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Construction and Building Materials 149 (2017) 801815

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Numerical analysis on steel-concrete-steel sandwich plates by damage


plasticity model: From materials to structures
Jia-Bao Yan a,b, Wei Zhang c,
a
School of Civil Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
b
Key Laboratory of Coast Civil Structure Safety of Ministry of Education, Tianjin University, Ministry of Education, Tianjin 300072, China
c
ArcelorMittal Chair of Steel and Facade Engineering, University of Luxembourg, L-4365 Esch-sur Alzette, Luxembourg

h i g h l i g h t s

 Develop numerical model for steel-concrete-steel sandwich plate.


 Introduce damage plasticity model (DPM) for steel and concrete.
 Report tests on steel-concrete-steel sandwich plates.
 Validate numerical model with DPM from material to structural level.
 Recommend numerical analysis procedure with DPM from material to structure.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Steel-concrete-steel (SCS) sandwich type of ice-resistant wall has been developed for arctic offshore
Received 24 May 2016 structures. This paper develops a three-dimensional damage plasticity based finite element model
Received in revised form 6 October 2016 (FEM) to simulate the ultimate strength behaviour of SCS sandwich structure under concentrated loads.
Accepted 21 May 2017
The FEM offered detailed simulations on the complex geometry of hundreds of studs, complex interac-
Available online 31 May 2017
tions of these connectors with the concrete, and mechanical nonlinearities of the steel and concrete
materials. Concrete damage plasticity model was used to simulate the post-peak softening of concrete,
Keywords:
and continuum damage model (CDM) was developed to phenomenologically simulate the damage evo-
Steel-concrete-steel plate
Punching shear resistance
lution in the steel materials. The key parameters in the CDM were calibrated by the uniaxial tensile tests
Numerical analysis on the steel coupons. The accuracy of the FE simulation was checked by nine full scale tests. The valida-
Cement composite tions proved that the developed FEM simulate well the ultimate strength behaviours of the SCS sandwich
Finite element analysis plates under concentrated loads in terms of load-deflection curves, ultimate resistances, and failure
Concrete damage modes in the steel plates, studs and concrete core. Through the FE simulations, the failure modes corre-
Steel damage sponding to different peak resistances were analysed and recognized. Finally, the FE simulation proce-
Steel-concrete composite dures on SCS sandwich plate with CDM and CDPM were recommended.
2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction the stiffened steel plate. This type of structure exhibited versatile
advantages over conventional reinforced concrete structures that
Steel-concrete-steel (SCS) sandwich plate, consisting of two included saving formwork and site labour force, avoiding the
external steel face plates and a sandwiched concrete core using detailing and bending of the reinforcements as occurred in rein-
the cohesive material or mechanical shear connectors to bond as forced concrete structure, providing impermeable steel skin plates,
an integrity, provided superior ductility over reinforced concrete and offering impact and blast resistant membranes of the external
structure and exhibited higher buckling resistance compared with steel skin. The versatile applications of the SCS sandwich plate
include shield tunnel, submerged tunnel, shear walls in building
Abbreviations: CDM, continuum damage model; CDPM, concrete damage
core, bridge and offshore deck, nuclear walls, liquid containment,
plasticity model; COV, coefficient of variation; FE, finite element; FEA, finite oil storage, and anti-blast or impact protective structure. More
element analysis; FEM, finite element model; HSS, headed shear stud connector. recently, due to the oil and gas explorations in the Arctic region,
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zhangwei621@gmail.com (W. Zhang).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.05.171
0950-0618/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
802 J.-B. Yan, W. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 149 (2017) 801815

Nomenclature

Dc ;Dt compressive and tensile damage ratios of concrete, epn uniaxial plastic strain at onset of necking of the steel
respectively coupons in stress-strain curves
Di damage ratio of steel at load step i eelt ;eelc true elastic tensile or compressive strain of the concrete
DR damage ratio of steel eel0t ;eel0c elastic tensile or compressive strain of the concrete
t ;ec
eIn In
E0 initial elastic modulus of concrete inelastic tensile or compressive strain of the concrete
Es elastic modulus of the steel eplt ;eplc true tensile or compressive plastic strain of the concrete
Esh elastic modulus of the headed stud epl
0 ;e0
pl
tri-axial and uniaxial equivalent plastic strain at the on-
P1 , P2 first and second peak resistance in the load-deflection set of damage, respectively
curves of the SCS sandwich plate enom
i the nominal strain obtained from the tensile tests at the
Sa spacing of the connectors in the SCS sandwich plate loading step i
fc compressive stress at the softening region in the stress- h stress triaxiality
strain curve rnom
i the nominal stress obtained from the tensile tests at the
hc thickness of the core material in SCS sandwich plate loading step i
ht depth of the composite section in SCS sandwich plate rt ;rc uniaxial tensile or compressive stress of concrete
tc ; tt thickness of the compressive or tensile steel face plate rcu uniaxial ultimate compressive stress of concrete
 pi
u the total equivalent plastic displacement at the ith step rt0 uniaxial ultimate tensile stress of concrete
 pF
u the total equivalent plastic displacement at fracture df uniaxial ultimate tensile stress of concrete
df central deflection of the shell t Poissons ratio
eplF uniaxial plastic strain at fracture

