THEARTOFCORRECTTHINKING

SIR.MICHAELM.RAMOS
FIRSTASIAINTITUTEOF
TECHNOLOGYANDHUMANITIES
FIRSTSEMESTER200607
JUNE20,2006
 Greek words, philia which
means love and sophia means wisdom.
(Etymological definition)

love of wisdom. (Nominal definition)

It is the science of all things naturally knowable to

mans unaided powers, as far as these things are
studied in their deepest causes and reasons. (Real
definition)
A science- set forth data systematically

Of all things naturally knowable-

investigates data through mans unaided
knowing powers from the data gathered by
his senses.

In so far as these things are studied in their

deepest causes and reasons- seeks the
ultimate causes and reasons of things.
PartsofPhilosophy:
CosmologyorPhilosophyofNature:Onthematerialworld,andtheultimate
constituentprinciplesofmaterialbeings.
Psychology:Onlivingbeingandtheprincipleoflife,onthenatureofthevital
operationsandofthevitalpowers,andtheirclassification.
Ethics:Onhumanactsandtheirmorality:theNaturalLawgoverningthem.
SocialPhilosophy:Onthesocialityofman,onthenatureofhumansocietyandits
principles.
OntologyorGeneralMetaphysics:Onbeingsingeneral,onthedifferentreasons
andprinciplesoftherealityofthings.
TheodicyorSpecialMetaphysics:OntheFirstCauseofContingentBeingsandof
emergentreality.
Epistemology:Oncertainandtrueknowledge,anditsprinciples.
Logic:oncorrectinferentialthinkinganditsprinciples.
 BEING
GENERALFORM SPECIALFORM

THEWORLD GOD

NONLIVING LIVING

VEGETATIVE
SENTIENT THEODICY
ONTOLOGY COSMOLOGY RATIONAL

MAN
ASCOMPOUND INTHEOPERATIONS INTHEOPERATIONS INTHESOCIALITY
OFSOULANDBODY OFHISMIND OFHISWILL OFMAN

CORRECT VALIDITYOF
THINKING KNOWLEDGE

LOGIC EPISTEMOLOGY

ETHICS SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
PHILOSOPHY
Logic
It came from the Greek word Logike which
means of reasoning. (Etymological definition)

It is a science that is somehow concerned with the

notions or concepts formed by the human mind and
with the words or terms that signify them. (Real
definition)

It is the art, which directs the very acts of reason,

and so enables us to advance with order, ease, and
without error. (St. Thomas definition)

Looking at its purpose, logic is the science and art

of correct thinking.

Aim of logic: to think correctly with ease.

Importance of Logic:

It helps us to reason out validly.

It makes us more critical and analytical.

It helps us think systematically.

It helps us detect errors and fallacies.

It helps us to distinguish valid from invalid

reasoning.

It enables us to persuade people.

It develops in us self-confidence.
OBJECTSOFLOGIC
Logicdealswiththeactsofmind,morespecifically
thethinkingorreasoningprocess.

FormalLogic:concernitselfprimarilywiththecorrectness
ratherthanthetruthofalogicalprocess.Tobeableto
reasoncorrectlyisnotnecessarilythesameastoreason
truthfully.Itstudiesindetailtheformofthelogicalprocess,
withoutfocusingonthematerialcontentoftheargument.

Materiallogic:concernitselfwiththetruthofthematerial
content.Itconsidersthecorrespondenceofthethought
contentswithreality,acorrespondencebetweenthelogical
andrealorder.
DIVISIONSOFLOGIC.

SIMPLEAPPREHENSION
Theactbywhichtheintellectgraspstheessenceof
something.

JUDGEMENT
Thementaloperationthatpronouncestheidentityor
nonidentitybetweentwoideas.

REASONING
Thementalactthatproceedsfromthepreviousknown
truthtoanewtruth.
 SIMPLE APPREHENSION
AND IDEA

A.The formation of an idea

As an often repeated line say: Nothing is in

the mind without passing through the sense
IDEOGENESIS ideas begin with the senses;
the sense organs accept a number of
impressions from the great number of stimuli
coming from the external world. An image
then is produced.
 Simpleapprehension

The first mental operation, grasping or

abstracting the essence of an object without
affirming or denying anything about it. Its
mental product is called idea the verbal
manifestation of which is called the term.
IDEAisamentalsignwherebywegrasp
theessenceofathing.The
representationoftherealityinthe
mind.

