system, starting for navigational
support, now has achieved geodetic positioning capability. These days, the achievable
accuracy range is in the order of 2-5 cm.

The Russian GLONASS was started by Soviet Union around mid-1980s on a similar
design as GPS. However, with the dissolution of Soviet Union in 1989, the satellite
constellation could not be sustained and it went into disarray. In recent years, Russia has
brought up the system to a full operational stage.

Joining the national race to put up the satellite constellations, Europe launched its
first satellite for the GALLILEO in 2005 and now China has launched its first satellite for the
COMPASS in 2007. These two constellations are expected to be fully operational during the
next 5-6 years.

3.2 Satellite Orbital Motion

A.Keplers Laws of Planetary Motion:

In 1609, after years of study of the motion of planets around the sun, Kepler, a German
astronomer, published three fundamental laws on how geometry of ellipses governs the
motion of planets. Keplers three laws, which are still valid, are:

1. The orbits of planets are ellipses with the Sun at one focus.
2. The line joining a planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
3. The square of the orbital period p (Attention: There are only 26 alphabets.)
of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of the planets orbit
around the Sun.

Even though Kepler formulated the third law, it was at least 40 years later, long
after Kepler's death, that Newton developed the proportionality constant needed to solve

3- 3
the law. The formula for the Keplers third law for an artificial satellite then becomes as
under:

p2 = 42 r3 3.1
GM

where r is the mean radius of the orbit of an artificial satellite, in miles. p is the period in
hours, G the Newton's Universal Gravitational constant, and M the mass of the Earth. This
law will be discussed in detail later.

Kepler's three laws apply to any orbiting body in our Solar system. In case of
manmade satellites that orbit the Earth, the three laws still hold by replacing the word planet
with satellite and the Sun with Earth.

B. Newton's Laws of Motion

In Section 2.1, Newton's Law of Gravitation is enunciated. Here, it is referred as

Newton's Third Law of Motion. Kepler's three laws of planetary motion describe the planet's
motion, but they do not specify why the planets move accordingly. It was Newton who
determined the laws of motion, which now apply to manmade satellites.

1. First law states that a body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a
straight line, unless compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it.
This is also called the law of inertia, because it points out that a force must be
applied to change the motion of a body.

One important aspect of the first law, when looking at satellite motion, is that
motion tends to stay in a straight line. When something is not moving in a
straight line, a force must be acting on it.

2. Second law states that the time rate of change of an object's momentum is equal to
the applied force.

If p is change in momentum and t the change in time, force F is given as:

F = p 3.2
t

= (mv) 3.3
t

Expanding the above equation:

F = m v + m v 3.4
t t

3- 4
 In its most recognized form, the second law states:

F = ma 3.5
where:

F = force vector
m = mass
a = acceleration.

Momentum is the amount of resistance an object in motion has to overcome in its

speed or direction of motion. As m=0, the momentum p is the result of multiplying an
object's mass with its velocity, i.e.

p = mv 3.6

where
p = linear momentum vector
m = mass
v = velocity vector.

3. Third Law states that when a stationary body A exerts a force on second
stationary body B, the body B also will exert an equal, but opposite, force on
body A.

Newton determined that gravitational attraction force AF (Section 2.2.1) decreases

with the square of the distance r between the two attracting bodies. This phenomenon is
known as Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation, because the same principles apply
everywhere in the universe. The law between two point masses m1 and m2 is expressed as:

AF = G m1m2 3.7
r2

where: G = Newtons Universal Gravitational Constant

m1, m2 = 2 point masses
r = Distance between the two point masses m1 and m2.

The motion of a satellite in its orbit can be determined by Newton's Universal Law of
Gravitation. First, m1 is taken as Earths mass M and m2 as mass of the satellite. Then,
as satellite mass is small in comparison to the mass M of the Earth, m2 is taken as
unity. The law can then be expressed as under:

AF = - GM 3.8
r2

3- 5
 Important considerstions:

1. The negative sign in Equation 3.8 is included due to the fact that
AF decreases as distance r increases in the opposite direction.
2. Once the satellite is launched in its orbit and is in motion, force AF
becomes acceleration AF due to Earths gravitational attraction in
computing satellite orbit (Section 3.3, Equation 3.13).

3.3 Satellite Orbit or Trajectory

Accurate computation of a satellite orbit or its trajectory in space is a difficult task, as

the final accuracy of the geodetic positions of the surveyed points is totally dependent on it.
Computation of a short arc of an orbit is very easy compared to a long arc. The
computing of a long arc over a few months has now been perfected to a state that the
total error at the end is of the order of 1-2 cm or less.

3.3.1 Kepler's Orbital Elements

There are different ways to describe the orbit of a satellite, but the common practice in
satellite geodesy is to use the six Keplers elements (not to be confused with his three laws of
motion). When a satellite moves in an elliptical path in plane, which is fixed in space, the focal
point of the orbital ellipse is at the Earths center of mass. Such a path is known as Normal
Orbit. The conditions leading to such a simple orbital motion are:

1. The mass of the satellite is negligible compared to the mass of Earth,

2. The motion of the satellite takes place in vacuum; there is no atmospheric
drag acting on the satellite and no solar radiation pressure,
3. Sun, Moon, or other celestial bodies do not exert a gravitational attraction on
the satellite.

Kepler's first law states that orbits are ellipses. A particular orbit must be described
in a way that differentiates it from other orbits, and this requires more than specifying the
semi-major axis and eccentricity. Orbits are in three-dimensional space; the two-dimensional
ellipse can be tilted, rotated and oriented in three-dimensional space. Figure 3.1 shows
Keplers orbital elements.

3- 6
 Figure 3.1 - Six Keplerian Orbital Elements

The six Keplerian orbital elements (Figure 3.1) are:

a - Semi-major axis of the orbital ellipse,

e - Eccentricity of the ellipse,
i - Inclination of the orbital plane,
- Right ascension of the ascending node,
- Argument of perigee; this locates the perigee of the orbital plane
with respect to the Equator.
f - True anomaly.

a. The first two elements, the semi-major axis a and eccentricity e of the ellipse,
define the size and shape of the orbit.

b. The third element, the inclination i measures the tilt of the orbital plane with
the Equatorial plane. Increasing the tilt of the orbit toward the North or South Pole changes
the inclination towards 90o.
c. The fourth element depends on the location of the nodes, which are the points of
intersection of the satellite orbit and Equator. This is called the Right Ascension (Appendix
A1) of the ascending node (Note that a satellite can move upward or downward at either
the descending or ascending node depending on the location of perigee (when satellite is
nearest) and apogee (farthest) from the Earth. The is measured from the vernal equinox.
d. The fifth element, argument of the perigee is measured as the angular distance
of the perigee from the point of the ascending node.
e. The sixth element is the True Anomaly f which positions the satellite with respect
to perigee.

The orientation of the ellipse within the orbital plane is defined by the angle
between the Line of Apsides, i.e., x-axis, and the ascending node (Figure 3.1).

3- 7
 3.3.2 Normal Orbit

In a normal orbit, the basic assumptions are that the Earth and satellite have
spherical shapes and their masses M and m are concentrated as point masses at their
respective centers. Also, the satellite moves in an elliptic orbit in a plane unperturbed due to
any outside interference by other celestial bodies or natural phenomena. However, in real
world, the orbit is always perturbed (Sub-Section C).

Here, first the step-wise computational procedure(s) for a normal orbit are explained
as under:

(1) Figure 3.2 depicts an arbitrary orbit around the Earth (mass M) as origin
and the position of the satellite are given by a 2-D rectangular coordinate
system (x, y) and in polar coordinates (r, ).

Figure 3.2 - An Arbitrary Satellite Orbit around the Earth

(2) The following relations can be established:

x = r cos
y = r sin
and
r = (x2 + y2)1/2
= tan-1 (y/x)

The derivatives (x, y) with respect to time are used to determine the tangential
direction and (r, ) for angular velocities of the satellite.

(3) The path traveled by the satellite is shown by s, which is also defined by the
angle (Figure 3.2). The tangential velocity along the satellite path is s = ds/dt and the
relationship with the rectangular velocities is:

x = s cos & y = s sin

3- 8
(4) As the satellite moves (Figure 3.3), the radius vector r is sweeping an area
A and the rate of change of the area swept by the radius vector in the satellite
orbit is given as:

A = dA/dt = r2 = h 3.9

h = r2 = xy - yx 3.10

Figure 3.3 - Area Swept by the Satellite Orbit

(5) Then, the following relationships are also obtained:

s = x x + y y 3.11
s

h = xy - yx = 2rr + r2 3.12

(6) Considering that the satellite motion, AF (Equation 3.8) denotes acceleration
due to the force of Earths attraction on the satellite in Equation 3.13:

AF = - GM 3.13
r2

(7) From Equation 3.13, the component AFx = AF (x/r) = x and AFy = AF (y/r) =
y. Substituting for x and y in Equation 3.12 gives,

xy yx = h = 0 3.14

(8) Equation 3.14 proves that h is constant and thus A is also constant
(Equation 3.9). In other words, the radius vector r sweeps the area A at
constant rate.

3- 9
 Now, considering an elliptic orbit, this is Keplers Second Law (Section 3.2.A.).

(9) The orbit shape is determined by the following relationships between the radius
vector r as function of .

AF (xx + yy) = xx + yy 3.15

r

AF r = ss 3.16

x = r cos - 2 r sin
r sin - r ()2 cos 3.17
y = r sin + 2 r cos +

r cos r ()2 sin 3.18

ss = r { r r ()2 } 3.19

The above relationships provide the following differential equation:

AF = r - r ()2 3.20

The solution of Equation 3.20 can be derived as:

r = (h2/G) / { 1 + e cos ( 0) } 3.21

Here, e and 0 are integration constants and Equation 3.21 represents a

CONIC section with the origin at one of the foci. Also, the constant h2/G in
Equation 3.21 is the parameter of the conic section of eccentricity e.

The parameter (0) defines the direction of the major axis of the conic orbit
and depending on the value of e, the orbit can be either a circle or an ellipse or a
parabola or a hyperbola. Thus, the eccentricity e or shape of the orbit depends on
launching conditions.

Note that the geodetic satellites are launched with velocities such that the final
orbit is elliptic in accordance with Keplers First Law.

In case of a normal orbit, a, e, i, , and are constant. Only f changes with time as
the satellite moves along the elliptic orbit. The angles and f are measured in the plane of the
orbit (Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.3). Here, 3-D Cartesian coordinate system is introduced where
the X- and Y-axes are in the Equatorial plane and Z-axis is parallel to the rotation axis of the
Earth.

3-10
 Attention: Students are to understand the derivation algorithm of a normal orbit of
this section. They should not try to derive it.

Determining or Solving Normal Orbits -

There are two approaches. However, detailed algorithms and computations are not
discussed or explained for undergraduate study level.

a. Direct Solution

In this approach, Keplerian elements are used to derive the following type of
observations (Section 3.4):

(1) Topocentric right ascension and declination

(2) Topocentric altitude and azimuth
(3) Direction cosines with respect to some reference directions (or axes)
(4) Distance and/or velocity at the time of approaching perigee.

The predicted positions of the satellite are compared with the observations and then
solution is obtained.

b. Reverse Solution

In this type, the orbital elements are computed from observation results. Here, the
assumption is that Keplerian elements are constants for a short period of time and this
approach thus becomes very handy and practical in preliminary stages of orbit computations.

As there are six orbital elements, thus six independent relations are required to
determine them. The best set will be to have Cartesian coordinates (X, Y, Z) of the satellite
and their velocities (X, Y, Z) at any observation time. However this approach is
hypothetical.

3.3.3 Perturbed Orbit

A disturbed orbit is known as Perturbed Orbit. When any of the special

conditions, which make a satellite to move in a Normal orbit, are changed or get modified,
the orbit does not remain an EXACT ellipse, as per Keplers first law. A typical example is
where actual Earths gravity field, as Earths total attracting mass, replaces the Earths point
mass M.

In perturbed orbits, the perturbations can be viewed or considered in two ways:

Satellite coordinates are directly perturbed the variations between the

perturbed and normal coordinates are computed by different
numerical devices and no analytical expression(s) are attempted.

3-11
 Satellite is moving in an elliptic orbit whose Keplerian orbital elements
are changing all the time the perturbed ellipse at any instant is
tangent to the actual normal ellipse.

Note: Actual satellite velocity at any instant is defined by the instantaneous tangent to
the normal orbit. The variations in elements causes the regression of the nodes, constantly
changing inclination i, rotation of the line of apsides (or x-axis), and variation in size and
shape of the ellipse and time of perigee passing the Equator. This motion is known as
osculating.

In the case of real orbits, the perturbations are caused by:

(1) Attractions of Sun, Moon, and other celestial bodies. In this case, the
major share of perturbations is caused by the Moon.
(2) Variations in Earths gravity field. Here, the closer is the satellite to
the Earth, the greater are the perturbations. Thus, the GPS
satellites are hardly affected by Earths gravity field variations and
their orbits are also almost circular. In case, the satellite starts in a
close orbit, e.g., at height of 100-300 km from the Earths surface,
its orbit can get turned into a spiral and it will soon crash into the
Earth after a few revolutions around the Earth. The actual shape
and inside mass distribution of a satellite can also affect the orbit,
e.g., the cannon ball shaped LAGEOS satellites with their total mass
concentrated at their centers have the most stable orbits. They
behave like BMs in the sky.
(3) Other natural phenomena, e.g., atmospheric drag, solar radiation
pressure, electromagnetic disturbance, etc.

Note that the atmospheric drag takes a major share in perturbations in case of highly
elliptic orbits. When the satellite is inside the Earths atmosphere, the orbit gets perturbed.
Once it is outside, the perturbations due to drag become zero. The drag acts like a negative
force and causes continued decrease of semi-major axis and eccentricity.

Due to solar radiation pressure, the perturbations are secular long-period type and all
elements, except semi-major axis, are affected.

The perturbations due to electromagnetic effects occur as ionosphere charges up the

satellite.

3.4 Observation Types

Observations or measurements, which are useful for surveying geodetic positions and
gravity, can be grouped into four types, visual, photographic, photoelectric, and electronic.
They can be used separately, e.g., for electronic tracking, which provides continuous orbit
information for dynamical applications. Also, they can be used in combination, where visual
and electronic tracking supply useful preliminary data for photographic instruments.