SCS sandwich plate has been used as the ice-resistant walls in the connectors (usually less than six). FE models for SCS sandwich
Arctic offshore structures as shown in Fig. 1 [13]. beams with J-hook connectors or overlapped headed studs have
The inclined SCS sandwich plate type of ice-resistant wall been developed to investigate their ultimate strength behaviour
would raise the impacting ice sheets and fail them in flexural bend- [12,13]. In these developed FE models, the complex geometry of
ing that significantly alleviate the ice-contact pressure on the a pair of interlocked J-hook connectors or overlapped headed shear
structure. The ice-contact pressure acting on the ice-resistant wall studs were simplified by two cylindrical studs linked by three-
was observed unevenly distributed, and there were some high dimensional (3D) nonlinear spring elements. Although this simpli-
pressure zones (HPZs) at the ice-structure interacting surface that fication significantly increases the computing efficiency, it could
can be extremely higher than 15 MPa [4,5]. Under these concen- not fully simulate the shear-tension interaction strength of the
trated loads of HPZs, punching shear failure tends to occur to the studs that finally results in inaccurate estimations on the ultimate
SCS sandwich plate. Experimental studies on the SCS sandwich resistance of the structure. In addition, this FE model also could not
plate have been reported by Shanmugam et al. [6], and Sohel and simulate the punching shear failure of the steel skin that has been
Liew [7]. However, these experimental studies only provide limited observed in the quasi-static tests on SCS sandwich plate [1]. Sohel
information on the SCS sandwich plate, and these tests proved to et al. [14] also applied the same FE model [12,13] to analyse the
be costing and time consuming. Finite element (FE) technique structural behaviour of SCS sandwich plate subjected to impact
becomes increasingly popular and offers alternative approach to force. However, the same limitations existed on simulating the
analyse the structural behaviour of the SCS sandwich plate. The shear-tension interaction of the connectors. Shanmugam et al. [6]
FE model provided useful method to simulate different compo- developed a simplified FE model for SCS sandwich plate by using
nents in SCS sandwich plate, the interactions among the steel face the anisotropic materials to simulate the concrete core with inside
plates, concrete core, and connectors, different loading scenarios headed stud connectors. Nonlinear spring elements were used at
and boundary conditions, and different materials. Previous FE sim- the steel-concrete interface to simulate the interfacial shear-slip
ulations focused on the push-out tests that were used to obtain the behaviour of the connectors. However, this model also considered
shear strength behaviour of the headed stud connectors [811]. the shear resistance and tensile resistance independently, and
However, these developed FE models only consists of several stud ignored the shear-tension interaction strength of the connectors
in the SCS sandwich structure. Moreover, this developed FE model
could not simulate the punching shear failure of the steel materi-
als. All these compromised the accuracy of the FE simulation.
Novel ultra-lightweight cement composite (ULCC) and headed
shear studs have been used in the developed SCS sandwich plate
Ice
structure to increase the specific strength and composite action
of the structure [13]. This new material and hundreds of the
headed studs bring the challenges on the FE modelling of the SCS
Concrete sandwich plate and complex the interactions between the connec-
tors and concrete core. Moreover, the damage of the connectors
and punching shear failure of the top steel skin need to be properly
Steel skin
Piles simulated that proved to be essentially related to the ultimate
GBS conical structure SCS sandwich plate resistances of the SCS sandwich structure [1].
type of ice-resistant wall This paper aims to develop a FE model to simulate the ultimate
strength behaviour of the SCS sandwich plates with ULCC and
Fig. 1. SCS sandwich plate type of ice-resistant wall in Arctic offshore structure [1]. headed stud connectors. In this model, hundreds of headed studs
J.-B. Yan, W. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 149 (2017) 801815 803

were detailed modelled that offer proper simulations of the shear- strain curve of the headed stud connectors and steel plates with different thick-
nesses used in the SCS sandwich plate that were obtained from the tension tests fol-
tension interaction and stud-concrete contact. The developed FE
lowing ASTM A370-13 [16]. The mechanical properties of the materials involved in
models also considered the damage of the steel and concrete that this study were listed in Table 1.
promised simulation on the failure of the connectors and steel skin
plates. The numerical analysis results by the FE model were vali-
dated by nine large scale tests on SCS sandwich plates. Based on 3. Finite element modelling
these validations, the FE simulation procedure on SCS sandwich
plate was proposed. All these efforts make a better understanding 3.1. General
on the ultimate strength behaviour of the SCS sandwich plate
structure. Three-dimensional finite element (FE) model for the SCS sand-
wich plate has been built by using general-purpose finite element
code ABAQUS/CAE [17]. ABAQUS/explicit type of method was used
2. Experimental program
for the analysis on the SCS sandwich structures to facilitate numer-
2.1. Steel-concrete-steel sandwich plate and test setup ical convergence produced by the large deformations of the struc-
ture as well as post-peak responses [13,17,8,18,10].
Fig. 2 shows fabrication process of the SCS sandwich plates that usually consists
of welding shear connectors to the steel face plate, preparing the steel skeletons,
and casting of the concrete core. Fig. 2(c) shows the geometry of the SCS sandwich 3.2. Finite element model
plate involved in the test program. There are totally nine SCS sandwich plates pre-
pared in this test program. All the specimens measuring 1020  1020 mm2 (length Headed studs perform essentially in SCS sandwich plate struc-
by width) adopted ULCC as the core and overlapped headed studs as the bonding
ture to provide shear force and tolerate the slip at steel-concrete
measures. Table 1 lists the details of all the specimens involved. Fig. 3 shows the
test setup for the nine tests. All the specimens were simply supported, and loaded interface, bridge the shear cracks in the concrete core and offer
under 100  100 mm2 square concentrated loads at the geometric center of its top transverse shear resistance, and offer the outward buckling
surface through an INSTRON hydraulic jack [see Fig. 3(b)]. Linear Varying Displace- restraints to the steel face plate. Therefore, these headed studs
ment Transducers (LVDTs) were used to monitor the deflections of the plates at need to be properly simulated as well as their interactions with
locations of 1/4, middle, and 3/4 span. Fig. 3(c) shows the measurements of the
the surrounding concrete. The resistances of the headed studs
specimens. The displacement-controlled load has a fixed rate of 0.05 mm/min
was used for all the specimens. mainly consists of shear resistance, tensile resistance, shear-
tension interaction resistance. Without considering the strengths
2.2. Materials of the materials, the geometric parameters of the headed studs,
e.g., the diameter, height, size of the head, significantly influence
ULCC was used in all the SCS sandwich plates to deliver a their resistances [19,20]. Therefore, to make a detailed simulation
lightweight structural solution. The ULCC consisted of ordinary Portland cement, on its geometry determines the success of the FE simulation. This
water, cenospheres, silica fume, chemical admixtures, and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)
fibers. The cenospheres with particle sizes of 10400 mm were hollow alumino-
paper adopts the detailed simulation on the stud connectors by
silicate spheres that were commercially available and obtained from fly ash of 3-D elements. Though this method offers the closest simulation
coal-burning power plants. Since the water-to-binder ratio is low, the superplasti- on the headed studs and realistic representation of the stud-
ciser (ADVA 181) was used to improve its workability. In order to minimize the concrete interaction, it would result in long computational hours,
shrinkage strains and reduce air content during mixing, shrinkage-reducing admix-
which were mainly caused by the increased large amounts of ele-
ture (Eclipse Floor) was used in ULCC. PVA fibers with 6 mm in length and 27 mm
in diameter were used to reduce the brittleness of the ULCC and improve its shrink- ments for different components and the elements for contact pairs
age cracking resistance. In this test program, the ULCC mixture contains 0.5% (by between the studs and concrete core in the FE model by the contact
volume) PVA fibers (Kuralon RECS 7/6 mm). Table 2 lists the mix proportions of dif- algorithm.
ferent grades of ULCC involved in this study. Fig. 5 shows the FE model that was developed for the SCS sand-
The compressive and tensile stress-strain curves of the ULCC were obtained
from the compressive and tensile tests according to ASTM C39/C39M [15] as shown
wich plate. This figure shows that different components in the SCS
in Fig. 4(a) and (b), respectively. Mild steel plates and headed stud connector were sandwich plate were simulated including the headed studs,
used to fabricate the SCS sandwich plate. Fig. 4(c)(d) depict the engineering stress- steel face plates, concrete core, loading steel cube, and support.