Phantasm:theproductofthefacultywe
calltheimagination.
Comprehension
Abstraction Theoperationofthemind
Tograsp Tograspandtoignore
TypesofAbstraction

Totalabstraction:Theformationofaconceptof
Canbedirectly whatabeingis,generically,
Predicatedto specifically,substantiallyand
Thesubjectitis accidentally.
deduced Ex.Lirioisaman

Formalabstraction:Theformationofaconcept
ofthatinabeingwherebyitis:
Whenindirectly
generically,specifically,
Predicatedto
substantiallyandaccidentally:
Thesubject
whatabeinghas.
Ex.Liriohashumanity.
Ifyouseeabeingmovinginthedistancefrom
onespottoanotherinanonregularmanner,
whatmorecanthemindknowaboutit?The
beingisnotmechanical.Ithascontrolofits
ownmovements.Itisalive;ithaslife.Itisan
organism. Sinceithaslocomotionoritmoves
fromoneplacetoanother,ithassense,itis
sentient.Itmustbeananimal.Thenifyouhear
thisanimalshoutingmeaningfulmessages:you
Intelligentbeing.
canconcludethatitisanItis
endowedwithreason;itisrational. Itisaman.
ifyoucomecloserandrecognizethevoiceor
features,youmayknowthatitisanindividual
man. ItisLirio.
 TheTreeofPorphyry
Substance
(Thatwhichexistinitselfindependentlyofanotherbeing)
Bodilysubstance Nonbodilysubstance
(spirit)

Body
Livingbody Nonlivingbody
(mineral)

Organism
Sentientorganism Nonsentientorganism
(plant)

Animal

Rationalanimal Nonrationalanimal
(brute)

Man
TERM
The verbal manifestation of the ideas. It is define
as a conventional sign that is expressive of an idea.

It is a sign
A sign is something that leads to the knowledge of something else.
For a sign to be able to carry out its task, there must be a
recognizable connection between it and the reality it designates.
It is a conventional sign.
It is a conventional sign if the connection is arbitrary set by man
such as terms, language and writing. A term is a conventional sign
since it is a result of a common agreement among men.
It is expressive of an idea
Since an idea is abstract, it is made concrete through the use of
terms.
Classification
of
Terms
A.According to comprehension

1. Simple- it expresses only one conceptual note.

Ex. Truth- conformity between the intellect and the
thing.
Being- an existential thing
falsity- non-conformity between the intellect and
the thing
2. Compound- it expresses more than one conceptual
note.
Ex. Man may be expressed as rational animal
human being
person
God- Infinite
Prime mover
Intelligent designer
Uncaused cause
3.Concrete itexpressessomethingwhichhas
attributesthatarecapableofbeingperceived
throughthesenses.
Ex.Ball,can,desk,shirt,stone.table

4.Abstract itexpressessomethingasseparated
fromanysingleobject.Itdenotesthegeneral
attributesofmanyobjects.
Ex.Happiness,heights,knowledge,prefection.
 Ourideaofastoneisobtained
throughtheexerciseofoursenses.
Butwemayabstractitsqualitiessuch
ashardness,,roundness,heaviness,
Andregardthemasseparatefromthe
Thingitself.
Itislikewiseimportantaswellas
Interestingtonotethatanideamaybe
Concreteinonesenseandabstracts
inanother.
Ex:Clairewearsapreciousgem.
GEMisaconcreteterm.
Ex:Claireisagemoftheuniverse,
Thetermbecomesabstract.
B. According to Extension

1. Singular- it represents a single object only.

Ex: United States of America,Bishops
Teodoro Bacani, my father, this book.

2. Universal- it represents not only a class as a

Whole but also each member of the class.
Ex: table,chair,stone,plant,pen,girl.