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 Note that some observations, which now have only historical importance, have also
been discussed in this section. This inclusion will provide students a perspective concerning
the superiority of satellite positioning over the old land-based classical techniques.

3.4.1 Visual

These types of observations, just half a century ago, were the starters of satellite
surveying. In such a scenario, a satellite replaced the land target as a beacon in the sky. It
could then be observed from the East coast of North America and West coast of Europe to
link the two continents geodetically. And, this changed the geodesy from being
regional/continental to global.

In case of passive satellites, i.e., with no radio signaling capability, they were
observed with small telescopes, theodolites, and/or binoculars with some time- recording
device(s). U.S. Smithsonian Observatory (SAO) had a very successful Moon Watch project,
where thousands of observers used to observe satellite transit times. In one set up, observers
would stand in N-S alignment to observe the satellite(s). In a similar project, USSR teams
observed the transit times of the SPUTNIK series satellites.

U.S. made ECHO I satellite and SAOs Baker-Nunn camera projects succeeded both
for visual and photographic (Section 3.4.2) observations.

3.4.2 Photographic

In this method, satellite position was determined from its photographic images against
the stars in the background. Stationary instruments were heavy, non-portable and specially
designed, e.g., Baker-Nunn cameras or from astronomical observatories. Mobile types
included specially designed ballistic cameras.

Baker-Nunn cameras - The photographing of satellites was only possible for the
bright enough to be recorded while moving relatively fast. The resultant observations were
apparent topocentric right ascension and declination of the satellite at the exposure times.

Ballistic Cameras Originally, these cameras were designed to track missiles and
hence the name. The BC-4 cameras were used at two or more known and/or other stations to
observe satellite against the stars in triangulation mode. Passive satellites were illuminated
by reflection of sunlight or they were flashing type. Stars up to 9 magnitude were used. 300
images were readily obtained per photo plate with flashing satellites, which provided good
statistical analysis over a long orbit. Timing accuracy obtained was about 0.001 second.

The Ballistic PC-1000 Camera This was used like BC-4 with good success.

3.4.3 Photoelectric

The system consisted of an M-shaped slit located between a telephoto lens and a photo
multiplier tube. As a satellite moved over the view, its images across the slit photo multiplier

3-13
produced a series of pulses. Fed through a magnifier, pulse output was recorded on a
magnetic tape on a time scale. Viewed through a theodolite, timed pulses were linked with
the stars and results were sets of right ascension and declination as observations.

3.4.4 Electronic

In this case, as the electronic types are still operative, the discussions and explanations
will be in present tense. Most of such satellites are Active, which carry a transmitter
capable of emitting radio signals. High frequencies are preferred, as they reduce ionospheric
refraction. The transmitting systems operate in different ways, e.g., interferometric, Doppler,
and/or ranging systems.

Here, satellites can work in all weather conditions and around the clock for 24 hours
and seven days a week.

A. Interferometry

The interference between the signals received by a pair of antenna array is utilized.
The distance between antennas A1 and A2 is small as compared to the distance to the
satellite. Figure 3.4 shows the working geometry of the system.

Figure 3.4 - Interferometric Phase Measurement System

If distance SP is equal to SA1, then A1P will be approximately perpendicular to
SA2. Then, the phase difference will be proportional to distance PA2 and cos will be equal
to PA2/A1A2. As the satellite moves across the two antennas, the meter (attached to the mid-
point) will record the phase differences as a sine curve.

B. .Doppler Effect

Here, satellite emits a continuous unmodulated wave at a fixed frequency ff.

However, due to the relative velocity between the satellite and the observer, the ground
receiver shows a change in frequency. The received frequency rf is a function of ff,
velocity c of the radio propagation, and the rate of change of the distance between the

3-14
satellite and observer or the radial velocity rv. Thus, the difference in the rf is utilized in
Doppler Principle.

At the time of closest approach of the satellite, rv is zero. And, this allows
computing the minimum distance and rv:

rf = ff (1 + rv/c) 3.22

Or (rv.ff)/c = rf ff = df 3.23

If r* is the radial distance and rf is recorded, then

rv = (r*) = c.df/ff 3.24

Figure 3.5 shows the Doppler scenario with satellite positions at the closest approach and a
few seconds t after that.

Figure 3.5 - Doppler Principle Satellite Position

Then, the radial distance (r*) is given as under:

r* = [(r0*)2 + {(s*).t}2]1/2 3.25

C. Ranging -

This system is based on the physical principle that modulation of an electromagnetic

wave, propagated through space, will undergo a phase shift proportional to the distance
traveled and modulation to frequency.

3-15
 In U.S. Army Sequential Collation of Range (SECOR) system, range was measured as:

Ground station transmitted a phase-modulated signal.

Satellite transponder retransmitted the signal as a phase modulation on an
offset carrier frequency.
Ground station measured the phase shift of the modulation by an electronic
servo phase meter.
Meter provided a digitized representation of the RANGE.

In this system, four distant ground stations, which constituted the observing pyramid
base, would sometimes become coplanar. It would cause geometric instability to
positioning solutions with ranges.

D. GPS Observables -

The observation types are:

a. Pseudo Ranges Each satellite transmits two carrier frequencies, L1 at 1575.42

MHz and L2 at 1227.60 MHz. The Coarse Acquisition C/A-code and Precision
P-code are mounted on L1 and P-code on L2. The navigation message, which
consists of orbital elements and timing information, is modulated on both L1 and
L2. Pseudo Random Noise (PRN) codes and the time tag from the on board atomic
clock are also mounted on the carrier frequencies.

Each receiver has a replica of each PRN code in its memory. The receiver
compares the signals transmission time tag with the arrival time with its clock and
computes the travel time dt. This then provides the pseudo range pr as:

pr = dt.c 3.26

where c is the velocity of radio signal. To compute position of a point and time, at
least four ranges to four satellites are required.

b. Carrier Phase - The sum of the fractional portion of the carrier wave, which
arrives at the receiver, and an unknown integer constant representing the
number of full waves, is called the carrier phase. Thus, the phase measurement
is the percentage of the last carrier wave to reach the receiver plus the
number of full waves.

3.5 Reduction of Observations

In this section, major types of satellite observations are discussed. Due to evolution of
satellites some types are not used, but their brief reductions are still explained for students to
have a better perspective of geodetic positioning from manmade satellites.

3-16
 The reduction process consists of applying corrections applicable for refraction,
aberration, clock error, etc.

Visual These observations yield altitude and azimuth. To reduce them to

topocentric apparent directions, they are corrected for optical refraction and
aberration due to the relative velocity between the satellite and observer. And,
for this the approximate positions of the satellite in its orbit and observers on
the ground are required.

The refraction causes the satellite to look higher than its actual location and
aberration shifts or deviates the light ray from its path.

Photographic Satellite is observed against the stars in the background

photographically and this provides photo plates or films. From this, the
direction to the center of the satellite image at the observation time is computed
from the directions of the surrounding stars.

Since this technique is not used these days, the complex reduction
procedure is not described and not discussed in the chapter.

Electronic The atmospheric and electronic refractions introduce significant

changes in relative phase measurements both in interferometric and Doppler
techniques and also in phase change between the transmitted and received
timings of the ranging systems. Correction due aberration error is required.

In case of GPS observables, the following Differencing approach is applied:

a. Single Differencing Here, two receivers observe a GPS satellite. By

taking the difference of the pseudo ranges, as observed by two receivers
located at two stations, the satellite clock error is cancelled.

b. Double Differencing Here, observations by two receivers placed at two

stations are taken to two GPS satellites. In addition to satellite clock
errors, this differencing cancels the receivers clock errors.
c. Triple Differencing Here, two sets of double differencing (section b.
above) are observed at two different times. Then, these two sets are
differenced. This extra differencing eliminates the carrier phase
ambiguity and thus provides the correct integer count.

Using the triple differencing, baseline can be determined for relative

positioning (Section 3.6).

GPS signal passing through Earths ionospheric layer between +/- 30

latitude belt is affected with special type of refraction errors.

3-17
3.6 Satellite Positioning

In view of the current predominant and almost sole use of GPS surveying technique(s),
this section specifically discusses and explains different types of positioning as obtained with
GPS.

3.6.1 Positioning with GPS

The GPS satellites ephemeris or the orbit information type has a significant
contribution in solving accurate positions. There are two types of ephemeris:

A. Broadcast and Precise Ephemeris -

a. Broadcast Ephemeris (BE) GPS Master Control Station, Colorado Springs,

CO, loads orbital and associated timing information, linking it with satellites atomic
clock, into the computer of each GPS satellite for one week in advance. This total
package of information is called Broadcast Ephemeris.

b. Precise Ephemeris (PE) After collecting GPS observations for any week and
through post processing and least squares adjustment, each satellites orbit is
recomputed. This total package is called Precise Ephemeris.

PE on global basis for all the GPS satellites is computed by the U.S. National
Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) specifically for military usage. On the same
lines, IAG International GPS Service (IGS) computes PE for civilian usage. Both
of these PE are available on the respective websites.

Note: Main usage of PE is for accurate geodetic positioning.

B. Types of Positioning -

a. Single Point Positioning (SPP) Mode

In this type of positioning, a GPS receiver is set ONLY at one station, where it
collects simultaneous observational data from four or more GPS satellite (Figure 3.6). This
mode provides two types of positions, viz., instantaneous or navigational and the high
accuracy geodetic control.

3-18
 Figure 3.6 - Single Point Positioning with GPS

The specific characteristics of the two types of positions are:

Instantaneous or Navigational When a GPS receiver is switched on, it

selects satellites for good geometry and locks them. At least four satellites
are required to provide an instantaneous position of the observers location.
As this survey mode uses the Broadcast Ephemeris (BE), the position
obtained is in WGS 84 with an estimated accuracy of +/- 5-10 meters, 1
uncertainty.

Geodetic If the observer is on a stationary location and collects

continuously additional data sets, the positional accuracy can be improved
by post-processing with the Precise Ephemeris (PE).

The best result(s) are possible with collection of three to four sets of 1-hour
observations with breaks between the sets and estimated accuracy of 3-5 cm
(1 ) can be achieved.

Notes:

1. The computations to achieve accuracy range of 3-5 cm require

special software.
2. The SPP mode surveyed position is in WGS 84 coordinate system.

b. Relative Points Positioning (RPP) Mode

To survey relative position between any two unknown field stations A, B, or C

(Figure 3.7), two GPS receivers are required to collect the simultaneous data. Such data sets
then provide the differential coordinates (dXAB, dYAB, dZAB) between two unknown stations.

3-19
 NOTE: The differences are independent of any coordinate system.

Figure 3.7 - Relative Positioning between Field Points

However, if the position of the first station A is KNOWN in a specified

coordinate system, e.g., NAD 83, then the RPP mode will provide the NAD 83
coordinates for the second field station B.

c. Differential GPS (DGPS) Mode -

In a simple scenario, surveying in DGPS mode is a RPP of an unknown field

point B from a known station A. But, the achievable accuracy of station B can be
significantly improved by connecting it to two or more known stations.

Note that the narrower is the observational triangle (or cone) formed by points A
and B with the GPS satellite (s), the better is the accuracy. Here, the basic assumption is
that the atmospheric conditions affecting the radio signals over B would be similar to that
for A. Thus, the Differential-Corrections (D-Correction) computed over A can be
applied for B.

W
Far-Off Station
B

P
C A
Moving Station

Figure 3.8- Typical DGPS Survey Scenario(s).

Figure 3.8 shows a DGPS survey scenario with a far off station and a network of 3
close known stations. The best D-Correction will be possible, if 3 to 4 known stations are
available in a network formation (Sub-section d below) in the close vicinity of B.
Spreading the known stations over a wide area will make a poorer selection for computing
D-Correction. Note that DGPS mode should be used with known station(s) in WGS 84
coordinate system.

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 d. Network Positioning (NP) Mode

In the Relative Positioning mode (Sub-sections b above), the survey can be

designed to a network of stations (Figure 3.9) to cover a region using three or more
receivers. Depending on the number of stations, receiver number can be increased or
decreased. Observations are collected using the receivers in a leap-frog mode over the
entire region to be surveyed.

Figure 3.9 - Network Mode for GPS Regional Surveys

3.6.2 Defining GPS Network

7 constraints are necessary and sufficient to achieve and establish the defining
coordinate system for any satellite network. These constraints are provided as under;

Origin - Three coordinates (X, Y, Z) for any one station,

Orientation - Two coordinates (Y, Z) for a second, and one coordinate (X)
for a third.
Scale This constraint can either come from a measured distance or
from range observations.

3 stations should have good geographic distribution over the network and are
usually held fixed. Additional station constraints are to be used as weighted to
optimize the network adjustment.

3.6.3 GPS Leveling

GPS surveying directly provides the ellipsoidal heights (h) and/or differential heights
(h) between the unknown field stations A, B, and C (Figure 3.7), For differential
height (h) leveling (Section 2.10), the data collection and computation will be of the type
for relative positioning (Sub-section b.).

Note: The availability of directly surveyed ellipsoidal heights (h) is a major milestone
for many geodetic products and practical applications (Appendix B.3).

3-21
3.6.4 Accuracy of GPS Positioning

In GPS surveying, the point position is determined in 3-D rectangular coordinates (X,
Y, Z). These coordinates are neither horizontal (, ) nor ellipsoidal height (h). As accuracy
of determination for the rectangular coordinates has NO direct relationship with that for
geodetic coordinates, the assertion that height (h) is determined with poorer accuracy as
compared to horizontal coordinates is NOT correct.
Achievable accuracy for specially designed single point positioning surveys and
computed with special software is 5-10 cm. In relative and/or network surveys, accuracy
would generally range 1: ppm or better.

3.6.5 Coordinate System

The coordinate system of GPS positioning is the World Geodetic System (WGS) 1984
(Section 1.9) except for relative point positioning mode (Section 3.6.1.B.b).

3.7 Satellite Gravimetry

For determination of accurate satellite orbits, high accuracy gravity models are required.
One special feature of such models is that they are specifically tuned to fit a particular
satellite orbit. In other words, the differences along the orbit between the computed satellite
positions using the tuned gravity model minus the actual observations are minimal.