Steel skin Headed studs


(a) Prepare steel skin and Weld connectors (b) Preparing steel skeletons

Top steel skin 2d


0.5d
tc
hs
hc ht
d

Concrete core tt
Sb
Bottom steel skin Sa S
a Headed stud
(c) Details of the SCS sandwich plate after casting

Fig. 2. Illustration on fabrication of SCS sandwich plate structure.


804 J.-B. Yan, W. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 149 (2017) 801815

Table 1
Material and geometry details of the tests on SCS sandwich plates.

Specimen ht (mm) tt = tc (mm) Sa (mm) fck (MPa) ft (MPa) Stud d  hs mm2 Es (GPa) fy (MPa) fu (MPa) Esh (GPa) ry (MPa) ru (MPa)
SP1 112.0 4 100 65.1 4.1 13  100 202 317.8 472.0 199 418.5 505.5
SP2 107.7 4 150 65.1 4.1 13  100 202 317.8 472.0 199 418.5 505.5
SP3 110.9 4 100 46.0 2.9 13  100 202 317.8 472.0 199 418.5 505.5
SP4 111.8 4 100 54.7 3.4 13  100 202 317.8 472.0 199 418.5 505.5
SP5 117.5 6 100 65.1 4.1 13  100 204 435.0 538.7 199 418.5 505.5
SP6 120.2 8 100 65.1 4.1 13  100 200 330.8 486.0 199 418.5 505.5
SP7 110.9 4 100 62.7 5.1 13  100 202 317.8 472.0 199 418.5 505.5
SP8 73.8 4 100 68.4 4.2 13  70 202 317.8 472.0 198 417.0 495.3
SP9 135.0 4 100 68.4 4.2 13  100 202 317.8 472.0 199 418.5 505.5

15mm rebar 1020


Unit: mm line support Loading P
Platen
100
100 1020

ht
I-beam support

(a) Simple support for the specimen (b) Test setup

Fig. 3. Test setup of the SCS sandwich plate under concentrated loading.

Table 2
Mix proportions of different grades of ULCC (kg/m3).

Type Water OPC Silica fume Fly ash SRA Cenosphere (QK300) Fiber (PVA) SP ADVA181
ULCC-40 244.0 297.0 37.0 409.0 19.1 335.0 6.5 5.6
ULCC-50 252.0 504.0 39.0 232.0 19.1 335.0 6.5 5.7
ULCC-60 258.2 741.5 64.5 0.0 20.1 335.0 6.5 6.3
ULCC with 0.9%PVA 258.2 741.5 64.5 0.0 20.1 335.0 11.7 6.3

OPC denotes ordinary Portland cement; SRA denotes shrinkage reduction; SP denotes the superplasticizer.

Considering the symmetry of the loading and geometry of the SCS basic unit (i.e., single headed studs) in the steel-concrete compos-
sandwich plate, only one quarter of the full size of the plate was ite structure needs to be investigated. This paper firstly adopts 12
built. Thus, as shown in Fig. 5, the FE model contains two symmet- push-out tests reported by Xue et al. [21], and the details of these
ric planes at the mid-span in two directions. In order to reduce the 12 push-out tests are given in Table 3. These 12 tests were in four
complexity of the FE modelling, a square section of the headed group with three identical specimens in each group. Two FEMs
studs was used instead of the original circular section. The resis- using the circular and square headed studs as shown in Fig. 6(a)
tances of headed stud connectors mainly consist of shear resis- were, respectively, built to simulate the reported push-out tests.
tance along the steel-concrete interface and tensile resistance in These two FEMs were built with the same conditions including
the normal direction to the steel-concrete interface. As specified the elements, materials, and geometry details except the shape of
in Eurocode 4 [19] and ACI 318 [20], the shear resistances of the the headed studs. More details of the FEMs could be found in Ref.
headed studs were proportional to the area of the cross section [22]. Fig. 6(b)(e) compares the FE predicted load-slip behaviours
of the studs. The tensile resistance of the headed studs, T, is gov- by these two FEMs with the experimental results. Table 3 lists
erned by the minor value of the resistances corresponding to con- the details of the specimens and compares the experimental ulti-
crete breakout, tensile fracture of connectors shank, pullout, and mate shear resistances of the headed studs with the FE predicted
punching shear of the steel face plates that the connectors were values. These comparisons showed that 1) the FEM with square
welded to. Thus, the tensile resistances of the headed stud are headed studs still offer close simulations on the experimental ulti-
determined by their height and area of the cross section. From this mate strength behaviour of the headed studs in terms of load-slip
point of view, this developed FE model simplify the headed studs behaviour and ultimate shear resistance; 2) the differences of the
with circular section to the studs with square section by using FEAs between the FEM with circular studs and square studs were
the same height and equal area of the cross section (see Fig. 5). This quite limited, e.g., the average difference of the prediction-to-test
simplification could satisfy most of the resistances as specified in ratios between these two FEMs is 3% (see Table 3). This compara-
Eurocode 4 [19] and ACI 318 [20], but there still exists some differ- tive studies proved that the FEM with simplified square connectors
ences due to the shapes of the connectors. In order to make a could be used in further FE analysis even though small limited dif-
proper simulation on the stud-concrete interaction, the holes in ferences on describing the structural behaviours existed.
the concrete core were reserved as shown in Fig. 5. Since the sim- Three-dimensional eight-node continuum elements with hour-
plification of the circular studs in the FE modelling might cause the glass control (C3D8R) in ABAQUS element library was used to
influences on FE analysis (FEA), the structural behaviours of the model the different components of the SCS sandwich plate.
J.-B. Yan, W. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 149 (2017) 801815 805