3. Particular- it represents only a part of the

universal whether it is definite or indefinite.
Ex: many books, three kings, few guests

4. Collective- it represents a number of things

Constituting a unit-group or whole.
Ex: family, choir, band, team.
 Notethattheseideasindicateaggregateormassor
sumwhereastheuniversalideasindicateandunrelated
units.Thus,choircanbeappliedtothesingersgrouped
together,butitcannotbeappliedtosingerstaken
separately.AcollectiveIdeamayalsobe:

Singular:thischoir,thisteam
Universal:allchoirs,allteams
particular:somechoirs,someteams
C. According to Meaning

1. Univocal- a term that carries the same meaning

in its several uses
Ex. Animal when predicated of a dog and cat
Has exactly the same meaning.

2. Equivocal- a term that carries a different

Meaning in its uses. The term may be equivocal
a. Only in pronunciation.
sun and son dear and deer
weak and week reign and rain
b. In pronunciation and spelling
Ex. Trunk of a tree, of a car, of an elephant
bank where the money is deposited or the
the river bank
3.Analogous atermthatcarriesameaningin
Somewaysdifferentandinsomewaysthesame.
Ex.headdoesnothavethesamemeaningin
headofthefamily

D. According to Object.

Real- it expresses something that has existential

Actuality, whether positive or negative.
Examples: chair table
scandal unemployment
2. Logical- it is used as a conceptual device
to facilitate learning.
Examples: subject circle
dark death

3. Imaginary- it has no correspondence

in reality but is merely a concoction of
the mind.
Examples: spider man darna
flying carpet talking tree
Atermmaycarrydifferentmeaningsinitsdifferent
uses.WhenusedinagivenpropositionHowever,it
standsforadefinitemeaning.Thisrelationthatis
obtainedbetweenthetermandwhatitspecifically
designatesinapropositioniscalledSUPPOSITION
 SuppositionisclassifiedunderthedivisionofLogic
calledSemanticswhichisthescienceofmeaningof
wordsascontrastedwithPhoneticswhichisthescience
ofsoundsofwords.Itisimportantthatweconsiderthe
variousmeaningsatermcanstandforinaparticular
proposition.Insyllogisticthinking,thesamesupposition
hastoberetainedallthewaythroughtoavoidshiftin
meaning.
Suppositioncaneitherbe:

A.Proper supposition
1. Material supposition
2. Formal supposition
a. Logical
b. Real

B. Improper supposition
 Propersuppositionstandsfortheproperobjectinthereal
order.Thiscaneitherbematerialorformal.

Materialsuppositionstandsforthetermitself
Aseitherwrittenorspokenwithoutreferringto
Itsmeaning.

Ex.Godisathreeletterword;Godryhmes
Withnod;Godisaonesyllabledword.The
WordGodoccursinquotationmarksinorder
ToassertsomethingabouttheWordGod
RatherthanaboutGod.
Formalsuppositionstandsfortherealmeaning
Oftheterm.Itcanbelogicalorreal.

Logicalsuppositionstandsforamereconcepts.
Examples:Manisaspecies;manisaconcept;
Manisauniversalidea.

Realsuppositionstandsforthethingsitself.
Examples:allmenaremortal;Allmenarebodily
Substance;allmenaretwoleggedindividuals.

Impropersuppositionstandsforanotherthing
Thatitsuggests.Itincludestheuseofmetaphor
Andfigurativespeech.
Examples:TheDOHadvisedthepublictoobserve
Earthday.TheWhitehouseplacedOklahomaCity
Underthestateofcalamity.
 Predicamentsreferstothesetoffundamentalideasin
termsofwhichallotherideascanbeexpressed.Theyare
conceptscapableofclassifyingAllotherconcepts.Aristotle
calledthemcategories.

Predicablesrefertothekindsofrelationswhichmay
beobtainedbetweenatermandthesubjectofwhichitis
predicated.
1.Substance Itisthatwhichhasitsexistencenotinanotherbutinand
foritself.Ithasitsown
Meaningandvalueinitself.Thus,incontrastto
Theaccidents,itcanbedefinedwithoutreferencetoasubject.