Also, satellites are used to survey gravity. This procedure has the most beneficial aspect
that gravity can be observed even in remote inaccessible areas at unprecedented density and
very high accuracy. The achievable accuracy in recent satellite missions is approaching 2 to 5
micro gal. In this section, two successful techniques are described and explained.

3.7.1 Satellite to Satellite Tracking (SST)

Two satellites are launched in two types of tandem.

A. Low-low Satellites Tandem

In this configuration, the satellite S1 follows the second satellite S2, while both go
round the Earth in low orbits over points P1 and P2 located on the Earth
(Figure 3.10).
S2
Low Orbit
S1 Low Orbit

Earth
P1 P2

Figure 3.10 - Low-Low Satellite Tandem

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 The lower are the orbits, the better is the recovery of gravity field variations. But, in
very low orbits, the life cycle of the project is short. Here, the gravity differential variations
are observed.

B. High-Low Satellites Tandem

Here, two satellites S1 and S2 are launched at different heights, one flying above
the other. Two satellites follow each other in a high-low orbital configuration, as they fly
over points P1 and P2 on the Earths surface (Figure 3.11).

Figure 3.11 - High-Low Satellites Tandem

The SST range r between the two satellites is determined very accurately. As each
satellite orbit is perturbed differently by the Earths varying gravity field underneath, the
r measurements and their variations can then be used to determine the gravity field and/or
observe/survey the gravity at the foot-prints.

As the joint project of NASA and German Aerospace Center (GAC), Gravity
Recovery And Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellites, launched in 2002, orbit one behind
the other in the same orbital plane about 220 km apart.

3.7.2 Satellite with Gravity Gradiometer

Gradiometer measures the gravity gradient. A meter onboard a satellite is the

latest project. European Space Agency (ESA) has designed its Gravity field and Ocean

Circular Explorer (GOCE) satellite to have a near circular orbit at an altitude of about 250
km. To keep it in its orbit, GOCE has a specially designed booster system to compensate
the atmospheric drag.

3.8 Geodetic Facts

1. Satellite orbits are computed with respect to Earths Center of Mass.

2. Shape of the satellite orbit depends on the velocity of its launching.
3. Time is here for Living GPS.

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3-24
 4 Marine Geodesy

4.1 Introduction

Even though over 70 percent of the Earths surface is covered with water, the
marine geodesy component, specifically pertaining to the ocean areas, has never been
pursued at the level as that for land. As geodesists live on land, they have devoted mostly all
of their time to study, research, and solve geodetic complexities and solutions over the land.
Immediately after the launching of the first manmade satellite on October 4, 1957,
everyone witnessed almost overnight rise of interest in satellite geodesy, which
transformed the study of the geodetic science from being local or regional to global.

The study of marine geodesy got some attention around 1970s, but it still has not
developed as it should or demands. In almost all the countries, full undergraduate or
graduate level study curricula in marine geodesy are still to be developed and provided to
students.

This chapter is developed for undergraduate level, especially for non-geodesy study
program. It defines, discusses, and explains the specifics of geodetic observations and
measurements in the ocean environment, on the surface, underwater, and on the sea floor.
It introduces the geodetic positioning techniques and coordinate systems, specifically
pertaining to ocean areas. The techniques and methods for measuring the depth of sea
floor, as it relates to marine environment, will also be included.

The study of geodetic aspects and issue of oceans overlaps the domain with that of
oceanography. Thus, it is important to be aware of difference in definitions for many
geodetic terms and products, e.g., dynamic heights, geoid, etc., as they are used differently
in geodesy and oceanography (Appendix C2). Awareness of such conflict(s) in definitions is
important and critical, if geodetic and oceanographic data sets have to be mixed or used
together in any project(s).

4.2 Observations and Measurements

The systems to make observations, measure distances, and survey positions on and
below the sea surface differ completely from each other For below the surface, unlike
land areas, survey observations and/or measurements have to be made surrounded or
through water. For over the surface, only GPS surveying technique has been discussed,
described, and explained. The specific differences, pertaining to different types of
situations, are discussed and explained below.

4.2.1 On the Sea Surface

A. Single Point Positioning

To determine marine position of any point P or Q on the ocean surface, since

Mid-1990s the Global Positioning System (GPS) has become the most accurate and cost

4- 1
effective survey technique (Section 3.6). However, such a position will only be an
instantaneous or navigational. These surveyed positions can be on floating platforms or
moving ships or boats. It is obvious here that a stationary and mean geodetic position
at any point on the ocean surface will not be possible like that of a bench mark on land.

Figure 4.1 shows a survey scenario in single point positioning mode (Section 3.6.1)
for any two points P and Q on the ocean surface.

Figure 4.1 - Instantaneous navigational Position on the Sea Surface

B. Distance Between Two Points

For any two points P1 and P2 on the ocean surface (Figure 4.2), the following
two types of distances could be obtained:

P2 (x2, y2, z2)

P1 (x1, y1, z1)
Sea Surface
Q1(1, 1, h1=0) Q2(2, 2, h2=0)
Ellipsoidal Surface

Sea Floor

Figure 4.2 - Two Types of Distances between Two Points on the Sea Surface

a. Direct distance or chord length P1P2 from two sets of rectangular coordinates
(X, Y, Z). An important point to note is that this distance will NOT be along the
ocean surface.
b. Geodesic or shortest distance Q1Q2, between the two corresponding points on
the ellipsoidal surface, computed from the two sets of geodetic coordinates (, h)
of the surface points P1 and P2.

4.2.2 Below the Sea Surface

Like the atmosphere above the oceans, the water is the media through which all
the survey measurements are made. Here, the propagation of sound waves and their travel

4- 2
times, known as acoustic, are used for measurements (Figure 4.3).

Figure 4.3 - Acoustically Measured Depths

In Figure 4.3, both the points could be underwater. However, as the sound velocity
changes in a non-linear form with the depth, the propagation of signal becomes very
complex. Furthermore, there are no good models to correct acoustic range measurements.
These two limitations become even more acute when both points are on or near the sea
floor in deep seawater.

In shallow waters up to 200 to 300 meters, the media is more complex, but due to
limited water column the surveying of depths with laser measuring techniques, e.g.,
LIDAR, has become comparatively easier.

4.3 Marine Positioning

In ocean environment, marine positioning has three specific types depending

whether the positioning is to be surveyed, viz., on the ocean surface, underwater below the
surface, or on the ocean bottom. The last two are the most challenging types and still have
considerable scope for research and improvement.

4.3.1 On Ocean Surface

Here, position of any point P (Figure 4.1) is in instantaneous or navigational

mode, as the surveyed point on sea surface will always be in constant motion due to waves,
tides, currents, and vortices.

Using GPS, the surface positions can be surveyed in two modes (Section 3.6):

A. Single Point Mode This type is determined only by using Broadcast Ephemeris
(BE) and currently the achievable accuracy is 5-10 m (1).

B. Differential Mode Here, the known station(s) are on the nearby shore or coast.
The Differential GPS (DGPS) method can improve the accuracy significantly.
With specially designed DGPS surveys, accuracy of geodetic positions (,, h) of
any point on a ship can be improved to 10 cm (1 ).

4- 3
4.3.2 Underwater or Below Sea Surface

For practical requirement, there can be two scenarios (Figure 4.4):

Figure 4.4 - Under Water Positions at Points "P" and "Q"

a. When the observing vehicle P has an arm type attachment A, e.g.,

a periscope, which protrudes above the ocean surface. If a GPS antenna is
attached to the protruding arm A, the position surveying methods will
be as for any single point above the ocean surface (Section 4.3.1). Then,
position of P can be determined with respect to A.

b. When nothing can be protruded or the submarine at Q is not using a

periscope, GPS will not be of any help. In such a case, special surveying
technique(s) will have to be deployed (Note: Details of those techniques
are beyond the scope of this book).

4.3.3 On the Ocean Bottom

This case is just like surveying on land. But, the distinct difference is that the BMs
or any other feature or points to be surveyed will have water layers over them. All
measurements under water will be using acoustic ranging. In deep waters, the surveyors
might never reach the BMs or visit them for inspection. At the present time, two types of
transponders are available, one which is passive only to return the sound signals and
second which are active with additional capability to generate sound signals of their own.
The active type is a better candidate to function as BMs on the ocean floor. But, both are
costly. As they operate on batteries, their lifetime is limited. Thus, they need to be
deployed during surveying and then recalled, when the project is completed. If the
battery runs out before recall, that transponder might be lost forever.

In Double Pyramid survey technique, a point P is surveyed on a ship from 4-5

GPS satellites. Then, from the ship, acoustic signals are transmitted to a network of
transponders on the ocean bottom.

4- 4
Figure 4.5 shows a typical survey scenario benchmarks on sea floor.

Figure 4.5 - Double Pyramid Method for Surveying the Sea Floor

Travel time of sound signal from the ship to a transponder and back is measured. This
provides the acoustic range and pyramids of ranges from different ship positions can be
solved in a network mode.

Note that the deeper is the ocean, the more difficult is surveying the BMs on the ocean
bottom. Also, more complex will be the acoustic model(s) for correcting the distance
measurements. The best practical approach will be to use GPS surveying to establish a
number of temporary stationary, or almost, GPS positioned sound sources as
intermediate stations on the sea surface. Then, using them, to survey the sea floor
transponder with acoustic ranges will be of great help to collect good quality data sets and
significantly improve the accuracy achievable by this technique.

4.4 Coordinate Systems for Ocean Areas

A. 2-D System -

During pre-satellite era, the 2-D geodetic datums, as defined for the adjoining land
areas, were used. These datums were extrapolated over adjoining ocean areas. In mid-
oceans, the geodetic datums for small islands or island chains were also defined with
astronomical coordinates (, )1 of the Initial Point.

1The 2-D astronomic coordinates of any point are computed from positions of the stars
with the vertical axis of the observing instrument aligned with the plumb line. The
astronomic (,) and geodetic coordinates (,) are related as:

= -
= ( - ) cos

where and are the N-S and E-W components of the DoV (Section 2.3.3).

4- 5
 In this approach, four main disadvantages were:

1. Any extension had to be confined to a very limited distance from the

main land due to non-availability of accurate survey techniques.

2. The geodetic accuracy of the coordinates (,) would decrease with the
increase in distance from the adjoining land.

3. In case of small islands far off from the main land, the coordinates were
not geodetic at all.

4. The geodetic data from this type of datums could only be used in very
limited areas.

B. 3-D System -

In the post-Satellite era, first U.S. Navy Navigation Satellite System (NNSS) helped
to extend the geodetic datum positioning. Now, GPS surveying techniques provide the 3-D
geocentric geodetic coordinate system over oceans (Section 3.6). World Geodetic System
(WGS) 1984 is the coordinate system used in GPS surveying. Other datums and systems,
e.g., NAD 83, Korean System (KGS) 1995, International Geodetic Reference System for the
Americas (SIRGAS) 2000 and European Reference (EUREF) 1989, are also available for
marine positioning over ocean areas.

The 3-D geodetic coordinates (,,h) are globally consistent in definition and the
accuracy does not depend on the closeness to the land areas.

Important Consideration: As NAD 83 was basically defined as a continental datum

from the old 2-D triangulation and traverse data sets, its extended control in the open
oceans will not have the high accuracy as of the globally defined geodetic systems, e.g.,
WGS 84 or SIRGAS. Even over the Aleutian Island chain extending into Pacific Ocean,
NAD 83 coordinates show accuracy only in 5-6 meter range.

4.5 Sea Floor or Ocean Depth d

A. Definition: The linear distance d measured with acoustic sounding technique

from point P on a Datum or Zero reference surface to the point Q on the sea floor
is called the ocean depth d. Note that the d is introduced as a general symbol for ocean
depths.

4- 6
 Figure 4.6 illustrates the configuration pertaining to measurement of depth d.

Figure 4.6 - Definition of Depth d of the Sea Floor

The zero reference surfaces or Datum for depths d over ocean areas, as per
present definitions in use, are all time-variant. The methods and algorithms to determine a
zero surface change from agency to agency and from one country to another**. The
zero defining reference surfaces are also NOT consistent globally. In acoustic sounding
technique to measure d (Figure 4.6), the equation to model sound velocity and
algorithm need standardization and updating with new research. Also, it is not fully
certain that the measured PQ is a straight line and perpendicular from the zero surfaces
to sea floor.

**IMPORTANT CONSIDERATION - Authors search (for USA) could not locate:

a. The Agency, which is responsible to measure acoustic depths d and to

maintain the national database.
b. The equation, algorithm, and instrumentation, which are being used and when
they were introduced for measuring acoustic depths.
c. The official Agency, which would answer the request for depth by a ship
captain approaching a U.S. harbor.

B. Bathymetry is the process of measuring ocean depths. Here, the most important
aspect is to have a non-ambiguous and time-invariant zero reference for measuring sea
floor depths. But, this type of zero has been missing for centuries.

Initially, hydrographers provided time-variant Mean tidal surfaces for selecting a

zero reference or datum for ocean depths. Then, International Hydrographic Office
(IHO) adopted in 1997 a predicted astronomical tidal datum. In recent years, marine
geodesists have proposed the time-invariant geoid or ellipsoidal surface as zero reference.

The following sub-sections discuss the salient characteristics for defining different
zero references and provide comments on their merits and demerits from practical view
point of safe navigation.

4- 7
4.5.1 Datums or Zero Reference Surfaces

A. Time-Variant

a. Tidal Surfaces as Datums

The sea tidal surface at a Tidal Bench Mark (TBM) is monitored or observed
at regular intervals, which generally is every hour. 24 hourly observations are
needed to provide a daily mean, 30 or 31 daily means provide a monthly average,
and 12 monthly averages yield a yearly average. Then, 19 yearly averages over an
astronomic cycle of 18.67 years provide the Mean Tidal surface (Note that this
would be a rigorously required set of observations to obtain a tidal datum).

The 18.67 ( 19) years cycle is the same as required to compute MSL
(Chapter 2). It is based on the years for the Sun, Earth, and Moon to complete their
journeys starting from their positions in space at a given time and back, more or
less, to the same configuration. The most critical limitation in computing any
Mean Tidal Datum (MTD) is that the rigororously required observations and
computing of all the averages are strictly not followed. But, they differ from one
tidal station to another and also between countries around the world.