t (MPa)
2

Tensile Strain t
(a) Compressive stress-strain (b) Tensile stress-strain
curve of ULCC curve of ULCC
600 600

450
Stress (MPa)

Stress (MPa)
400
T
300 T

200 t=4
150 D13H100 t=6
D13H75 t=8mm
T T
0 0

Strain Strain
(c) Tensile stress-strain (d) Tensile stress-strain
curves of headed studs curves of steel plates
Fig. 4. Experimental stress-strain curves of ULCC, headed studs and steel skin plates.

C3D8R element in ABAQUS is an eight-node linear brick element and all nodes on the plane of symmetry remain fixed in a direction
with three translation degrees of freedom at each node and perpendicular to the corresponding plane.
reduced integration (one integration point). Surface-to-surface contact algorithm was used to simulate the
Varying mesh sizes were used in the FE model to make a bal- interactions among different components in the SCS sandwich
ance between the accuracy and computing processing time. Finer plate, which include surface pairs of top (or bottom) steel plate
mesh sizes were used for the stud connector and their neighbour- and concrete core, headed studs and concrete core, bottom steel
ing concrete whilst coarser mesh sizes were used in the regions of plate and support. Hard contact algorithm, allowing to transfer
the concrete and steel face plates locating far away from those the pressure of the surface under compression and to separate
headed studs. The influence of the mesh size of the elements on when the two surfaces under tension, was used to define the inter-
the accuracy of the FE simulation of SCS sandwich beams has been actions in the normal direction to the contact surface pairs. The
studied and reported by the main author [12,13,22]. This paper Coulomb friction model is used in the FE simulation to define the
adopts close mesh sizes for headed studs, concrete core, and steel interaction in the tangent direction to the contact surface. In this
face plates as those in Refs. [12,13]. The mesh sizes for the connec- FE study, the friction coefficient of 0.4 was used in this FE study
tor is 5  5  5 mm3; the mesh sizes for the steel face plate in and that is similar to that used for the FE modelling on the SCS sand-
out the region neighbouring the headed studs are 5  5  2 mm3 wich beams [12,13] and shells [19].
and 10  10  2 mm3, respectively; the mesh sizes for the concrete
in and out the region near the headed studs are 5  5  10 mm3
3.4. Material model of concrete
and 5  10  10 mm3, respectively. Taking the specimen SP1 for
example, there are 10,874, 31,020, and 10,874 elements for the
Concrete damage plasticity model (CDPM) in ABAQUS material
bottom steel plate, concrete core, and top steel plate, respectively.
library was chosen for the concrete core in SCS sandwich plate. The
CDPM in ABAQUS uses the concepts of isotropic compressive and
tensile plasticity with isotropic damage to simulate the inelastic
3.3. Loading, boundary conditions, and interactions mechanical behaviour of the concrete material [17]. The CDPM
model used the yield function that was described by Lublinear
As shown in Fig. 5, displacement controlled type of loading was et al. [23] and further improved by Lee and Fenves [24] to describe
applied to the SCS sandwich plate through a steel cube that offers the evolution of strength of the concrete under tension and com-
close simulation to the experimental loading procedure. Since all pression. The isotropic damage and non-associated potential flow
the tested specimens were simply supported, in the FE model, rule was followed in the CDPM in ABAQUS [17].
the line support, i.e., the round bar was built and contact pairs In CDPM model, the stress-strain curves of the concrete under
were defined between the SCS sandwich plate and the support. tension and compression as well as the damage parameters
There are two symmetric surfaces in the FE model (see Fig. 5), were required. This paper adopted the tensile and compressive
806 J.-B. Yan, W. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 149 (2017) 801815

Top steel plate Displacement


Top steel plate loading
Steel cube

Concrete core
Displacement
Y Bottom steel
Support Support Support plate
x
Concrete core 450 mm
Y Symmetric
Symmetric Restraint 510 mm
z x
Restraint
Bottom steel plate

Headed stud

Top steel plate


Y Y
Headed stud
z x
Bottom steel plate z x

Holes reserved for the headed studs

Concrete core
Y

z x

Fig. 5. Details of finite element model for SCS sandwich plate.

Table 3
Push-out test details and comparisons of ultimate resistances of headed studs between FEA and tests.