Examples:
Plant dog man
Chair table tree

Accidents itreferstoeverythingaddedtoa
Substanceasafurtherdetermination.
2.Quantity themodificationofasubstanceas
Regardstheeffectofhavingextensionand
Divisibility.
Examples:50kgs 25ft.long
100pesos 200sq.m.
3.Quality formaldeterminationofasubstance
Whichmaybeahabit,disposition,capacityorthe
Formandfigureofathing.
Examples:intelligent hot
red figureofwoman
strong formofastatue

4.Relation themannerinwhichsubstancerefer
toeachother.
Examples:father teacher
ruler husband

5.Action productionofaneffectinanother.
Examples:running swimming
walking dancing
6.Passion receptionofaneffectfromanother.
Examples:beingkilled areburned
wasshot beingaccepted

7.When(time) situationintime.
Examples:at8pm today tomorrow

8.Where(place)positioninspace.
Examples:here athome
intheoffice Manila

9.Posture determinationofthesubstanceasto
Theexternalappearanceoroutfit.
Examples:lying sitting standing

10.Habit determinationofthesubstanceasto
Theexternalappearanceoroutfit.
Examples:inredgown coveredwithlace
 Synoptic Schema of
Predicaments:

John is:
1. A man Substance
2. Tall Quantity
3. Healthy Quality
4. Brother of Peter Relation
5. Pulling a net Action
6. Wounded Passion
7. Yesterday When
8. In the seashore Where
9. Leaning forward Posture
10.Wearing short pants Habit
 PREDICABLES
Genus auniversalideawhichexpressesapart
oftheessenceofathing,thatpartwhichis
commonwithotherspeciesinthesameclass.
Examples:Manisananimal
ATriangleisapolygon.
WaterisaChemicalcompound.

Specificdifference auniversalideawhich
Expressesapartoftheessenceofathing,that
partwhichdifferentiatesitfromthatofother
Species.
Examples:manisrational
atriangleisathreesided
Species auniversalideathatexpressesthe
Completeessenceofathing.Itisconstituted
byaddingthespecificdifferencetothegenus;
Thegenusispredicatedofthespeciesbutnot
Conversely.
Examples:manisarationalanimal
atriangleisathreesidedpolygon
waterisachemicalcompoundoftwo
atomsofhydrogenandanatom
ofoxygen.

Property auniversalideathatexpressesan
Attributethatbelongstothethingbynatural
Necessity.Itisnotapartoftheessenceofthe
Thing,yetitbelongstothatthingsandtoit
Alone
Example:maniscapableoflearninggrammar
Waterfreezesat32C
LogicalAccident auniversalideathatisnota
Partoftheessenceofathingsbutsomething
Thatbelongstothething,notbynaturalnecessitybutby
contingency,i.e.thatwhichneednotbe.
Examples:AndroisTall,intelligent,
kinkyhaired
Waterishot
Synoptic Schema of Predicables:Questions:
Examples: Predicables:

1. What is John? Man/rational animal Species

2. To what immediately,
more general class does
he belong? Animal Genus
3. What kind of animal
is he? Rational Difference
4. As man, what
attribute does he
have? Can see/can hear Property
5. What attributes does
he have whichare not
necessary to him,as man? Tall/white Accident
 JUDGEMENT
Thementaloperationthatpronouncestheidentityornon
identitybetweentwoideas.

Proposition
Isaperfectsentencewhichsignifiestruthandfalsehood
bywayofstatement.
Example:

Themindcomparesasquareandapolygonrecognizingth
identitybetweenthesetwoideas,itpronouncesthisjudgment,A
squareisapolygonOr,comparingatableandachairthemind
enunciatesthatAtableisnotachair.
ELEMENTSOFAJUDGEMENT
Themindtakesintoconsiderationthreethings
beforeitpronouncesanagreementordisagreement
betweentwoideas.

1. Understanding of each of the ideas about which a judgment is to be

made. Square and Polygon Are the two ideas to be apprehended.
2. A comparison of the two ideas in question, i.e., the recognition of the
identity or non-identity between these Ideas. A square is a polygon
having four equal sides and Four right sides. A polygon is a figure
having many angles and hence many sides. From the given definition of
each idea, a common denominator between the two is set: that of
having angles and sides. The identity of the two ideas are thus
established.
3. The mental act pronouncing that the ideas compared are in agreement
or disagreement. This act is the very essence of a judgment. The mind
enunciates that A square is a polygon
Judgement
theactwherebythemindcomposesanddivides.
Composes meansaffirmationex.Pedroistall.
Divides meansdenialex.Juanisnotastudent.