The most commonly used tidal datums are Mean Lower Low Water
(MLLW), Mean Low Water (MLW), Mean High Water (MHW), and Mean Higher
High Water (MHHW).

Important Considerations:

(1) Though time-dependent, no epoch and cycle is identified or

associated with the Mean, which would allow an indication to a
user how current or old is the tidal datum.
(2) Even if the epoch is known, the mariner while underway will
never have the real zero, which is really required for use during
navigation time.
(3) This datum will only be applicable along or close the coast. It will
NOT be authentic and valid even 100-200 m from the TBM.

b. Astronomical Tidal Datums (IHO Resolution # A 2.5, 1997)

Lowest or Highest Astronomical Tide (LAT or HAT) These datums

are defined as the lowest or highest tide level, which can be predicted to occur under
average meteorological conditions and under any combination of astronomical
conditions.

The recommended procedure requires that LAT and/or HAT are to be calculated
either over a minimum period of 19 years using harmonic constants derived from a

4- 8
minimum of one year's observations or by other proven methods known to give reliable
results.

Here, IHO is referring to the "lowest" of the "predicted" levels, recorded at 600-
minute intervals or more often. From this data one determines the hourly heights and can
run a Fourier analysis or a least squares analysis to determine the tidal constituents, i.e.,
the tidal frequencies for the significant constituents. There is no upper limit on the number
of constituents. Todays enhanced computing power will allow more complex computations
with expanded number of constituents to improve prediction for shallow water areas.
Countries have taken and can take different approaches, or modify, to compute LAT and
HAT.

As per IHO, LAT is the predicted lowest astronomic value over the lowest tide
level, which can be predicted to occur under average meteorological conditions and under
any combination of astronomical conditions, i.e., no one would have a negative tide
corrector from the tide table. IHO intends that Member States should not have to take 19
years to for implementation of LAT. They will be free to use one year of observations to
compute the difference and then apply that to the 19-year epoch to obtain the LAT.

Note: LAT is the most ambiguous datum with NO specified globally consistent
definition. It is totally unreliable for safe navigation.

c. Standard Oceanographic Zero Reference Surface

In this case, the instantaneous ocean surface at the time of acoustic

measurement is considered the Zero reference surface.

Note: Thus, this surface does NOT have any practical utility.

B. Time-Invariant

a. Geoid as Datum

As for land areas, the geoid can be used to establish orthometric depths
over oceans. The achievable accuracy for geoid over oceans is better as compared to land
(Section 2.11). Thus, the depths would be more accurate over the oceans.

b. Ellipsoid as Datum

Using GPS surveying, the ellipsoidal depths can be established with

practically no ambiguity in definition. For the ocean areas, where ellipsoid is below the sea
surface, it may be quite possible to have depth of sea floor as positive.

4.5.2 Types of Depths

After identifying and defining four valid datums or zero reference surfaces

4- 9
(Section 4.5.1), the following types of depths are defined and their geodetic characteristics
or properties highlighted.

Note that to have distinct identification to each type of depth, as related to the four
reference datums (Section 4.5.1), specific symbols have been introduced. This practice will
avoid mix up between different types and help users to find exact location of the sea floor.

A. Tidal Depths td (Sections 4.5.1.A.a. and b.)

In Figure 4.7, PQ depicts the depth td of the sea floor with respect to a mean
tidal datum, e.g., MLLW or LAT. The linear measurement between the sound source S
and point Q will follow the path of the sound waves. Here, SQ is the measured acoustic
range or distance d (Note that SQ might not be perpendicular to the datum surface, not a
straight line, and will be time-variant.).

Figure 4.7 - Depth td from Tidal Datum

In this case, PS, which specifically would define the depth td, is the most
uncertain component. Qualifiers for type, cycle duration, and mean epoch (me), if
provided with td, would help users to indicate reliability and practical utility. A few
examples are:
a. For Tidal Datum - td (MLLW; 19-Yr; ME-2001.0), td (MLW, 11-Yr; me- 1998.7),
b. For LAT Datum - td (LAT, 3-Yr; me-1995.0), td (LAT, 1-Yr; me-1999.4).

B. Orthometric Depth D (Section 4.5.1.B.a.)

Figure 4.8 depicts a point P on the geoid above a point Q on the sea floor.

Figure 4.8 - Orthometric Depth (D) using the Geoid as Datum

4-10
 The acoustic measured range or distance SQ will be of the type in tidal or LAT
datum (Figure 4.7). Surveying with GPS, geodetic position (, , h) of the sound source S
can be determined. Then, PS is equal to the geoid height (N).

Notes:

1. This depth is time-invariant, i.e., once surveyed it will not change.

However, it should only be defined with a high accuracy global geoid.
2. As symbol H is used with orthometric heights for land, D is being
introduced for orthometric depths.
3. This datum will be consistent in definition both for ocean areas and land
without a break.
4. Accuracy of geoid height PS (or N) will be inferior as compared to the
directly surveyed h by GPS (Sub-Section C. below).

C. Ellipsoidal Depths ed (Section 4.5.1.B.b.) -

Figure 4.9 shows the depth PQ with respect to an ellipsoid as a Datum (Note that
SQ is the measured acoustic range.). Similar to an orthometric depth, this type will also
be time-invariant and consistent in definition both for oceans and land.

The ellipsoid as Datum for depths (ed) has the most straight forward definition and
it can be directly established using GPS without any gravity input.

Figure 4.9 - Depth (ed) with Ellipsoid as Datum

The measured acoustic distance SQ will be of the type as in tidal or LAT datum
case (Figure 4.7). However, this depth definition is straight forward with no uncertainty of
mean or astronomical tidal datums. The ed does not require any knowledge of geoid.
Using GPS, it can be surveyed with the best possible accuracy. It is time-invariant, i.e.,
once surveyed it will not change (Appendix B4).

Note that the new symbol ed has been introduced to avoid mix-up with the time-
variant depths td (Section 4.5.2.A.).

4-11
 4.5.3 Comparative Accuracy Evaluation

Table 1 shows comparative accuracy evaluation between different types of depths

(Section 4.5.2). As no estimate(s) could be ascertained for the acoustic sounding
measurement, its contribution to overall accuracy has been not been included.

Table 1 Comparative Evaluation of Different Types of Depths.

Type of Datum Reliability Practical Utility Contribution of Accuracy

Depth Definition Acoustic Sounding to Evaluation
Overall Accuracy
td (MTD) Fair Fair Fair Unknown Poor
td (LAT) Very Poor Very Poor Very Poor Unknown Very Poor
D (Ortho) Good Good Good Unknown Good
Ed Best Excellent Excellent Unknown Excellent
(Ellip.) Possible

4.6 Temporal Effect on Marine Positioning

A. Surface Positions

The motions due to tides, waves, currents, and vortices are always and continuously
changing the position of a point on the sea surface. As the rate of change due to such
motions will never be constant, the only positions possible will be instantaneous or
navigational.

B. Sub-surface Positions

Here, currents will produce the main temporal variations and again the only
possible positions will be instantaneous or navigational.

C. Sea Floor Positions -

Earths crust is split in large or small plates where the irregular fracture lines
are called faults. The plates are sliding relative to each other along these faults. One
prominent example is San Andreas Fault in California, along which the Pacific and
American plates are moving relatively.

In ocean areas, this type of phenomena is known as sea floor spreading. As BMs
on either side of the San Andreas Fault are moving relative to each other, BMs on either
side of a sea floor fault are also in motion.

Currently, the sea floor spreading is not easy to measure and monitor. In recent
years, only a few special projects have been carried out, e.g. along San Fuca Fault, west of
Seattle, WA.

4-12
4.7 Tidal Effects on Marine Positioning

Tides also like sea floor spreading have a temporal movement on the geodetic
positions. There are tides, known as solid Earth tides for land areas. They are every day
common phenomena in seas and oceans. The periods of ocean tides vary very widely,
e.g., from few hours to yearly or to 14-months.

For geodetic positioning and gravity, International Association of Geodesy (IAG)

passed its Resolution No. 16 in 1983 recommending a procedure to model tidal effects.
The recommended model is Zero-Tide, in which the permanent tides effects are retained.

Note that IAG Resolution 16 of 1983 is still in force and it must be used.

4.8 Practical Considerations

1. Acoustic correction modeling for ranging and sounding requires new-search.

2. Tidal depth (td) cannot locate ocean floor with necessary and sufficient
accuracy for safe and secure marine navigation using GPS.

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4-14
 5 Practical Geodesy

5.1 Introduction

The Global Positioning System (GPS) reached its full potential of surveying high
accuracy 3-D positions in geocentric global datum in the late 1990s. Combining these
positions with the high resolution satellite imagery brought in a new approach to distortion
free mapping the real Earth directly on ellipsoidal surface. GPS also enables direct
surveying of accurate ellipsoidal heights and depths. This capability would provide the
most practical solution(s) for the third coordinate.

All such practical and easily realizable solutions with high accuracy and globally
consistent definition would replace the centuries-old traditional and hard to realize
solutions with large distortions. They would provide newer alternatives to many countries,
e.g., accurate ellipsoidal height system for land-locked mountainous areas or ellipsoidal
time-invariant depths for safe navigation.

This chapter introduces the ellipsoidal-solutions (e-solutions) to familiarize students,

GPS surveyors, and developers of Geo-Information Systems of their availability through
already published papers, which are included as Appendices B1, B2, B3, and B4.

5.2 e-solutions

5.2.1 Direct Ellipsoidal Mapping

Read Appendix B1.

5.2.2 GPS Surveyed Ellipsoid Heights (h) Work

Read Appendices B2 and B3.

5.2.3 GPS Surveyed Ellipsoid Depth (ed)

Read Appendix B4.

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5-2
Appendix A1 - Astronomical Definitions

Celestial objects are considered to lie on an imaginary celestial sphere of

unit radius. Earths center or the observer is assumed to be at the center of this
sphere depending on the type of calculations. Astronomical coordinates of celestial
object, projected on the sphere, are defined in pairs, viz., right ascension and
declination, astronomical latitude and longitude, azimuth and altitude. Earths
geodetic poles, meridians, and latitudes are also defined on the sphere. All the
coordinates are measured as arcs and angles, which are used as distances.

The following is a list of astronomic terms and their definitions, which are
commonly used in satellite geodesy.

Autumnal Equinox - The point of intersection of the ecliptic and celestial

equator on the sun's path from north to south. This occurs on or around
September 21 of each year.

Celestial Equator - The plane perpendicular to the rotation axis of the

celestial sphere that contains the center of the sphere. (Projection of the
Earths Equator onto the celestial sphere.)

Declination Arc of the great circle perpendicular to the celestial Equator

and passing through the object, measured from the celestial Equator towards
the North Celestial Pole.

Ecliptic - the projected path of the sun onto the celestial sphere.

Equinoctial Colure - An hour circle passing through the celestial poles and
the equinoxes.

Hour Circle - A great circle containing the poles, perpendicular to the

celestial equator.

Nadir - The point on the celestial sphere directly below an observer (90
degrees measured below the observers horizon).

North Celestial Pole (NCP) - The projection of the earth's North Pole onto
the celestial sphere.

Obliquity of the Ecliptic - The angle the ecliptic makes with the celestial
equator. It's approximately 23 o.5.

A1-1
Observers Celestial Meridian - A great circle passing through the celestial
poles and the observer's zenith.

Right Ascension - The angle, measured counter (??) clockwise, in the plane of
(along) the celestial equator, from the vernal equinox to the meridian passing
through a celestial object.

Vernal Equinox - The point of intersection of the ecliptic and the celestial
equator on the sun's path from south to north. This occurs on or about
March 21 of each year.

Zenith - The point on the celestial sphere directly above an observer (90
degrees measured along the great circle, above the observers horizon).

A1-2
Appendix A2 - Time

Length of the Day (LOD)

The time taken for the Earth to rotate one complete round about its
rotational axis is known as the Length of Day (LOD). The LOD is approximately
24 hours, but it fluctuates plus or minus by a fraction of a time second every day.

The International Earth Rotation Service (IERS), Paris, France, monitors

the LOD.

Greenwich Mean Sidereal Time (GMST)

GMST = Greenwich hour angle of the mean vernal equinox.

Universal Time (UT & UT1)

Mean Solar Day is defined by the time interval between two successive
transits of a mean fictitious Sun across the meridian. Then, Mean Solar Time
(MST) is measured by the hour angleof the mean Sun.

UT = 12h + Greenwich hour angle of the mean Sun

UT1 = UT referred to Conventional Terrestrial Pole (CTP)

International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 1984 formulated the following

timing relationship:

GMST at 0h UT1 = 6h 41 m 50.5481 s +8640184.812866 s Tu

+ 0.093104 s Tu2- 6.2 s x 10-6 Tu3

Where Tu is the time from the standard epoch J2000, January 112 h UT1, counted
in Julian centuries of of 365.25 days.

Tropical Year (TY)

The Tropical or Mean Solar year consists of 365.24219879 mean solar days
(dM) in which the Earth travels round the Sun. We use mean year and days as the
actual year and days are not constant in their duration or they both fluctuate. The
length of Tropical Year (TY) is measured by the time interval between successive
appearances (Note that the Earth travels, while Sun is stationary.) of the Sun in
the vernal equinox.

A2-1
Gregorian Calendar (GC)

Pope Gregory III slightly modified the length of TY to 365.2425 mean

solar days in 1582. He also made another change for the leap years and specified
that the century years not divisible by 400, e.g., 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, etc.,
will not be leap years.

NOTE: As the GC still over compensates by about 0.0003 mean solar days
from the actual TY, it will need another fine adjustment in year 4800. However, a
simulated study has shown that the GC would have gained an extra day by the
century year 4000. Thus, the February in Y4k will be of 28 days instead of 29 days.

International Atomic Time (TAI)

International Atomic Time TAI (Temps Atomique International) was

introduced to have a strictly uniform time scale. 13th Conference of the
International Committee of Weights and Measure, Paris, France, in 1967 adopted:

1 sec TAI = 9 192 631 770 periods

of radiation transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of
Cesium 133 atom.