Item d mm hst mm f ck MPa Ec GPa f ys MPa f u MPa P T (kN) P NC (kN) PNC P NS (kN) PNS
PT PT

X4 16 85 38.9 33.1 397 444 151.2 168.9 1.12 168.2 1.11


X5 16 85 38.9 33.1 397 444 174.3 168.9 0.97 168.2 0.96
X6 16 85 38.9 33.1 397 444 171.1 168.9 0.99 168.2 0.98
X7 16 85 36 32.2 397 444 195.0 214.4 1.10 207.8 1.07
X8 16 85 36 32.2 397 444 238.2 214.4 0.90 207.8 0.87
X9 16 85 36 32.2 397 444 206.6 214.4 1.04 207.8 1.01
X13 19 103 38.9 33.1 397 444 205.8 231.2 1.12 223.4 1.09
X14 19 103 38.9 33.1 397 444 230.9 231.2 1.00 223.4 0.97
X15 19 103 38.9 33.1 397 444 229.8 231.2 1.01 223.4 0.97
X16 19 103 30.5 29 397 444 209.8 210.4 1.00 204.3 0.97
X17 19 103 30.5 29 397 444 207.0 210.4 1.02 204.3 0.99
X18 19 103 30.5 29 397 444 192.7 210.4 1.09 204.3 1.06
u 1.03 1.00
Cov 0.07 0.07

d and hst denote diameter and height of stud; fck and Ec denote compressive strength and elastic modulus of concrete; fys and fu denote yield strength of steel and ultimate
strength of connector; PT, PNC and PNS denote experimental ultimate resistance, ultimate resistance by FEM with circular stud, and ultimate resistance by FEM with square
stud, respectively.

stress-strain curves that were obtained from the material tests on used as the input in the CDPM model. These stress-inelastic strain
the concrete core as shown in Fig. 4(a) and (b). These two curves behaviours considered the strain-softening of the ULCC. Unloading
were used to calibrate the stress versus inelastic strain curves as data are provided in CDPM in terms of compressive (or tensile)
specified in ABAQUS as shown in Fig. 7(a) and (b), which will be damage curves, Dc or Dt  eIn
c , as defined,
J.-B. Yan, W. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 149 (2017) 801815 807

Load
I-beam
Concrete Symmetrical
slab surface

Circular Square
stud stud

Symmetrical
surface
Base plate
FEM for push-out test FEM with circular stud FEM with square stud
(a) Finite element models for the push-out test
200 240

150
160
P (kN)

P (kN)

100
X7
X4
X8
X5 80
X9
50 X6
FEM with Circular Studs FEM with Circular Studs
FEM with Square Studs FEM with Square Studs

0 0
0 4 8 12 0 4 8 12
Slip (mm) Slip (mm)
(b) (c)
300 240

200 160
P (kN)
P (kN)

X13 X16
100 X14 80 X17
X15 X18
FEM with Circulra Studs FEM with Circular Studs
FEM with Square Studs FEM with Square Studs
0 0
0 4 8 12 0 4 8 12
Slip (mm) Slip (mm)
(d) (e)
Fig. 6. FEMs for the push-out tests and comparisons of FEA by square and circular studs with test results.

Dc rc where Dc and Dt denote the compressive and tensile damage ratio,


eplc eInc  1a
1  Dc E0 respectively.
Dt rt Wang and Chen [25] proposed the following functions to
eplt eIn
t  1b
1  Dt E0 calculate Dc or Dt
808 J.-B. Yan, W. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 149 (2017) 801815

(a) Definition of the compressive material (b) Definition of the tensile material
property in ABAQUS property in ABAQUS
1.0 1.0
Damage Variable D c

0.8 0.8

Damage Variable D t
0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0

Inelastic Strain c Inelastic Strain t


In In

(c) Compression damage variables (d) Tension damage variables


for ULCC for ULCC
Fig. 7. Definitions of the stress-strain curves and damage variables for the CDPM.

Dc Ac eec =tc Bc
In
2a In the continuum damage model (CDM), three criteria need to
be specified, i.e., the damage initiation criterions, damage evolu-
tion laws, and true stress-strain curves of the steel materials.
Dt At eet
In =t
t
Bt 2b The damage initiation criterion in CDM depends on the equiva-
lent plastic strain at the onset of damage, epl
0 , which relies on the
where eIn In
c and et refer to the inelastic compressive and tensile strain
against the maximum strain in the stress-strain curves, respec- stress triaxiality h. In practice, the relationship between the epl
0

tively; t c and tt are a constant empirical values; Ac e1=t1c 1; and stress triaxiality h needs to be calibrated by the data obtained
from the triaxiality tests that is more complex and time consum-
Bc  e1=t1c 1; At e1=t1t 1 ; Bt  e1=t1t 1 :
ing. A theoretical simplified method using the uniaxial strain at
Finally, the compressive (or tensile) damage ratio versus inelas-
the onset of damage, epl 0 , has been developed [10] to specify this
tic compressive (or tensile) strain curve are shown in Fig. 7
(c) or (d). relationship as the following
The other plasticity parameters including flow potential eccen-
tricity of 0.1, the dilation angles of 36, and ratio of the biaxial/uni- epl pl nh1=3
0 e0 e 3
axial compressive strength ratio of 1.16 were chosen for the CDPM
used in this FE study. where epl pl
0 and e0 denote tri-axial and uniaxial equivalent plastic
strain at the onset of damage, respectively; n denotes material
dependant constant; h denotes stress triaxiality.
3.5. Material model of steel and connector
An empirical value of n 1:5 for the steel material has been
proposed by Rice and Tracey [27]. Thus, Eq. (3) becomes
The experimental studies on the SCS sandwich plates [26]
showed that punching shear failure and shear failure occurred to
epl pl 1:5h1=3
0 en e 4
the top steel face plates and inside headed studs, respectively.
Therefore, continuum damage model (CDM) in ABAQUS material
library was chosen to simulate the material separations caused where epln in Eq. (4) can be determined from the uniaxial stress-
by these punching shear failure in the top steel plate and shear fail- strain curves as detailed in the following.
ure in the headed studs. The engineering stress-strain curves are usually obtained from
Fig. 4(c) and (d) show the stress-strain curves of the headed the tensile tests on the steel coupons. Extensometer was widely
studs and steel plates used in the SCS sandwich plate. From these used to measure the strain through measuring the elongations
figures, the elastic modulus Es of 200 GPa and Poissons ratio t of within a gauged length. After necking occurs, the strain in the
0.3 were determined for both steel plate and headed studs. necking zone usually significantly increases. Meanwhile, the rest
J.-B. Yan, W. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 149 (2017) 801815 809

