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The following article was published in ASHRAE Journal, April 1999. Copyright 1999 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Inc. It is presented for educational purposes only. This article may not be copied and/or distributed electronically or in paper
form without permission of ASHRAE.
AIR DISTRIBUTION
FOR LARGE SPACES
By Dan Int-Hout
Member ASHRAE
and
Leon Kloostra
Member ASHRAE
A
ir distribution for large spaces has both good A downward jet of cold air will travel further than isothermal air.
A downward jet of hot air will not travel as far as isothermal air.
and bad news. The good news is that because
Figure 1 shows this effect. This chart can be used several ways:
the spaces are so large, air distribution is
1. If the outlet discharge velocity and flow rate are known,
spread out over a large area. Localized problems are the chart can be used to estimate the downward vertical
therefore unlikely. The bad news is that because the projection of a jet to 50 fpm (0.25 m/s) terminal velocity
(T 50), for various temperature differences between the
spaces are large, diffusers cannot be located everywhere.
discharge jet and the ambient or room temperature. For
example, for an isothermal 1,000 cfm (470 L/s) jet with a
Most of the selection process for large spaces involves experi- 1,000 fpm (5 m/s) discharge velocity, the distance to 50
ence and jet mapping. The standard commercial office axioms fpm (0.25 m/s) will be about 28 ft (9 m).
based on ADPI and diffuser throw vs. spacing are not appli-
2. Because the buoyancy effect is a function only of tempera-
cable. Rather, jet projections are analyzed and diffusers selected
ture, the chart can also be used to predict upward jet projec-
accordingly.
tion by switching the T values. For a given air quantity and
discharge velocity, the upward projection of a warm air jet at
Basic Principles
20F (11C) temperature difference is the same as the down-
There are a couple of basic principles in analyzing airflows
ward projection of a cold air jet at a 20F (11C) tempera-
in any space. The first basic rule is Newtons gravitational ob-
ture difference.
servations: Hot air rises and cold air falls. The question is, of
course, how much? The second rule is that the air follows basic 3. If isothermal throw is known (from standard grille per-
rules of jet theory. Air in a free jet, as opposed to one that is formance charts), the right side of the chart can be used
constrained along a surface, acts pretty much independent of the to estimate the effect of temperature difference on
supply outlet isovel (or air pattern). Once those two principles 50 fpm (0.4 m/s) terminal velocity. Enter the chart at
are understood, predictions of airflow can be made with a high the isothermal throw and move across to the tempera-
degree of confidence. ture difference of interest. For example, if a grille has
an (isothermal) catalog rating of 50 ft (16 m) to a
Vertical Jet Temperature Effects 50 fpm (0.25 m/s) terminal velocity, the jet will travel
Temperature effects are very predictable. Hot air rises and about 72 ft (23m) if it is 20F (11C) cooler than the
cold air falls. Momentum and velocity temper this effect. The ambient air. It will travel only 20 ft (6.5m) if it is 50F
slower the air, the greater the buoyancy effect. Generally speak- (11C) degrees warmer than the surrounding air.
ing, air velocities above 150 fpm (0.76 m/s) are not affected by 4. Figure 1 assumes that the jet aspect ratio (width to depth)
temperature differences. A simple rule of thumb for slower jets is near 1. Long linear slots may produce slightly shorter
is that the throw to a terminal velocity of 75 fpm (0.4 m/s) changes throws than shown in Figure 1. This difference is due to
about 1% /F (2% /C) temperature difference. (Throw is the their increased surface area and subsequent higher entrain-
distance for a jet to reach a stated terminal velocity.) ment ratios.
Figure 2: Throw and drop for outlet 2 to 4 ft (0.6 to 1.3 m) below Figure 3: Throw and drop for outlet without ceiling. 20 vertical
ceiling. 20 upward vertical deflection, 0 spread. deflection, 0 spread.
Figure 4: Throw and drop for outlet 1 ft below ceiling. 0 deflec- Figure 5: Throw and drop for outlet with no ceiling. 0 deflection,
tion, 0 spread. 0 spread.