Thus, TA based on the electromagnetic oscillations of an atom is defined

by linking a quartz crystal clock with an adopted standard atomic frequency. Each
atomic clock of different countries provides its own time system. Examples are:

a. A.1 is the adopted system of U.S. Naval Observatory,

Washington, DC.
b. NBS-A is maintained by the U.S. National Bureau of Standards,
Boulder, CO.
c. A3 is the system of Bureau International de LHeure, Paris,
France.

Bureau International des Poids et Measures (BIPM), Paris, takes the

weighted mean of each countrys TA and has set the following relationship:

AI - UT1 = + 6.1 s on January 1, 1968

= + 16.4 s 0n January 1, 1978
= + 26.1 s on January 1, 1992
= 32.962 404 s on 1 January 2007.

A2-2
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)

The UTC is an international standard time system obtained by continuous

coordination of different TAs. UTC and TAI differ by an integral number n

seconds:

UTC TAI = + n (1s)

The integer n is changed either on Janury 1 or July 1 of a year. Thus, the

epoch of UTC is adopted by addition or removal as an adjustment for the leap
second. The difference dUT1 (UTC UT1) is kept less than or equal to 0.7
seconds.

GPS Time

GPS Time - UTC1991 = 7 s

GPS Time UTC = 14 000 000 006.2 ns on 1 January 2007.

BIPM provides the correct relationship as:

GPS Time - UTC = n s C0

where n is an integer. The value of correction C0 on January 1, 1992 was = +232

ns.

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A2-4
A3 Terrestrial System and/or Terrestrial Reference Frame

To learn about the Terrestrial System (TS) and Terrestrial Reference Frame
(TRF) and about their definitions, it is important to know (1) Polar Motion, (2)
Reference Pole (RP), and (3) Reference Meridian (RM). These three topics are
explained as under:

1. Polar Motion In succession polar motion has been studied, monitored,

analyzed, and measured by the International Latitude Service (ILS), International
Polar Motion Service (IPMS), Bureau International de LHeure (BIH), and
International Earth Rotation Service (IERS) since 1900 to this day. The North Pole
has three motions. Here, Figure 1 shows the location of the Earths TRUE
geodetic North Pole (Note: This Pole is different from Astronomic or Geographic
and Magnetic.). P*S* is the polar axis about which Earth rotates in 24 hours.

P*

W E

S
S*

Figure 1 - Earth and its Two Poles

The places P and S are called North and South Poles. Figure 2 shows the
North Pole position P as and polar axis PS with a flagpole. As Earth moves in

W E

Figure 2 - Pole Position and Wobble

A3-1
space around the Sun in its yearly journey, the polar axis PP* wobbles. This is
known as the first motion of the North Pole.

Starting from its original 1900 position, the North Pole position P has
indicated a daily shift, which over a year follows a wavy spiral (Figure 3).

X X
X X o X
X X Daily location

Figure 3 - Pole Locations during any Year

Similar spiral motions had occurred every year since 1900 and is taking
place even now. This second yearly motion is known as Polar Wander.

To keep a tag on the polar wandering, one years positions are averaged.
On plotting the mean positions for years 1900, 1901, . 1905 1995 and so on
up to 2007, they show another interesting feature (Figure 4). The plot indicates

Figure 4 - North Poles Yearly Southward Journey

A3-2
that the Pole position P had, slowly and steadily, been moving every year since
1900. This motion is always in one direction, i.e., towards South. The Pole actually
shifts with respect to Earths surface. This southward journey or the third motion is
a zigzag path and known as Polar Walk. The path direction, at present, points
towards North Eastern America and Greenland. The movements rate is about 13.5
cm per year and maintained since the year 1900.

2. Reference Pole (RP) From the constantly moving Pole, one of its
positions for a particular time epoch is selected and frozen as to be considered as
the Reference Pole. This Pole then defines the Z-axis of the TRF for a 3-D
geocentric coordinate system.

In 1905 system, this was called as Conventional International Origin

(CIO). In the BIH system, it was named as Conventional Terrestrial Pole
(CTP) with the assigned epoch as 1984. From 1988, IERS started calling
it as International Reference Pole (IRP).

3. Reference Meridian (RM) Up to 1968 or around it, the meridian passing

through the telescope of the Greenwich Observatory used to be defined as Zero
Meridian. The intersection of the plane, in which this zero meridian lies and
contains the Z-axis, with the Equatorial plane defines the X-axis as the second
axis of the TRF.

Then, averaging the time observations, as observed by the observatories from all
over the world, the practice to define on an international basis the Reference
Zero Meridian for a particular epoch got started, e.g., 1968.0. In 1988, IERS
changed the name to International Reference Meridian (IRM).

Terrestrial System (TS) or Reference Frame (TRF) - Here, how the two most
important TS and TRF were defined is explained (Note: each is represented by
a 3-D geocentric rectangular axes (XYZ) frame.).

A. BIH Conventional Terrestrial System (CTS) 1984.0

In this case, the CTS is defined as:

Origin is at the Earths center of mass.

Z-axis is oriented in the direction of BIH Conventional Terrestrial
Pole (CTP), Reference Epoch (RE) 1984.0.
X-axis is at right angle to Z-axis and along the intersection of the BIH
Reference Zero Meridian and the plane passing through the Origin
and containing the Equator.

A3-3
 Y-axis is perpendicular to both the Z- and X-axis, lies in the
Equatorial plane, and points towards East, completing the Right-
Handed System**(Right thumb upwards + Z-axis, index finger
towards + X-axis, and middle finger points East.).

** In Photogrammetry, Y-axis points towards the West to define a

Left-Handed System.

B. IERS International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF)

In its first realization of ITRF in 1988, IERS retains the BIH

Conventional Terrestrial Pole (CTP) and Reference Zero Meridian, Epoch 1984.0.
The Reference Epoch (RE) for this solution was selected as 1988.0.

The, 11 more solutions followed in 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1996,
1997, 2000, 2005, and 2008, where the BIH CTS 84.0 TRF was kept intact.

A3-4
Appendix A4 - Tides and Tidal Effects

There are ocean tides with different cycles and period. A few of them are
known as permanent tides, which are always present. In addition, there are tides
over the land areas and they are called solid Earth tides.

The ocean and solid Earth tides affect geodetic positions and gravity. For
uniform tidal corrections, the International Association of Geodesy (IAG) passed
the Resolution No. 16 in 1983.

In this Resolution, IAG recommended that the permanent tidal effects should
be retained. This is known as Zero-Tide model.

NOTE:

1. It is not clear how the word Zero got in the model name, especially
when the permanent tidal effects are still retained.
2. Use of any other tidal model is violation of IAG Resolution 16 of 1983.
No agency, instrument manufacturer, firm, and/or software developer
has the capability to develop and/or use any other model.

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A4-2
Appendix A5 - Temporal Effects

The Earths crust is fractured in many large and small plates. At the
fractures or faults, the breaks are not smooth but the plates are inter-locked.
One of the very famous fault is San Andreas, where the Pacific and American
plates are sliding by along this fault.

For high accuracy geodetic positioning in the sub-decimeter range, the

temporal variations caused by the plate motions must be taken into account or
modeled. Thus, in the realization of the International Terrestrial Reference
Frame (ITRF), first a Reference Epoch (RF) is associated (Appendix 3), e.g.,
ITRF (88.0), ITRF (93.0). Then, all the stations of the network used to realize the
ITRF (nn.0) are solved for the geodetic coordinates and associated velocities (X, X).
IERS has retained the epochs for the reference pole IRP and meridian IRM as
1984.0 in all the 11 ITRF realizations.

NOTE: When any ITRF (nn.0) is used to define and realize a geodetic
system, e.g., WGS 84, SIRGAS 2000, the epoch of the adjustment of the network
stations can be attached to identify the time of establishing or updating of the
geodetic system. This epoch is generally selected to the mid-epoch of the survey
period. The epochs of the Reference IRP and IRM and of the particular ITRF
used do NOT change.

A5-1
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A5-2
APPENDIX A6 - SIGNIFICANT DIGITS

Numbers - There are three different types of numbers, viz., integer, real rational,
and real Irrational.

Integer - 12, 4509, 300, 3459 etc cannot be represented containing decimal
point.

Real Rational Examples are 1 / 4 (Quarter), 1 / 2 (half), 3 / 100 etc. It may

be noted that in decimal notation these numbers are represented by 0.25, 0.5, and
0.03.

Real Irrational Here, examples are 1/3 (one third), 1/297, (Pi), e (used in
natural logarithmic calculation). Represented in decimal notation these are 0.333333
----, 0.003367003-----, 3.14159----- and 2.71828----. It should be noted that number of
digits after the decimal point is never ending. Computer converts fractions into
decimal notation; therefore even 1/3 is taken in decimal notation and number of
digits to be taken in calculations becomes important for computational accuracy.
Significant Digits During computer computations, the significant number of
digits becomes SIGNIFICANT.

Examples
1. During computations For computing the length of the
Equator (2a, a = semi-major axis in meter), the value of
taken with two significant places after decimal as 3.14 and
with five places after decimal as 3.14159 will show that more
digits are required to get the result accurate up to 0.1 m
accuracy.
2. Results - Area of a piece of land is meaningless to be given as
10.234567 hectares or the time lag between the first racing
car and the next one being given as 10.567934 seconds. In
practice to make numbers meaningful these may be rounded
off as 10.23 hectares and 10.568 seconds. And, this is termed as
significance.
3. Special case for Zero (0) The digit 0 is significant at
certain places after the decimal and also NOT. 1.0879, 5.2390,
1.00768, each zero is significant (Note: Another zero cannot be
added arbitrarily after the fourth digit in 5.2390. In numbers
like 0.000359 or 0.09876, number of significant digits is 3 and 4
respectively.

ALERT Do not add or delete or omit a zero: arbitrarily, e.g.,

(1) Correct value of aWGS 84 is 6378137 m; 6378137.
or 6378137.0 are incorrect.

A6-1
 (2) In a first-order height H = 9.730 m taken from a
national database, do NOT add an extra zero or
delete/omit the last zero.
(2)

Significant Digits Required Number of digits are retained during computer

computations are based on the accuracy desired for the result(s). As a safety
precaution, one or two extra digits are included.

In modern computers with large memory, these days 16 digits are used as a
minimum. In special cases, even 32 digits are retained.

Rounding of Digits In practice, in numbers as 2.335 and 2.365, the last

digit 5 is rounded as 2.34 and 2.36, both cases to the even number, e.g., 4
or 6.

Final Note: Do not jeopardize any computations and/or results by omitting,

deleting, and missing a significant digit. Also, never add an extra redundant digit.

A6-2
Appendix A7 Precision and Accuracy

The precision and accuracy are very often used as one for the other.
To be able to use them in right perspective, their correct definitions are explained
as under:

High precision is extremely important in achieving high accuracy. Thus,

precision complements accuracy.

1. Precision

It is the measure of repeatability. In Figure 1, the repeat surveyed positions

Of any unknown point P are shown by the symbol +, mean position of the
survey as .PM, and True position as oPT. As all the surveyed positions + are
clustered close to each other, they indicate good repeatability. Thus, surveyed mean
position PM has good precision.

Pp
++
+
+
+ P0 X
++++

Y
Figure 1 Precision of a Survey.

Precision is also called Internal Accuracy.

NOTE: The mean PM of all surveyed positions (figure 1) indicates

that it is still missing the True position PT. Thus, it is not accurate.

A7-1
 2. Accuracy

It is the measure of closeness of the surveyed mean position PM to the

True position PT (Figure 2).

PM
++ + +P
+++
++ +T+ Y
++
X

Figure 2 - Accuracy of a Survey.

The closer is the surveyed mean PM to the True position PT, the
higher is the accuracy of a surveyed point P. The relative accuracy between
two surveyed points P and Q is easier, as compared to achieve absolute
accuracy of a single point P.

Accuracy is also called External Accuracy.

NOTE: Thus, to achieve high accuracy, the surveyed mean position

PM must also have high precision.

3. Dilution of Accuracy

When one measurement of high accuracy is combined with another of

lower accuracy, the lower accuracy dilutes the higher.

Example: Distance AB = 107.1 m +/- 1 m

Distance BC = 2.213 m +/- 0.001 m

Distance AC = 109.3 m +/- 1 m.

A7-2
Appendix A8 Errors and Accuracy

There are NO perfect survey observations or measurements and as such

errors are inevitably are inherent constituent(s) of them. Thus, in any survey
project, achievable accuracy is directly related to the total errors accrued
during observations. Here, specifically and specially designed survey specifications
can either reduce observational or measurement errors and/or allow them to cancel
each other as much as possible.

Errors

Errors are generally of two types, viz., random and systematic.

Random - These errors, as the name typifies, are randomly distributed,

small, large, and very large. The plot of frequency distribution versus
error magnitudes follows Gaussian Bell-shaped curve (Figure 1).

Error (e)
Frequency Curve

-e PT +e
(e=0)

Figure 1 Gaussian Random Errors Distribution Curve.

In the figure, the curve depicts a perfect set with infinite number of
observations. However, in real world situation, the observation set will
contain only a finite number. The larger is the number of observations, the
error curve will be follow closer to the Gaussian error distribution.

The pattern indicates that errors are both negative and positive and
they occur equally. For e = 0 in surveying a geodetic position, the vertical
line identifies the True position PT. Smaller magnitude errors will
occur more number of times. As the error curve is asymptotic on both sides,
the errors can be of infinite in magnitude and yet they would be genuine**.
Thus, in the real world survey, there are NO outliers.

A8-1
 ** An observation is genuine, as long as observations are collected
with correct survey specifications. Example: If carefully centered GPS
antenna gets disturbed, than all observations collected (while antenna
remains off-centered) will NOT follow Gaussian distribution.

Note: Sharply peaked dome indicates observations with small errors. A

flatter dome would mean more large magnitude errors.

Systematic - These errors, also called biases follow a systematic

pattern and are NOT cancellable. Known systematic errors or biases
can be reduced or minimized by special data reduction and/or
corrections.

Note: Mistakes, large or small, and/or blunders are NOT errors.