part of the coupon remains the same strain at the onset of necking. in this study [10]; N, R, F denote necking-, rupture-, and fracture-
Therefore, the true stress-strain curves needs to be calibrated from point as shown in Fig. 8(c), respectively;
the engineering stress-strain curves that considered the necking in The damage evolution law for the DPM also requires the defini-
the gauged length. In the CDM, true stress-strain curves are tion of the damage variable Di versus the equivalent plastic dis-
required as the input that can be calibrated from the engineering placement u  pi
 pi relationship. The equivalent plastic displacement u
stress-strain curves as the following [10] corresponding to different Di follows,

ei ln1 enom 5  pF
 pi u
epli  epln
i u ; i P iN 12
eplF  epln
ri ln1 rnom 6
i
 pF denotes the total equivalent plastic displacement at frac-
where u
where enom
i , rnom
i denotes the nominal strain and stress obtained ture as determined by Eq. (13); epl
n denotes the true plastic strain at
from the tensile tests at the loading step i, respectively. the necking point N; epl
F denotes the true plastic strain at the frac-
The nominal strain enom
i at loading step i depends on the change ture point F.
in the gauge length measured by the extensometer,  pF is sensitive to the difference of epl pl
As shown in Eq. (12), u F  en ,

Dli =l0 ; i < iN before necking i.e., the mesh size used in the FE model. Considering the different
enom 7 element sizes were used in an FE model, e.g., the common element
i1 Dli  Dli1 =li ; i P iN
i
enom after necking
size Lc and the fine mesh size LR used in the critical regions, the
where li denotes the original gauge length of an extensometer; Dli total equivalent displacement, u  pF , thus depends on an element size
denotes the increase in the gauge length i is the step of the loading; factor gs ,
iN denotes the loading step corresponding to necking took place.
During the tensile tests on the steel coupons, the gauge length li
at each loading level before and after the occurrence of the necking  pF gs Lc epl
u F  en
pl
13a
can be determined as follows [10] p
8 gs 3
LR =Lc 13b
< l0 ; i < i N before necking
li  aL 8
: l0  l0  ln DDlli DDlld ; i P iN after necking Lc kE LE 13c
F d

where kE is an element type factor as shown in Table 4 for each type


where li denotes the original gauge length of an extensometer; Dli
of steel plates used in the analysis; LE is the element size of steel
denotes the increase in the gauge length i is the step of the loading;
plate or connector. kE =2.53.2 was recommended for the contin-
iN is the loading step at which damage initiates; lF refers to gauge
uum element C3D8R in the FE model [22]. In addition, the total
length at fracture of the steel coupon; ld denotes the gauge length
equivalent displacement, u  pF ; also depends on the element type
at the onset of damage; ln defines the fictive average necking zone
and integration scheme. Fig. 8(d) shows the damage variable Di ver-
length; aL represents an index for the rate of the gauge length
sus the equivalent plastic displacement u  pi curves for all the steel
reduction and equals 0.5 in this study.
For the steel out of the necking zone, the true stresses and face plates and headed studs involved in this FE study.
strains can be determined as the following [10] Including the ductile damage in CDM, the shear damage also
 needs to be defined. Parameters for shear damage definition com-
ri ; i < iN before necking prised the damage initiation and damage evolution. The shear
r i 9
rnom
n 1 enom
i ; i P iN after necking damage initiation could be realized through defining the equiva-
lent plastic strain at the threshold of the damage and shear stress
epli ei  ep 10 ratio. These parameters were calibrated through comparing FE
analyses with the uniaxial tensile tests on the coupons. Thus, the
where ep is the elastic strain at the onset of plasticity as shown in shear damage initiation ratios eplF; shear were determined as 0.075,
Fig. 8. 0.075, 0.08, 0.12, 0.09 for 4 mm, 6 mm, and 8 mm thick steel plates,
The true stresses and strains determined by Eqs. (9) and (10) headed stud in height of 75 mm and 100 mm, respectively. A dis-
were used as the input for the CDM. Fig. 8(a) shows the equivalent placement type of shear damage evolution law with exponential
plastic strain at the onset of damage, epln , versus the stress triaxial- softening was used for the steel materials involved in this numer-
ity, h, curves for all steel materials involved in this FE study. Fig. 8 ical study.
(b) shows the true stress-strain curves for the steel face plates and
connectors.
4. Validations and discussions
The damage evolution laws has been proposed by Pavlovic et al.
[10]. As shown in Fig. 8(c), the damage Di equals 0 at the onset of
4.1. Validations of the FE simulations on the tensile tests on coupons
damage at point-N, and equals 1.0 at the fracture or point-F. The
damage variable between the point N and F can be determined
Fig. 9 compares the FE simulated engineering stress-strain curves
by the softening law [10] as the following
with the curves obtained from the tensile tests on the steel coupons.
8
> 1  ri =r  i jD ; iN 6 i 6 iR Fig. 9(a) also compares the influence of using the CDM of steel on the
>
< pl pl stress-strain curves that were obtained from the direct tensile tests
ei  eR
Di pl 1  DR ; iR 6 i 6 iF 11 on the steel coupons. These curves show that the using the CDM in
>
>
pl
e  e
: F R the FEM significantly influences the FE analysis results especially at
1; i iF
final failure stage. Without using the CDM for the steel, the damage
where jD denote damage eccentricity factor that considers the of the top steel face plate and inside connectors could not be
nonuniform distribution of damage variable, and herein equals 1.5 captured, i.e., there would be no transparent peak values in the
810 J.-B. Yan, W. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 149 (2017) 801815

0.6
900
Equivalent plastic strain for Uniaxial tension
damage initiation =0.333

True stress (MPa)


0.4 t4 plate 600
t6 plate
t8 plate t4
H75 Stud 300 t6
0.2 t8
H100 Stud H75 Stud
H100 Stud
0
0
True plastic strain
Stress triaxiality
(a) Damage initiation criterions for the steel materials (b) Truestress-straincurvesusedinFEM

0.00
D Di

Damage Variable D
0.25

0.50 t4 R
t6
0.75 t8
H75 Stud
H100 Stud F
1.00

Equivalent Plastic Displacement

(c) plastic stress - strain curves and damage extraction (d) damage evalution law in FEM
Fig. 8. Definition and determination of the damage parameters in the DPM.