Figure 6: Throw and drop for outlet 1.5 ft below ceiling. 20 Figure 7: Throw and drop for outlet 2 to 4 ft below ceiling.
vertical, 45 spread. 0 vertical deflection, 45 spread.
typically exhibit flow in one of two patterns: circular or cross reinduced into the primary air. This action reduces dumping and
flow. Figure 8 shows the main differences between circular keeps the cool air near the ceiling, resulting in uniform tem-
and cross flow patterns. peratures throughout the space. On the other hand, cross flow
Comparing the plan views of the circular and cross flow ceil- jet projection continues after the low terminal velocity just like
ing diffusers, the circular pattern has a much shorter throw than the airflow from side wall registers at 0 deflection. During cool-
the cross flow for a given flow rate. With the circular pattern, the ing, the circular recirculating airflow results in less drop than
discharge velocity is equal in all directions, while the cross flow with cross flow jets.
has four higher velocity jets. Throw is a function of velocity. Cross flow patterns with longer throw and individual side
The elevation views indicate that the circular supply jet at the jets are similar to side wall jets. Near the end of the throw,
end of its trajectory has a tendency to return to the diffuser being during cooling, cross flow patterns continue in the direction
Figure 9: Circular ceiling pattern diffuser. Figure 10: Cross-flow pattern diffuser.
Stratifying a High Space Spreading horizontal projection at floor level permits consid-
As a general rule, one should avoid conditioning spaces where erable stratification at high levels during cooling while maintain-
there are no occupants, so stratification is often a useful strategy ing uniform temperatures in the occupied zone. Although high
in large spaces. To stratify a space, the diffusers must be located velocities in the occupied zone may preclude use of this type of
so the diffuser jets do not break up the desired stratification layer. distribution for comfort cooling, application to situations with
This is often a problem in very large spaces, such as atria, where high internal loads or where occupant comfort is not of primary
the required ducts are preferred not to be seen. Sidewall grilles or concern could be considered.
slots are often employed, at around 15 ft (4.5 m) above the floor, Figure 12 matches the actual definition given for displace-
projecting over the occupied areas. Careful consideration of the ment ventilation. Defined as a low velocity, low temperature dif-
previous grille jet parameters must be employed to avoid drafts in ferential air distribution across the floor level, displacement ven-
the occupied space. Heating is seldom a practical application of tilation utilizes natural convection currents within the space to
this technique, because the warm air tends to rise and may not cause air to rise and form a neutral zone above a stratification
penetrate down to the occupied level. On the other hand, cold air level. The stratification level usually occurs at a level where the
will usually make it to the floor, regardless of where it is supplied. room load and air loading match.
Figure 11 shows heating and cooling from a spreading hori- Displacement ventilation has a limited ability to handle high
zontal projection at floor level. This performance compares to cooling or heating loads. The range of supply air temperatures
previous outlet types and locations with heating and cooling loads. and discharge velocities are limited to avoid discomfort, as the
Today a displacement system will use larger air quantities at low jet is located in the occupied zone. European office designs of-
temperature differentials and low discharge velocities. These ten use chilled ceilings or heated floors to overcome this limita-
applications can be used under seats in theaters, around walls to tion. Chilled ceilings, at least, are seldom an option in large
form a ring of air around a space with people, or internal loads open spaces, because of the distance from the occupant and tem-
forming the rising plume up to the ceiling returns. It should be perature limits to avoid condensation.
remembered that temperatures and velocities would be relatively
low and uniform in occupied zones. Return Air Locations
This distribution system has been used extensively in In most cases, the location of a return in offices is of little
Europe and is being promoted on the basis of the reduced concern. In large spaces, however, returns can assist in control-
energy consumption realized by the availability of economizer ling stratification. Returns should be placed in the occupied zone,
in that climate. These may be an option for some large spaces, if stratification is desired. Warm air rises, so return air sent
but few actually have been used except in some theater back to the HVAC system is cooler, saving energy and creating a
situations. more uniform environment in the occupied zone. See the later
FIGURE DISTANCE FROM CEILING VERTICAL DEFLECTION HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION THROW DROP
2 2 to 4 ft (0.6 to 1.3 m) 20 up 0 27 ft (8.7 m) 3 ft (0.9 m)
3 no ceiling 20 up 0 23 ft (7.4 m) 3 ft (0.9 m)
4 1 ft (0.3 m) 0 0 27 ft (8.7 m) 5 ft (1.6 m)
5 no ceiling 0 0 25 ft (8.1 m) 7 ft (2.3 m)
6 1.5 ft (0.5 m) 20 up 45 20 ft (6.5 m) 3 ft (0.9 m)
7 2 to 4 ft (0.6 to 1.3 m) 0 45 15 ft (4.8 m) 3 ft (0.9 m)
Table 1: Summarizes Figures 2 through 7.