TruthandErrorinJudgement
*Ourjudgementaretrue whentheycorrespondtoreality,theyare
false whentheydonotcorrespondtoreality.
Ex.true manisrational.
false manisabrute.
N.B.
Thereisproperlynotruthorerrorinanyconcepttakensingly,untilyou
affirmordenysomethingaboutthem.
Proposition
is a perfect sentence which signifies truth and
falsehood by way of statement.

Elements: subject; predicate; copula

Subject is that about which something is denied or

affirmed.
Predicate that which is affirmed or denied of the
subject.
Copula the verb to be
it includes quantity and quality.

subject copula predicate

Quality
Therelationestablishedbetweenthetwotermsofthe
proposition.Ifthereisanagreementbetweenthetwoterms,thenthe
propositionisaffirmative;ifthereisadisagreementthenthe
propositionisnegative.

Examples:
1. All swimmers are athletes. (Affirmative)
2. Some professors are terror. (Affirmative)
3. A house is not a home. (negative)
4. Some basketball players are not well-paid. (negative)
 Thecopuladeterminesthequalityofapropositional.
Whiletherearepropositionswhosesubjectorpredicate,
orbothsubjectandpredicatearenegative,theirquantity
willstillbedeterminedbytheircopula.

Example:
1. The love of the Lord is unconditional. While the predicate
Term unconditional is negative in form, the proposition is
Nevertheless affirmative because of the copula is which
is affirmative.

2. Unfaithful wife is scorned.

3. That she is not the murderer is uncertain.

Quantity
Itreferstothenumberofindividualstowhomthe
Subjecttermapplies.Ifthepropositionhasauniversal
Quantifier,itisauniversalproposition.Iftheproposition
Hasaparticularquantifier,itisaparticularproposition.

Universalaffirmativeproposition
Allsecurityguardsarewatchful.

Universalnegativeproposition
Nosecurityguardsarewatchful

Particularaffirmativeproposition
Somesecurityguardsarewatchful

Particularnegativeproposition
Somesecurityguardsarenotwatchful
Combination of Quality and Quantity:

Every proposition is:

A when it is universal or singular affirmative
ex. A man is a rational being
E when it is universal or singular-negative ex.
No man is a plant.
I when it is particular-affirmative
ex. Some students are good.
O when it is particular-negative
ex. Some students are not wearing I.D.
 QUALITY

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE

ALLARE ALLARENOT
Q
U
UNIVERSAL
a
N ORNONEARE
T
I
T
Y PARTICULAR
ATLEAST ATLEAST
SOMEARE SOMEARE
(only) NOT
ALLARENOT
Possiblepropositionalformulations
ineachsymbol:

A= AllSareP.
EverySisP.
E= NoSisP.
NoSareP.
AllSarenotP.
EverySisnotP.
I= SomeSareP.
ManySareP.
FewSareP.
MostofSareP.
O= SomeSarenotP.
Quantity of the subject term
1. The subject of universal proposition is always
universal.
2.The subject of a particular proposition is always
particular.

Quantity of the predicated term

1. The predicate of an affirmative proposition is
always particular.
2. The predicate of a negative proposition is
always universal
QUIZ

Direction:determinethequalityandquantityofthefollowing
PropositionsbyclassifyingthemasA,E,I,O.

1. No dinosaurs are alive.

2. Some OCWs are maltreated by their employees.
3. Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the president of the Phil.
4. Some clowns are not happy.
5. A national flag is a symbol of a country.
6. All seminarians are spiritually strong.
7. Singapore is not a democratic country.
8. Not all academic awardees are deserving.
9. Most private employees are underpaid.
10.Some songs are pleasant to hear
11.Hydrogen is a chemical element.
12.This man is great.
13.Everything is fine.
14.No one is to blame
15.Not all policemen are corrupt.
Opposition
of
Propositions
 Is a Philosophical disagreement
or logical difference existing
between two propositions having
the same subject term and the
same predicate term but different
as to their quantity or quality or
both. this mutual exclusivity
between concepts is called
Logical opposition.
TYPESOFLOGICALPROPOSITION

Contradiction arelationwhichexistbetweenpropositionsthatdiffer
bothinqualityandquantity.(A0andEIpropositionsarecontradictories.