Table 4
Test results and predictions on ultimate resistances of SCS sandwich plates.

Specimen P1 (kN) P2 kN P 1;A (kN) P1 P 2; (kN) P2; R


R
P 1;A P 2;E

(1) (2) (3) (4) (6) (2)/(6)


SP1 482.8 618.8 458.8 0.95 609.0 0.98
SP2 288.0 518.8 264.0 0.92 441.7 0.85
SP3 427.3 547.9 406.6 0.95 607.8 1.11
SP4 464.6 520.9 435.0 0.94 613.7 1.18
SP5 624.5 859.2 670.0 1.07 776.9 0.90
SP6 811.6 1067.5 771.0 0.95 1062.8 1.00
SP7 512.6 638.2 459.8 0.90 604.5 0.95
SP8 284.5 529.9 365.4 1.28 545.9 1.03
SP9 540.7 583.4 519.7 0.96 607.0 1.04
u 0.99 1.00
Cov 0.12 0.10

load-central deflection curves of the SCS sandwich plates that were 4.2. Validations of FE simulations on the SCS sandwich plates under
produced by the damage of the inside connectors and shear damage patch loads
of the top steel face plate, respectively [28] (see Fig. 10). After intro-
ducing the CDM, the FE simulated stress-strain curves resembles Fig. 10 compares the numerical load versus central deflection
reasonably well with the experimental curves (see Fig. 9). The differ- curves with the experimental curves. Since the tests on the SCS
ences in the stress-strain cures between the tests and FE analysis sandwich plates showed that there were two peaks in the load-
might be caused by the errors in the length of the necking zone, deflection curves [26], the FE predicted values for these two
the differences in the shear damage ignition ratios, and the errors peaks were compared with the experimental values in Table 4.
of the experimental stress-strain curves (e.g., the necking zone did These figures and table show that 1) the numerical load-central
not occur at the middle region of the testing coupons). deflection curves resemble reasonably well with the experimental
J.-B. Yan, W. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 149 (2017) 801815 811

600 600

400 400

Stress (Mpa)

Stress (Mpa)
t6 Test
t6 FE t4 Test
200 200 t4 FE
t6 FE no DPM H75 Test
t8 Test H75 FE
t8 FE H100 Test
t8 FE no DPM H100 FE
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Strain Strain
(a) t=6, 8mm steel plate (b) t=4mm plate and studs (H=75, 100 mm)

Fig. 9. Comparisons of the FEA stress-strain curves of the steels with the experimental curves.

750 600 750


P2 SP3 Test
P2
P2 SP3 FE
500 P1 400 500 P1

P (kN)
P1
P(kN)
P(kN)

SP1 Test
SP1 FE SP2 Test
250 200 250
P SP2 FE P P


0 0 0

(mm) (mm) (mm)


(a) SP1 (b) SP2 (c) SP3
750 900 1200
P2 P2
P2 P1 P1
500 600 800
P1
P (kN)
P (kN)

P (kN)

SP6 Test
SP4 Test SP5 Test SP6 FE
250 SP4 FE 300 SP5 FE 400
P P P


0 0 0

(mm) (mm) (mm)


(d) SP4 (e) SP5 (f) SP6
750 750 750
P2 SP8 Test
P2
P1 P2 SP8 FE
P1
500 500 500
P (kN)

P (kN)
P (kN)

SP7 Test P1 SP9 Test


250 SP7 FE 250 250 SP9 FE
P P P


0 0 0

(mm) (mm) (mm)


(g) SP7 (h) SP8 (i) SP9
Fig. 10. Comparisons of load versus central deflection curves between FE analysis and tests.
812 J.-B. Yan, W. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 149 (2017) 801815

SP1 Test SP1 FE SP3 Test SP3 FE

SP4 Test SP4 FE SP5 Test SP5 FE

SP6 SP6 FE SP7 Test SP7 FE

SP8 Test SP8 FE SP9 Test SP9 FE


Fig. 11. Comparisons of punching shear modes in top steel plate between tests and FE.

curves except there are some differences in the elastic stiffness; the test results and FEA results that can be minimized if the FEM
2) the average test to prediction ratio for P1 (or P2) is 0.99 could overcome the following challenges
(1.00) with a coefficient of variation (COV) of 12% (10%). These
close agreements implied that the developed FE models could (1) Initial imperfections of the flatness of the SCS sandwich plate.
capture the ultimate resistances as well as the load versus defor- These imperfections in the flatness might be caused by the
mation behaviours of the SCS sandwich plates under patch loads. welding headed studs on the steel face plate, transportation,
Fig. 11 compares the predicted failure mode in the top steel face and casting of concrete, which results in the soft support
plates by FEM with the experimental observations. These figures problem as reflected in the larger FE predicted elastic stiffness
show that the developed FEM could capture the punching shear of the load-deflection curves. If the initial imperfections of the
failure modes in the top steel face plates that was produced by flatness could be estimated through 3D scanning or other
the patch loads. Fig. 12 shows the comparisons of the deformed techniques, the differences in the elastic stiffness of the
shapes of specimen SP1 between the FE predictions and tests. It load-deflection curves (see Fig. 10) could be minimized.
shows the FEM predicts closely the deformed shapes compared (2) The simplification of the round headed studs to the square
with the experimental observations including the local indentation connectors. Though this simplification facilitates the FE
in the top surface, bump developed in the bottom surface, and modelling, the approximations in the shapes as well as the
plastic strain distributions in both top and bottom steel face plates. interactions with the surrounding concrete will result in
The above validations confirmed that the developed FEM could the differences of the structural behaviours.
simulate well the structural behaviour of the SCS sandwich plates (3) Simulations of the welding between the headed studs and
under patch loads in terms of load-deflection behaviours, steel faceplates. The FEM in this paper assumes perfection
deformed shapes, and punching shear failure in the top steel face connection between the studs and steel plates without sim-
plate. However, there were still some differences existing between ulating the details of the welding, which may lead to inaccu-
rate simulation of the stress around the welding toe.
J.-B. Yan, W. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 149 (2017) 801815 813