Error Probability

The error frequency distribution curve (Figure 1) can also be considered to

represent error probability distribution. In case of finite number of observations
or measurements, an error e is computed from its difference from the mean
value. Figure 2 shows two limiting probability areas, which are statistically defined

Error (e)
Frequency
Curve
1

XM

Figure 2 Probability Distribution of Random Errors.

as 1 (or standard deviation) and 2 . The first limit would contain 68.2%
and second 95.5% observational errors. A few more percentage limits, e.g., 50%,
90%, 99.7%, are also used.

NOTE: All the limits for 50%, 90%, 95.5%, and/or 99.7% probability
areas can be mathematically computed from the 1 or 68.8%. Thus, these
probabilities do not convey or represent anything more significant. They are more
symbolic than practical.

A8-2
Accuracy Estimate(s)

The two probabilities (Figure 2) are statistically defined as:

1 uncertainty = 68.2%
2 uncertainty = 95.5%.

In practice, the 1 error uncertainty is to be used as accuracy

estimate. The 2 or any other % should not be used, as they only convey
redundant information.

Note: The best practical advantage of always using 1 as accuracy

estimate is that all estimates (for different data or products or results etc) are then
directly comparable without any mathematical computation or conversion.

2-D and/or 3-D Estimates -

As 2-D or 3-D error components are more likely to be different than

equal for each component, use of circular or spherical error(s) does not provide
correct estimates Instead, separate accuracy estimates for each component, e.g.,
x, y, z, would convey better statistical information.

A8-3
This page has been intentionally left blank.

A8-4
Appendix A9 - Units of Measurement

Length -

FOOT: There are many definitions of the Foot, e.g. US, British,
Chinese, Indian, International, etc.

METER: There are at least two metric units in use, e.g. International
meter and Legal meter.

Note: Use of different conversion factors from Foot to Meter changes the
metric scale of a datum.

A9-1
This page has been intentionally left blank.

A9-2
 Appendix B1 Direct Ellipsoidal Mapping

Kumar Mapping (KMap) System

The Ultimate Solution for Maps and Charts

By
Muneendra Kumar, Ph.D.

Abstract: Kumar Mapping (KMap) System is based on a birds-eye-view snapshot picture of the
Earths surface in small-size ellipsoidal trapezoids. At the poles, the smaller side of the trapezoid will
be zero and it will become triangular. Each trapezoid is mapped individually and independently of
the adjoining neighbor. The smaller the area size, the flatter will be the trapezoid, which on paper
will become a trapezium. Keeping the trapezium sides equal to the actual lengths of the latitudinal or
longitudinal arcs of the corresponding trapezoid, distortions due to flattening of the bulge will be
practically zero for large-scale topographic maps, nautical and aeronautical charts, and cadastral
plats.

The trapeziums or triangles are not converted to squares or rectangles. Thus, as a 5 x 5

trapezoid is 99.99999% flat, it is practically a 100% flat trapezium. These maps and charts will have
true North and true scale with no discontinuity in coordinates.

The Earths ellipsoidal surface is mapped as a mosaic of small trapeziums and triangles
producing seamless KMaps and/or KCharts.

INTRODUCTION
In the present map making, the creativity lies in how to project the whole round Earth on to
a flat surface, where the distortion is inevitable. In Kumar Mapping (KMap) System, the proposed
technique is to start with a small practically flat ellipsoidal trapezoid of the Earths surface and then
produce a flat trapezium or triangular shaped map or chart.

The KMap System is designed to produce no-projection, practically distortion free, and
seamless maps and charts, which are designated as KMaps and KCharts. Under this concept, the
total ellipsoidal surface is viewed in birds-eye-view snapshots of one small area after another.
These areas will be either ellipsoidal trapezoids or triangles at both the poles and are mapped as flat
trapeziums or triangles with the same side lengths as the corresponding curved side. Each map will
have true North and the scale distortion will be practically negligible commensurate with the
mapping scale. Each KMap will fit with the adjoining KMaps, both along the latitudinal and
longitudinal sides. A mosaic of Kmaps will produce seamless cover for the entire Earth from pole to
pole and from East to West around the globe.

The paper explains the fundamental design features of the KMap system, which would
eliminate the need for projection mapping. It also outlines the practical advantages of KMaps, which
are critically important to users.

REAL EARTH MAPPING

Trapezoids, Trapeziums, and Triangles

An ellipsoidal trapezoid or triangle can be mapped as a flat trapezium or triangle,
respectively (Figure 1).

B1-1
 Figure 1. Trapezoids, Trapeziums, and Triangles

Note that as the longitudes converge, a variable latitudinal width for maps can be considered
for the upper latitudes. Each side of the flat trapeziums or triangles will be of the same length as the
corresponding curved side. The difference between the shorter and the longer side of any trapezium
for 15' arcs at 0 degree latitude is <1mm, increasing to about 2 mm at 80 degrees latitude at the map
scale of 1:50, 000. Thus, users who are accustomed to viewing rectangular maps will not notice that
they are actually looking at a trapezium.

Trapezoidal Bulge and Distortion

The bulge between the spherical curved side of "" arc length of any trapezoid and the
corresponding chord is equal to r (1- cosine ", where "" is in radians. Thus, for an arc length
of 15' and a map scale of 1:50,000 along the Equator, the maximum bulge will be about 15 meters. If
this check is made for a 5 arc, the bulge is less than 1.5 m. With the magnitude of r being in the
order of 6 Million meters, the distortion resulting from mapping a 5 trapezoid as a corresponding 5
flat trapezium will be about 1 part in 5 million or practically negligible (Figure 2). For cadastral plats
it will be zero. Thus, in all such cases, we will have distortion less maps, charts, or plats.

Figure 2. Ellipsoidal Bulge for 15 arc at Equator

Scale, Orientation, and Seamless Mapping

Instead of grid North and grid meters of the present projection mapping, the new system

B1-2
will have true North and true meters. Everything will be mapped as it really exists on the Earths

ellipsoidal surface. There will not be any discontinuity between any two adjoining trapeziums and
triangles along their longitudinal/latitudinal junctions. The maps will fit with adjoining maps from
pole to pole and from East to West around the Earth. Continuous seamless maps and charts (Figure
3) will replace the grid zones of the projection mapping. In addition there will be no discontinuity in
horizontal coordinates and heights from one map to another, adjoining or far apart.

Figure 3. Seamless Mosaic of KMaps

Contouring Topography

The contours to depict relief can be drawn with ellipsoidal heights, which would be available
directly from GPS surveys. These contours will depict the Earths real topographic relief, as it
exists on the ground in front of our eyes.

Essential Requirement

GPS surveyed geodetic control and positioning in a 3-D geocentric world geodetic system,
mean Earth ellipsoid, and high-resolution imagery are required for ensuring seamless global fit
with Kmap system.

Small Scale and Cadastral Mapping

With this approach, a small scale Kmap or Kchart, e.g., 1:250, 000, can be compiled as a
mosaic of the corresponding larger scale Kmaps or Kcharts, e.g., 1:50, 000.

Kmap system can also be used for large-scale property surveys and plats. The advantages
that this method will bring to platting large cadastral area are: 1. Each mapped plat being flat with
no distortions will fit its neighbor, and 2. GPS-surveyed geodetic coordinates for property corners
and true distances and true azimuths will produce a continuous high-accuracy cadastre, thus
eliminating the need to have separate plane coordinate systems from one state to another.

B1-3
Computerized Application

Maps and charts created using Kmap system can be stored on CDs and viewed on a monitor

as mosaics for land or marine navigation. The nautical charts will enable to calculate accurate
clearances using time-invariant ellipsoidal depth of sea floor and heights of overhead structures.

SUMMARY
The World Geodetic System (WGS) was the first step made in 1960 towards one geocentric
geodetic system with a mean Earth ellipsoid to replace hundreds of local datums and their numerous
ellipsoids. The geodetic approach of the KMap system is the next step for the Twenty-First century to
map the real ellipsoidal Earth without any projections, their associated grids and grid zones, and
scale distortions. Seamless topographical maps and charts compiled and drawn using the KMap
system with true North and scale will extend from pole to pole and from East to West around the
globe. They will be with practically negligible or no distortion. Such a system would also provide
accurate seamless property and cadastral mapping.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I acknowledge Professor Francis Derby, The Pennsylvania State University, and Mr. Ajit
Singh, U.S. National Geodetic Survey, for their geodetic contribution and discussion in finalizing the
concept.

COPYRIGHT

I claim copyright for the conceptual geodetic approach described in this manuscript.

Authors ID
Muneendra Kumar, Ph.D.
10625 Wayridge Drive
Montgomery Village, MD 20886 (USA)
E-mail: munismk@yahoo.com
1-301-977-9617.

B1-4
Appendix B2 GPS Surveyed Ellipsoid Heights (h) Work

WHEN ELLIPSOIDAL HEIGHTS WILL DO THE JOB,

THEN WHY NOT USE THEM!
By
Muneendra Kumar, Ph.D.

Abstract

In Todays world, with GPS, we can survey ellipsoidal heights (h) directly with 5-10
cm accuracy for geodetic control points and differential heights (h) with relative accuracy
of 1: 1Million or better. This type of height information will be useable in many applications.
One example is depiction of relief by contouring the Earths real topography on
no-projection maps drawn on ellipsoidal surface. Similarly, the ellipsoidal depths or
heights on no-projection nautical charts will ensure safe marine navigation worldwide.

This paper explains and provides important details where and how the ellipsoidal
height will work. It also includes algorithm(s) or procedural steps to get the best results in
using ellipsoidal heights or depths.

INTRODUCTION

In Todays world, with GPS, we can survey ellipsoidal heights (h) with 5-10 cm
accuracy for geodetic control points on land and differential heights (h) between well
defined topographic features with relative accuracy of 1: 1Million or better. In few specific
cases, this type of accuracy may require specially designed GPS surveys. In navigational
mode, an instantaneous positional accuracy of about m is easily possible. As these
heights are the direct product of the GPS survey(s) and thus defined with respect to the
ellipsoid, which is a time-invariant zero reference surface, they can be used without any
reference to the geoid or Mean Sea Level (MSL). If we recall, in the classical surveys, e.g.,
triangulations and/or traverses, the vertical angles used to provide the h and thus there
will not be any need to convert them to orthometric heights.

Direct use of ellipsoidal heights will eliminate the need for leveling control to support
topographical mapping and other non-engineering projects. This would be a major saving of
time and resources.

This paper explains how ellipsoidal heights and/or depths can be used in many
applications e.g., for contouring Earths topographic relief on maps over the entire Earth,
navigating safely in open ocean, shallow waters, and in harbors avoiding grounding and
overhead structures. Furthermore, the use of these heights will help to fly clear of mountains
tops and vertical obstructions with full confidence and land on runways without

B2-1
bumps. Algorithm(s) or procedural steps to get the best results using h or h are also
included.

ELLIPSOIAL HEIGHTS

Many misconceptions and confusing definitions about heights are still floating
around with many users. Some of them are even taught in schools. To clarify a few
important examples, the following factual statements about them are:

a. Orthometric heights, true and Normal, are not the same. Thus, treating
them under elevations can mix up the different data sets.
b. Geoidal heights are neither elevations nor orthometric heights.
c. Mean Sea Level (MSL) is a non-equipotential surface and not equivalent or
identical to the gravimetric geoid.
d. Ellipsoid is NOT the zero reference surface for either elevations or
orthometric heights.
e. All the associated ellipsoids with the local and regional geodetic datums,
except for the North American Datum (NAD 83) are not geocentric.

Here, Figure 1 shows the definition of the ellipsoidal heights.

. MT (Mountaintop)
|
| +h
| Ellipsoidal Normal
___________ Curved Ellipsoid Surface _______ |_______________
| -h
|
______________________________________Sea floor________

Figure 1. Definition of Ellipsoidal Heights or Depths

TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

A. Geodetic Control and Spot Heights -

Using the high accuracy global, continental, regional, and national 3-D
geodetic systems, viz., WGS 84, SIRGAS 00, KGS 95, and other 3-D geocentric datums, viz.,
NAD 83, differential GPS surveys can easily provide the required heights at 1-2 m accuracy
for topographical mapping.

B. Contouring -

Figure 2 shows a topographic scenario, which includes a hilltop H,

B2-2
building B, a shore point on an inland sea I, e.g., Caspian, a lake L, road
crossing R, and stream junction S on a map, which is directly drawn on Earths
ellipsoidal surface without projection. There will be no seam and discontinuity of geodetic
coordinates between any two maps, adjoining or far apart. In addition, these maps will
retain the true North orientation and have no practical distortion in scale and/or shape
(Kumar, 2004).
. H (h=1015)

. B (h=965)
. R (h=968)

. I (h=962)

. L (h=945)

. S (h=930)

Figure 2. A Typical Topographic Scenario with Ellipsoidal Heights

On the real Earth surface, a GPS survey will directly provide the ellipsoidal
heights (h) of the topographic features and the differential heights (h) between them
(Figure 2). Thus, we can contour Earths real topographic relief with these ellipsoidal
heights. There is no need to establish MSL and/or model the geoid as zero reference and
compute orthometric heights. This approach will eliminate gravity survey requirement(s)
towards production of topographic maps.

It is to be noted that we will not have a height anomaly for the Caspian or Dead Sea to
show that they are below the sea level (?). Also, there will be no need to have a separate lake
datum, e.g., the Great Lake Datum, to over come the reality of having different heights for
any two-shore points.

MONITORING VERTICAL MOVEMENT

Just like the horizontal case, we can monitor vertical crustal movement. For land
areas, ellipsoidal height changes at Bench Narks (BMs) and for the sea level at Tidal Bench
Marks (TBMs), can be measured with specially designed GPS surveys. Here, a geodetic
caution is that there should be no definition change in the World Geodetic System

B2-3
(WGS) 1984, the coordinate system used in GPS surveys. In addition, there should be no
change in the position processing software during the project. The most important point to
note is that this monitoring will be indepent of sea level change(s).

______________________
1 The new name for USNM is Kumar Mapping (KMap) System and each map or

chart will be called a Kmap or KChart.

NAUTICAL CHARTS

A nautical chart KChart, like a topographical KMap, compiled and drawn with
the KMap system will provide seamless coverage. Computerized digital charts can also be
combined into a mosaic, which will be unfolding the real ocean underneath, to guide the
ships captain for safe navigation along any route.