Ex.Everypriestislovable. Somepriestsarenotlovable.

Ifitistruethateverypriestislovable (A)
Itisfalsethatsomepriestsarenotlovable(O)
Itisfalsethatnopriestislovable (E)
Itistruethatsomepriestsarelovable.(I)
Contrariety arelationwhichexistsbetweenuniversal
propositionsthatdifferinqualityonly.
(AEpropositionsarecontraries.)

Ex.Allmenarewise. Allmenarenotwise.

Rule: Only one may be true. Both may be false.

a)If one is true, the other is false

If it is true that all men are wise, (A)
it is false that all men are not wise. (E)
Subcontrariety arelationwhichexistsbetweenparticular
propositionsthatdifferinqualityonly.
(IOpropositionsaresubcontraries.)

Ex.Somemenaregifted. Somemenarenotgifted.

Rule: Both may not be false; both may be true. This relation-
ship exist between the I and O propositions.( only one
may be true)

A) If one is false, the other is true.

if is false that some men are gifted, (I)
it is true that some men are not good. (O)

B)If one is true, the other is undetermined.

if it is true that some men are good (I)
it is undetermined that some men are not good. (O)
Subaltern arelationwhichexistsbetweentwopropositions
havingthe
samequalitybutdifferinginquantity.
(AIandEOpropositions.)

Ex.Allmusiciansaretemperamental. Somemusicians
aretemperamental.
 CONTRARIES
C S
O E
N I
S T R S
U RO U
B AT B
A DC A
L I L
T DC T
E A T E
R R O R
N T R N
N I
O E
C S

SUBCONTRARIES
Direction:Determinethekindsofoppositonalrelationstowhichthefollowingpropositions
refer.(Contradiction,Contrariety,subaltern,andSubcontrariety)

AllmountainswearrobesSomemountainswearrobes

Noclownsclimbladders Allclownsclimbladders

Allflowersareroses Noflowersareroses
EverylamemanhasacoachSomelamemenhavecoaches
SomeapplesareorangesNoapplesareoranges
Somedevilsaregood. Alldevilsaregood
NotreeshavemushroomsAlltreeshavemushrooms
Allbearshassharpteeth Somebearshassharpteeth
Noclownsclimbladders Allclownsclimbladders

Allsurgeonsaredoctors Somesurgeonsaredoctors
 Itexpressesthemannerormodeinwhichthe
predicateagreeswiththesubject.Unlikesimple
categoricalpropositionswhichmerelystatesthatit
affirmsordeniesthepredicateffthesubject,the
modalpropositionstateshowitaffirmsordeniesthe
predicateoftheSubject.Itsignifiesthewayinwhich
theSubjectandpredicatearejoinedtogether.
Modesofbeinginprepositions

Necessaryproposition isonethatisnotpossibleto
deny.Whatiscannotbeotherwise.Whatis,is
necessarily.Itissomethingthatisandmustbeso.

Ex.Acircleisround.Thisisanecessary proposition
becausetoberoundiswhatcirclemeans.
Fireburns
AmustbeA
Contingentproposition isonethatis,butnotnecessarily
so.Apropositioniscontingentifitmightnothaveoccurred:
Somethingthatisbutneednotbe.Thedenialof
contingencyinpropositionmaymeaneithernecessityor
imppossibility.

Ex.Maryexist.Thispropositionexpressessomethingwhichcouldbe
different.ItjusthappensthatMaryexists.Thereisnothinginthe
subjectMarythatnecessarilyimplies,ormakesitpossibleforusto
deduce,thepredicateexists.Itwouldbejustastruetosaythat
Marydoesnotexist.

Youdonthavetoberichtobemygirl.
Ineednotpassthisexam.
Possibleproposition onewhichsignifiesthatsomethingis
not,buteventuallycomestobe.

Ex.ItispossiblethatBro.Francisbeordaineda
priest.
ItispossibleforJojittobethedeanslister.