(a) Top surface test (b) Top surface FE

(c) Bottom surface test (d) Bottom surface FE

(e) Side surface test (f) Side surface FE

Fig. 12. Comparisons of FE predicted deformed shapes for SP1 with the experimental observations.

(4) Residual stress in the steel plate produced by the welding of peak resistance. At the second peak P2, from Fig. 11, punching shear
the headed studs on them. failure in the top steel face plates could be easily observed.
For the type II curve (e.g., SP2), Fig. 13(f)(i) show the represen-
tative contours of plastic strain in the steel face plates, connectors
4.3. Discussions on the failure modes of the SCS sandwich plate under and concrete at peak loads P1 and P2. Fig. 13(f) shows that punch-
patch loads ing cone does not develop when SP2 achieves the first peak P1.
Meanwhile, the connectors at far end away from the loading area
Previous experimental studies [26] showed that two types of start to yield due to the slip at the steel-concrete interacting
failure modes occurred to the SCS sandwich plate under patch surface (see Fig. 13(g)). This implies the connectors yield and
loads that correspond to the two peaks in the load-central deflec- punching shear failure does not occur at P1 for the specimens
tion curves, i.e., punching shear failure of the concrete core and exhibiting type II curve. At peak load P2 for specimen SP2,
punching shear failure in the top steel plate. Since the concrete punching cone in the concrete core was also not observed (see
core in the SCS sandwich plate was covered by the two external Fig. 13(h)) whilst Fig. 13(i) shows that the steel face plates yield.
steel face plates, punching shear failure of the concrete core could These observations prove that at P2, flexural failure takes place
not be directly observed that can be only judged through the drops rather than punching shear failure of the top steel face plate.
in the load-defection curves and bumps formed at the bottom These FE analyses offer solid observations to support the
surface. statements of the failure modes of the SCS sandwich plate under con-
The developed FEM offers useful means to observe the failure centrated loads in Ref. [28]. And these observations also offer more
modes that occurred to the specimens when they were subjected comprehensive understanding on the development of the failure
to patch loads. From load-deflection curves in Fig. 10, it can be con- mode in the concrete core that usually were difficult to observe since
cluded that these curves can be categorized into two types as it is covered by the steel face plates in the SCS sandwich structure.
shown in Fig. 13(a). The load-deflection curves of specimens SP1,
SP3, SP4, SP47, SP9 can be categorized into the first type (namely 5. Recommended FE simulation procedures
type I) that exhibit obvious first drop at first peak resistance, P1,
whilst the rest curves of specimens SP2 and SP8 can be categorized The recommended FE simulation procedures on the SCS sand-
into the second type (namely type II) with no obvious drop at the wich plate structure by using the CDM for steel and CDPM for con-
first peak resistance. crete were recommended as the following
For the type I curve (e.g., SP1), Fig. 13(b)(e) show the represen-
tative contours of plastic strain in both steel and concrete at peak a) Carrying out the uniaxial tensile tests on the steel coupons
loads P1 and P2. These curves showed that a punching cone devel- that were cut from headed studs or the steel face plates in
oped (see Fig. 13(b)) and the steel face plate does not yield (see SCS sandwich plate. The engineering stress-strain curves
Fig. 13(c)). Fig. 14(a)(f) show the punching cones developed in and the length of the necking zone need to be determined
specimens SP37, 9. These observations confirm that punching from these tests.
shear failure took place when the specimens achieved the first
814 J.-B. Yan, W. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 149 (2017) 801815

(c) Von-Mises stress distribution in steel


(a) Generalized load-deflection curves (b) Plastic strain at P1 in concrete for SP1
at P1 for SP1

(d) Plastic strain in concrete at P2 for (e) Von-Mises stress distribution in steel
(f) Plastic strain at P1 in concrete for SP2
SP1 at P2 for SP1

(g) Von-Misese stress distribution in (h) Plastic strain in concrete at P2 for (i) Von-Mises stress distribution in steel
steel at P1 for SP2 SP2 at P2 for SP2

Fig. 13. General load-deflection behaviours and corresponding failure modes.

(a) SP3 (b) SP4 (c) SP5

(d) SP6 (e) SP7 (f) SP9

Fig. 14. Punching cone developed in the concrete core at first peak resistance determined by the plastic strain contour.

b) Using the equations developed in Section 3.5 to determine the criterions, damage evolution laws, and true stress-strain
key parameters in the continuum damage model (CDM). curves of the steel materials. These parameters will be cali-
Three criteria need to be specified, i.e., the damage initiation brated by the tensile tests on steel coupons.
J.-B. Yan, W. Zhang / Construction and Building Materials 149 (2017) 801815 815

c) Building the steel face plates and headed studs plate with (6) Finally, FE simulation procedures on the ultimate strength
the validated CDM and concrete core with the CDPM model behaviours SCS sandwich plates were recommended. The
as specified in section 3.4. developed FE model with the CDM and CDPM was not lim-
d) Defining the interactions among different components in the ited to the SCS sandwich plate structure, but can also be
SCS sandwich plate, boundary conditions, and loads acting used for the analysis on the steel-composite structures with
on the structure. headed studs, steel composite structure and SCS sandwich
e) Solutions. structure with other forms of the mechanical shear
connectors.
6. Conclusions

In this paper, a three-dimensional FEM has been developed for References


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