On a KChart, using the time-invariant ellipsoidal depths of the sea floor (Refer
Section on Marine Navigation below), depth contours can also be depicted. Here, the
time-variant ellipsoidal heights of the sea surface, like an instant sea floor state, will
enable the captain to monitor the clearance of the keel especially inside harbors.

Use of ellipsoidal depths for ocean areas will also ensure continuity with the land
areas.

MARINE NAVIGATION

For safe marine navigation, a very important requirement is to know the exact
location of the sea floor or its depth with respect to a zero reference surface.
Time-invariant ellipsoidal depths or heights (h) of the sea floor surveyed with GPS provide
such

B2-4
locations and when stored in a bathymetric database, they will be available for future use.
Figure 3 is a schematic scenario showing the locations of overhead structure, highest mast,
pilothouse, sea surface, keel, seafloor, and the ellipsoid.

G __________Overhead Structure ________________________

F___________ Ships Highest Mast________________________

E ___________ Pilothouse_______________________________

A___________ Sea surface______________________________

B___________ Keel____________________________________

D ___________________________________ Sea floor________

C ____________________________________Ellipsoid________

Figure 3. Ellipsoidal Heights with ellipsoid as Zero Reference.

In Figure 3, the different measurements are:

DC = Ellipsoidal Height of sea floor (+h)

AC = Ellipsoidal Height of sea surface (+h)
BC = Ellipsoid Height of ships Keel (+h)
CE = Ellipsoidal Height of the Pilothouse (+h)
CF = Ellipsoid Height of Ships Mainmast (+h)
CG = Ellipsoid Height of the Overhead Structure (+h)
BD = Depth of Sea Floor from keel as measured by acoustic sounding.

During the GPS surveying, the distance BD between the ship's keel and sea floor will
be measured with presently used acoustic sounding techniques. Then, the ellipsoid height of
the sea floor DC will be

DC = BC - BD = [CF - BF] - BD

B2-5
 In this configuration, the distances CF, BF, and BD are measured during GPS
surveys without any reference to the stage of the tide or any tidal surface. This is the decided
advantage over the time-variant bathymetric depths, determined with respect to
fluctuating tidal surfaces.

While underway, using a mainmast-mounted GPS antenna and the ships general
arrangement drawings, the captain of any ship can determine at any time the ellipsoid depth
or height of the ships keel and mainmast. Combining this information with the ellipsoid
depth of the sea floor, the shipboard computer can calculate the keel clearance for safe
navigation independent of the tides. Similarly, knowing the ellipsoid height of overhead
obstructions, vertical clearance of the mainmast can also be easily determined (Kumar and
Maul, 2004).

AIR NAVIGATION

A. Aeronautical Charts

Aeronautical charts, like topographic maps, can also be compiled and drawn
using the no-projection mapping system (Kumar, 2004). All height information for
aerodromes and vertical obstruction will be surveyed using GPS as ellipsoid height (h) in
WGS 84.

B. Vertical Clearance while Navigating

Obtaining the planes ellipsoid height (hA) from the onboard GPS receiver
and combining it
with vertical obstruction height data, the pilot will be able to compute the vertical clearance
h. Figure 4 shows a scenario for an aircraft flying over a mountaintop.

____. Aircraft (hA) __________________

h

_____. Mountain Top (hT) _________

Figure 4. Schematic location of an Aircraft and Mountaintop.

While flying over buildings and towers in cities and near aerodromes, the
accuracy of h can be improved with DGPS surveys. Recalling that the vertical angle
surveys of the past provide h, the ellipsoidal height h for the mountain peaks can be
easily computed from the existing survey data.

B2-6
 C. While Landing

When descending near the aerodrome and approaching for landing, the pilot
can routinely obtain with DGPS surveys the separation h with accuracy of 5-10 cm
between the planes rear wheels and runway for smooth landing (Figure 5).

_______ Airplane Rear Wheels __________

h
______________________ Runway _____________

Figure 5. Schematic Location of Airplane Wheels and Runway.

D. Computing Shortest Distance between Aerodromes

Aerodromes are not located on the ellipsoid and thus, the geodesic will never
provide the shortest distance between them. In an actual flying, a plane starts from an
aerodrome A at height hA, climbs to an altitude h, which may vary during the flight
for various reasons, then descends towards the aerodrome B at height hB and lands
there. No pilot will ever be able to adhere to any mathematically computed route.

Thus, what is needed a good approximation of the shortest separation (or

distance) between the starting and landing aerodromes to plan a route for saving fuel and
flying time. A practical estimate for distance between two aerodromes will be the great
elliptic line GLE (Bowring, 1984), which can be computed using the semi-major axis (a)
as under (van Gelder, 1998):

a = 6378137 + (hA + hB)/2

where 6378137 m is the semi-major axis (a) of the WGS 84 Ellipsoid.

SUMMARY

In topographic mapping, charting, navigation, vertical crustal movement

monitoring, and other non-engineering applications, direct use of GPS surveyed accurate
ellipsoidal heights will provide a practical, cost effective, and time saving approach. In case
of vertical movement monitoring, any change in definition or the software can contaminate
the data integrity.

B2-7
REFERENCES

Bowring, B. R., The Direct and Inverse Solutions for the Great Elliptic Line on the
Reference Ellipsoid, Bull. Geod., 58, 1984.

Kumar, Muneendra, A Geodetic Approach: Universal No-Projection Seamless

Mapping (UNSM) System, ACSM Journal SaLIS, Vol. 64, No. 3, September 2004.

Kumar, Muneendra and Maul, George A., GPS Surveyed Time-Invariant Sea Floor
Depths for Safe Navigation, GPS World; Sep 2005.

van Gelder, Boudewijn H. W., 1998, Personal communication.

B2-8
Appendix B3 GPS Surveyed Ellipsoidal Heights for Engineering Projects

Ellipsoidal heights and engineering applications:

Research with real data proves they will work!
By
Muneendra Kumar, Ph.D.

The Ellipsoidal Approach

As the GPS surveying techniques started showing promise of high accuracy geodetic
positioning in the early 1990s, a few open-minded geodesists realized the possibility of
using ellipsoidal heights in place of orthometric heights. Many conceptual approaches
were mentioned and proposed in connection with a variety of applications. However,
credit should go to Steinberg and Papo (1998) who were the first to publish a technical
paper suggesting the replacement of orthometric heights by ellipsoidal heights on certain
types of surveying activities. As could be expected, Petr Vanek (1998), a prestigious
geodesy professor at the University of New Brunswick, Canada, was quick to downplay
the proposed new type of vertical control. Surprisingly, Steinberg and Papo did not
reacted at the time by defending their new proposal. Thus, in this paper, this issue has
been reopened by briefly addressing Vaneks counterarguments against the ellipsoidal
heights option, his derogatory comments about the idea of orthometric islands
proposed by Steinberg and Papo, and Vaneks issuance of a warning for non-
dissemination of ellipsoidal heights to Canadian users. What follows is a compilation of
recent work published by the author (Kumar 2005a; 2005b; 2006) delineating anew the
advantages of using ellipsoidal heights.

Facts to note before checking/commenting

The following important geodetic facts are pointed out first to have a better appreciation
for the suggested new approach:

1. As Mean Sea Level (MSL) is not an equipotential surface, it cannot be

considered as a zero reference for orthometric heights and depths for all areas,
land or ocean.
2. MSL has slope along coasts, both in E-W and N-S directions. Thus, a zero
elevation does not necessarily coincide with MSL.
3. There are coastal points along Caspian Sea and Dead Sea, which have
negative orthometric heights (-H) or are below sea level.
4. Two points on a level surface can have different orthometric heights (H).

Observations on Vaneks opposition:

a. Warning for Non-dissemination of ellipsoidal heights (h) It seems

that this warning was issued based on old traditional usage and also on

B3-1
 b. fear of mix up by the users. Instead, if a review and check had been
made of the new proposal, the warning would not have been needed
(Kumar, 2005a).
c. Example of negative ellipsoidal heights along the coastline for an
engineer, who wants to plan port facilities Surveying engineers have
worked in the past and still work routinely with negative MSL heights
e.g. along the North Sea in The Netherlands. Thus, the negative
comment does not prove anything against the proposed use of
ellipsoidal heights. Interestingly, the traditional geodesists accept
negative MSL elevations along Caspian Sea and never question how a
seacoast can be below sea level!
d. Orthometric Islands and chart datum It is difficult to understand why
this topic was brought out against the ellipsoid heights.

In a nutshell, first Prof. Vaniek should have been open to the proposition made
by two fellow researchers; checked it with real data, and then comment on it
accordingly. He just chose to downplay his visionary colleagues advocating old
traditional arguments.

Checking Real Data Sets

Here, the first step was to collect real geodetic data, viz., h, H, and N (Note: The GPS
surveyed heights h do not require any theoretical models and approximations). The
data sets were obtained from the U.S. National Geodetic Survey (NGS) encompassing
eleven States: California, Colorado, Georgia, Kansas, Nevada, New Mexico, New York,
Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and Washington. The main selection criteria was to gather
vertical information covering different topographies, from mountainous terrain to flat
plains, and to choose areas with an evenly geographical distribution over the country.

For linear distances up to 3-5 km between two points, the values of h and H
differed from each other by 1-3 cm. Thus, the important point to stress is that the zero
references for h and H are different, but the h and H are the same for practical
usage.

The results showed that in extremely flat areas the difference between h and H was
practically ZERO. Thus, an engineer will be able to use ellipsoidal height differences
with confidence.

Non-Engineering Applications Revisited

In Kumar (2005b), the use of ellipsoidal heights (h) in non-engineering applications was
discussed and explained with full supporting How to use them methods and algorithms.
No negative critique in writing has been received except on the topic of ellipsoid height

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contours. The observation was that such contours would not work in general planning
for engineering projects. A double check is provided in the following Section.

Engineering applications one by one

Let us now check a number of engineering applications, which we could identify:

1. Ellipsoidal contours on maps The minimum contour interval (CI) is

generally 2 m (or more). In such a case, the accuracy of height information is
taken as half the CI or 1 m (or more). Thus, as there is practically no
difference between h and H, all road construction work and general
planning for canals, pipe lines, etc., can be done with confidence.
2. GPS determines h with accuracies of 1 in 1 million or better Using for
section by section of up to 500-600 meters in length, the ellipsoidal h will
work in canal and pipeline projects even in extremely flat terrains. However, a
few small sections of spirit leveling can be done as check ups. These spot
checks will help during transitioning from the OLD approach and to develop
confidence in the NEW usage.
3. When constructing a building, first the true verticality with a plumb bob
should be established. After that, ellipsoidal heights (h) and height differences
(h) will work without any problem.

Conclusions

To use ellipsoidal heights, first we need to change our predetermined attitude. Then,
accurately surveyed h and h will do all jobs, including engineering. However, in
extremely flat terrain areas, where accurate slope is critically vital, a few sections of
differential spirit leveling can be carried out as check ups, especially during transition. It
will build up confidence that the methodology works.

This usage of GPS surveyed accurate ellipsoidal heights will be significantly cost
effective and time saving for any project.

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References

Kumar, M. (2005a) When ellipsoidal heights will do the job, then why not use them!
Coordinates, 1(3), 20-22.

Kumar, M. (2005b) When ellipsoidal heights will do the job, why look elsewhere!
Surv. Land Inf. Sci., 65(2), 91-94.

Kumar, M. (2006) Ellipsoidal heights and engineering applications Coordinates, 2(1),

32-33.

Steinberg, G., and H. Papo (1998). Ellipsoidal heights: The future of vertical geodetic
control. GPS World, 9(2), 41-43.

Vanek, P. (1998). The height of reason. GPS World, 9(4),14.

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Appendix B4 GPS Surveyed Ellipsoid Depth (ed)

Time-Invariant Ellipsoidal Depths

The Safest Way to Sale All Around the World
By
Muneendra Kumar, Ph.D.
and
George A. Maul, Ph.D.

For a ships captain to sail safe, he would like most is to be able to determine clearances between the
sea floor and the keel and mainmast and overhead structures. These two clearances become
extremely critical while entering and/or inside a harbor. To obtaiu the safe clearances, the captain
has to know correctly and accurately the following four positional information:

1. Location of the sea floor or ocean depth,

2. Height of the overhead structure(s),
3. Location of the ships keel
4. Position of ships mainmast.

For centuries and even in the present practice, the above four surveyed positions are referenced to
more than one datum. Not only these datums are time-dependent and time-variant, but also they are
outdated with respect to time of sailing.

We propose that the four positions are measured and/or the two clearances computed with respect to
time-invariant ellipsoid as a zero reference surface. Then, the captain would have them correctly and
accurately in one datum, as and when he would need them. In shallow waters and inside harbors, he
would be able to determine the two clearances with high accuracy and confidence to avoid grounding
or striking overhead obstructions, such as bridges and cables.

Combining GPS surveys and acoustic soundings, highly accurate ellipsoidal depths of the sea floor
can be established in new areas or by filling gaps independent of the stage of the tide and any tidal
datum. In separate GPS surveys, the ellipsoidal heights for overhead structures can be determined.
The time-invariant sea floor depths and heights of the overhead structures can then be stored in the
Marine Information System (MIS) database for future use. While underway in shallow waters, in
berthing, in approaching channels, and inside harbor, using a mainmast-mounted GPS antenna and
the ships general arrangement drawings, the shipboard computer will determine the positions of the
ships keel, mainmast, and Plimsoll marks (lines painted amidships to indicate maximum permissible
draughts of loading adjusted to seasons and zones). Then, recovering the already established sea
floor depths and overhead heights, it can compute the two clearances for safe navigation without any
reference to the time-variant tides, tidal datum(s), and ships draft.

This paper describes the GPS surveying method to establish time-invariant ellipsoidal depths or
heights of the sea floor in the open ocean. A few additional survey procedures have been specified to
achieve higher accuracy for shallow waters and inside harbors. A step-by-step algorithm is also
included to compute the ships two vertical clearances.

SURVEYING THE SEA FLOOR AND OVERHEAD STRUCTURES

In the marine scenario, the Ellipsoid of the World Geodetic System (WGS) 1984, the coordinate
system used within GPS, is both below and above the sea surface, which can result in the surveyed
ellipsoidal depths or heights to be plus or minus respectively. In the following figures, ellipsoidal
depths or heights are positive upwards with respect to the ellipsoidal surface.

B4-1
A. When the WGS 84 Ellipsoid is below the sea surface - Figure 1 shows schematic locations for the
overhead structure, ships mainmast, pilothouse deck, and keel, sea surface, sea floor, and ellipsoidal
zero reference surface.

Figure 1. Ellipsoid Heights when Ellipsoid is below the Sea Surface.

DC = Ellipsoidal Height of sea floor (+h)

AC = Ellipsoidal Height of sea surface (+h)
BC = Ellipsoidal Height of ships Keel (+h)
CE = Ellipsoidal Height of the Pilothouse (+h)
CF = Ellipsoidal Height of Ships Mainmast (+h)
CG = Ellipsoidal Height of the Overhead Structure (+h)
BD = Depth of Sea Floor from keel as measured by acoustic sounding.

During the GPS surveying, the distance BD between the ship's keel and sea floor will be measured
with presently used acoustic sounding techniques. Then, the ellipsoidal height (h) of the sea floor DC
will be:

DC = BC - BD = [CF - BF] - BD

In this configuration, the distances CF, BF, and BD are measured during GPS surveys without any
reference to the stage of the tide and/or tidal surface. This is the decided advantage over the depths
determined with respect to time-variant tidal datums.

In many cases, especially in deep water, the sea floor will be below the ellipsoid and have a negative
height (-h). Here, the accuracy of the distance BD is accepted as achievable by acoustic techniques.

B4-2
B. When the WGS 84 Ellipsoid is above the sea surface - Figure 2 shows schematic locations when the
ellipsoid is above the sea surface.

Figure 2. Ellipsoid Heights when Ellipsoid is above the Sea Surface.

DC = Ellipsoidal Height of sea floor (- h)

AC = Ellipsoidal Height of sea surface (-h)
BC = Ellipsoidal Height of ships Keel (-h)
CE = Ellipsoidal Height of the Pilothouse (-h)
CF = Ellipsoidal Height of Ships Mainmast (-h)
CG = Ellipsoidal Height of Overhead Structure (+h)
BD = Depth of Sea Floor from keel as measured by acoustic sounding.

In this case, the ellipsoidal depth of sea floor DC will be:

DC = - BC - BD = - [CF + BF] - BD.

It may be pointed out that at many places around the globe the sea surface is below the ellipsoidal

surface and near Sri Lanka, the ellipsoidal height of the sea surface AC has a maximum low of
about -100 meters. This particular type of geometry (with AC = -h) is mostly not known to many
users, particularly mariners.
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COMPUTING CLEARANCES WHILE UNDERWAY

A. Clearance BD for ships keel Here, the mariner first surveys the geodetic position (, , h)
of the ships mainmast using GPS. Then, using the general arrangement drawings for the
particular vessel, the ellipsoidal height (h) of the keel is determined. Then, combining with
the ellipsoidal depth or height of the sea floor, the clearance BD can be computed (when
ellipsoid is below sea floor) as:

BD = BC - DC = [BF - CF] - DC

where BC is surveyed while underway and DC is taken from the database. Similarly the freeboard
distance to the Plimsoll mark(s) can be readily known.

B. Clearance GF for ships mainmast - The clearance GF can be computed as:

GF = CG - CF

where CF is surveyed with GPS while underway and CG is taken from the database.

ELLIPSOID DEPTHS AND SOUNDINGS ACCURACY

In open ocean areas, the accuracy of an ellipsoidal height (h) with GPS will be about 5 meters and
thus the sea floor location with this order of accuracy will be sufficient for most practical purposes.
In shallow waters, along coastlines, and inside harbors, specially designed Differential GPS (DGPS)
surveys can measure ellipsoidal heights in the range of 5-10 cm.

The accuracy for keel clearance BD will be as per presently used acoustic soundings. To match the
DGPS accuracy, authors research has shown that the acoustic sounding techniques, procedures, and
algorithms definitely require immediate updating.

SPECIAL SURVEYING FOR HIGH ACCURACY

In congested areas, the accuracy of ellipsoidal heights and depths can be increased by specially
designed DGPS surveys. The following additional surveying procedures will help to improve the
collected data for safer navigation, particularly to the traditional mariner:

1. In harbors, buoys with small DGPS receivers can monitor AC as it fluctuates with the tide, to
provide real-time data to the ship's captain. Similarly the ships draft AD can be monitored with a
keel-placed pressure sensor.

2. In cases where the sea floor heights vary significantly from one time to another, it will require
regular DGPS surveys to keep the mariner informed of shoaling and other shifts in the channels.

3. In case of small ships, DGPS surveys for roll, pitch, and yaw will improve the accuracy of the
ellipsoidal heights of the keel and mainmast and the associated clearances.

CONCLUSIONS

GPS and DGPS surveys provide the accuracy necessary for the ellipsoidal depths and/or heights and
the required clearances for ship operations, whereby all measurements are referenced to the WGS 84
Ellipsoid. Thus, an invariant zero reference surface (or a vertical datum) will eliminate the necessity
of measuring tides

B4-4
and ships draft, settlement(s), and squat during bathymetric surveying. In addition, this approach
will replace all the time-variant tidal surfaces. The ellipsoid as the zero reference surface also allows
the mariner, while underway, to determine keel and overhead obstruction clearances independent of
the stage of the tide, and the draft of the ship and freeboard. As is traditional however, the prudent
seaman will also seek independent verification with all other available nautical information, but
definitely not with the old time-variant and time-dependent data of the past.

Biographies:

Muneendra Kumar earned M.S. in mathematics with three gold medals from Agra University, India,
and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in geodetic sciences from The Ohio State University. He worked for 12
years with the Survey of India, 2 years with the Directorate of Military Survey, India, 5 years with
U.S. National Geodetic Survey. He retired Chief Geodesists in 2004 after 22 years with U.S. National
Geospatial-Intelligence Agency and its predecessor agencies, Defense Mapping Agency and National
Imagery and Mapping Agency. He was the senior geodesist in defining the World Geodetic System
(WGS) 1984, developed its implementation plan, and researched for its accuracy enhancement. He
has occupied the U.S. Navys Research Professor Chair at the Naval University, Monterey, CA.
Dr. Kumar has chaired the International Association of Geodesy Special Commission on Marine
Positioning and its Special Study Group on seafloor positioning as well as the Marine Technology
Societys Marine Geodesy Committee. He has consulted 100+ countries for modernization of their
geodetic infrastructure, maps, and charts.

George A. Maul is a professor of oceanography and head of the Department of Marine and
Environmental Systems at the Florida Institute of Technology. After graduating with honors from
the State University of New York Maritime College at Fort Schuyler and earning a U.S. Merchant
Marine Officers License, George Maul spent nine years on active duty and held ranks from ensign
to lieutenant commander as a commissioned officer in the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.
After resigning his commission, he earned a Ph.D. in physical oceanography from the University of
Miami. For the next 25 years he was a research oceanographer with the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration at their Atlantic Oceanographic and Metrological Laboratory.

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Appendix C1 Prevailing Misunderstandings -

The following misunderstandings or anomalies are listed from the real life experiences
as seen or heard or met while working around the world. Strangely, many are still
prevailing in our daily working and also hidden in number of software currently in use.

1. Geodesist does not have to learn and/or know any Geodesy.

2. Spheroid is considered equivalent to an ellipsoid.
3. The longitude at the North or South Pole is ZERO degree.
4. The Mean Sea Level (MSL), a time-variant average, is considered as time-
invariant and time-independent.
5. MSL defines the ZERO height.
6. The measured n along a spirit level loop sum up to zero.
7. Imagine a freely flowing ocean or sea channel under a continent and it represents
the Geoid.
8. The Sun rises in the East, travels during the day from East to West, and sets (Note:
Though Sun is stationary.).
9. On the ellipsoidal Earth, there is a Geographic North Poole.
10. The geoidal undulation or height (N) is equivalent to orthometric height (H).
11. There are yours and mine geoids. In other words every country has its own
geoid, creating a political boundary value problem in geodesy.
12. When one has to re-observe at any station, it does not make any difference so long
one is observing within a few meter.
13. Spherical Earth is a NEW concept.
14. Atlas maps and charts are made on a pear-shaped Earth.
15. If one asks from National Geodetic Agency height for a benchmark and gets a
height as 123.4 m, it is OK to add zeros at the end to increase the accuracy, e.g.,
123.400 m.
16. A sea can be below the sea level.
17. The origin of WGS 84 is at the center of gravity of the Earth.
18. A map or chart can be plotted on any projection and a different grid can be super
imposed. The extreme example here is the use of UTM grid over a stereographic
projection in the polar region.
19. A map or chart can have TWO grids without TWO datums or ellipsoids and be
printed in the SAME color.
20. The standard deviation (or sigma) can be computed with n = 1.
21. The ellipsoid is used as zero reference for orthometric heights or elevations.
22. In a 70 GPS station network adjustment, 40+ or even more stations can be held
fixed.
23. Two points on a level surface will have the SAME heights.

Last but not the least:

24. If you have GPS, who needs a GEODESIST?

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C1-2
Appendix C2 - Conflicting Definitions -

There are many terms and products, which are common between different sciences. But a
few conflicting definitions have existed and still exist. The following list, without the definitions,
contains three important cases, as an alert:

With Geophysics

Isostatic gravity anomaly

With Oceanography

1. Dynamic Height
2. Geoid

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Appendix C3 - We need more than one GIS

It was up to 1985 that everything used to be packed into Land Information

System (LIS). Then, it became Geographic Information System (GIS). Recently,
another GIS (Geospatial Information System) is being introduced by universities.

For reasons unknown, from around Mid-1990s, the GIS has quietly
crossed its rightful geographic domain. It is now more than geographic.
However, if we review closely, the GEO in geography seems to engulf all other
GEO-Sciences Information Systems, e.g., GIS/Geodetic, GIS/Geologic, etc. Even
MIS (Marine Information System is hardly considered in practice.

To rectify overlap(s) and mix up(s) of different types of information

between various Geo systems, the following naming system is proposed:

Geodetic Information System (GdIS)

Geographic Information System (GgIS)
Geologic Information System (GlIS)
Geophysical Information System (GpIS)
Geospatial Intelligence (Information) System (GsIS)
Geo-magnetic Information System (GmIS)
Geo-Oceanographic Information System (GoIS)
Geo-Agriculture Information System (GaIS)
Geodynamic Information System (GdyIS)
Geo-Weather Information System (GwIS)
Geo-Minerals Information System (GmnIS)
Geo-Heath Information System (GhIS)

Other Geo-Sciences can name acronyms pertaining to their specific

information avoiding conflict already assigned ones. The proposed scheme of
acronyms will ensure the fundamental integrity of the information and databases of
all the Geo-Sciences intact.

Here, an important consideration is that the data point positions for

consistent global registration in all the systems will be as defined under the Geodetic
Information System GdIS.

All the above systems will become layers of the umbrella of Earth
Information System (EIS).

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C3-2
Dr. Muneendra Kumar earned his B.Sc., and M.Sc., degrees with three gold medals from Agra
University, India. He got his M.S., and Ph.D., degrees in geodetic sciences from The Ohio State
University, USA. He is Fellow of the International Association of Geodesy (IAG) and U.S. Marine
Technology Society (MTS).

Dr. Kumar occupied the U.S. Chief of Naval Operations Research Chair for Geodesy at the U.S.
Naval University. He has been Special Geodesy Consultant to 100+ countries in Asia, Africa,
Central and South America, Pacific Ocean, and East Europe for modernizing datums, maps,
charts, heights, and depths. He was Special Geodesy Advisor to the U.N. Food and Agriculture
Organization for its AFRICOVER project.

He taught mathematics at Agra University and served in Survey of India and Directorate of
Military Survey, India. He taught Applied Geodesy at George Washington University and geodesy
at Virginia Tech. He served 5 years with U.S. National Geodetic Survey and 23 years with National
Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, retiring as Chief Geodesist.

Dr. Kumar has chaired IAG Special Commission on Marine Positioning and Special Study Group
on seafloor positioning. He was President of the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping
Marine Survey Committee. He chaired the MTS Marine Geodesy Committee for 20 years and is
the Founding Director of International Symposia on Marine Positioning (INSMAP).

Dr. Kumar has to his credit the pioneering Double Pyramid survey technique to position
benchmarks on the ocean bottom. He has researched the revolutionary no-projection and distortion
free KMap System for topographic maps and nautical/aeronautical charts and time-invariant
bathymetry. He has researched and initiated an ellipsoidal revolution. He has developed new
concept for Living GPS and technique for Quickest Tsunami Warning System (QTWS).

He has numerous presentations, publications, and papers also organized many technical workshops
and seminars. He participated in defining the World Geodetic System (WGS) 1984, developed its
implementation plan, and researched for its accuracy enhancement. He is known as Dr. or Senor
"WGS84". He has contributed on the development of geodetic standards for the UN/FAO, IHO,
NATO, ICAO, and PAIGH. He authored Vector Analysis and Geodesy.

After a 50-year of scientific and professional career, Dr. Kumar retired on 2 January 2004. He is still
actively consulting and developing new geodetic concepts and solutions.

Satish Kumar Sharma has earned Master in Science (Mathematics) from Lucknow University,
India. He did his Postgraduate Course in use of computers in Geodesy, University of Oxford, UK.
His M.Phil was in Civil Engineering Surveying from Nottingham University, UK. He worked as
Lecturer in Mathematics and Astronomy, Lucknow University, India, during 1953-57. He was
Mathematical Advisor with Survey of India during 1957-69. He was Lecturer in Surveying with
Civil Engineering Department, Imperial College of Science and Engineering, University of London
during 1973-97. He has published papers in Mathematical applications for Geodetic Surveying and
Geographic Information System.

Chandra Shekhar Khare earned Bachelors in Civil Engineering from Indian Institute of
Technology Bombay, Mumbai, and Masters from The Ohio State University from the Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Geodetic Science majoring in GIS. He has carried on
research in the area of GPS, INS, and Digital Camera integration for Airborne Remote Sensing as a
part Masters Thesis. He is currently working for a Private Co in Washington, DC.