Impossibleproposition onewhichsignifiesthat
somethingcannotbeandwillneverbe.

Ex.Itisimpossibleforacircletohavesides.
Itisimpossibleforaninfanttocarryabike.
 Therulesoftruthbetweenthesemodal
propositionaresimilartothoseofthesimplecategorical
propositionsalthoughtheLogicaloppositionofthe
modalpropositionsaffectsthemodeitself.The
NecessarypropositionissimilartoAproposition;the
ImpossibleresemblestheEproposition;thePossibleis
akintoIproposition;andtheContingentisparalleltoO
Proposition.
Classify the following propositions as
Necessary,contingent,Possible or impossible.

1. Four is necessarily divisible by two.

2. You dont have to be good to rule my world.
3. The door is closed.
4. Men need not be handsome to win my heart.
5. Not all Negroes are good singers.
6. Whenever there is an effect, theres a cause.
7. Circles cannot be squares.
8. 5+5=10
9. I can be a millionaire.
10.Not every person need to be pleased.
 Braintwister:
Iamlookingat
somebodysphoto,whois
itIamlooking,ifIdont
haveanybrothersor
sistersandthefatherof
thatmanonthephotois
thesonofmyFather?
Which day is two days before the day after the day
three days after the day before Tuesday?

SUNDAY
MONDAY
TUESDAY
WEDNESDAY
THURSDAY
FRIDAY
SATURDAY
What number should replace the question mark?

2 9 7
10 ? 12
8 13 5
 Eliminate twelve letters from the
phrase below to leave a word
meaning shakes.

READ BETWEEN THE LINES

 Eduction
of
Propositions
Eduction is the formulation of a new proposition by
the interchange of the subject and predicate of an
original proposition and/or by the use or removal of
negatives.
we shall consider four kinds of formal eduction:
Conversion
Obversion
Contraposition
Inversion
Conversion
is the formulation of a new proposition by
interchanging the subject and predicate of
an original proposition but leaving its quality
unchanged. The original proposition is called
the convertend, the new proposition the
converse, and the process itself
conversion. it is either simple or partial.

Rules for Conversion:

Interchange subject and predicate
Retain quality
 Kinds of Conversion:

1. Simple Conversion
conversion is simple if the quantity of
the converse is the same as the quantity
of the convertend.

(E to E , I to I)
a. (E to E)
-No Angel is mortal, to
-No mortal being is an angel.
b. (I to I)
-Some houses are white, to
-Some white things are houses.
PartialConversion
Conversionispartialifthe
quantityofthepropositionisreducedfrom
universaltoparticular.

(AtoI,EtoO)
a.(AtoI)
Everybirdisananimal,to
Someanimalsarebirds.
b.(EtoO)
Nomanisimmortal,to
Someimmortalbeings
arenotmen.

Note:AnOpropositioncannotbeconverted
Exercise:

Write the converse of the following

propositions

1.No disloyal person is true friend.

2.Some students are trouble-makers.
3.Miguel is the tallest student in
my class.
4.Not all Filipinos are worth dying for.
5.No businessman is a profiteer.
Obversion
is the formulation of a new proposition
by retaining the subject and quantity of
an original proposition, changing its
quality, and using as predicate the
contradictory of the original predicate.
The original proposition is called the
obvertend, the new proposition the
obverse, and the process itself
obversion.
Rules for Obversion:
Retain subject and quantity
Change quality
As predicate, use contradictory of original predicate.

Examples of Obversion:
A to E: Every cat is an animal. to No cat
is a non-animal.
E to A: No cat is a dog. to Every cat is a non-
dog.
I to O: Some houses are white. to
Some houses are not non white.
O to I: Some houses are not white. to
Some houses are non-white.
Exercises:

Write the obverse of the following

propositions.

1.No frustrated person is happy.

2.An artist is a creative person.
3.Most happily married couples are
compatible.
4.Some news reports are not accurate.
5.Wealthy nations are well-developed.
 Contraposition

Itisaformofimmediateinferencethatinvolvesthe
methodofobversionandconversion.Therearetwo
Kindsofcontraposition:PARTIALandFULL.The
originalPropositioniscalledthecontraponed;the
resultant
Inferenceiscalledcontraposit.
PARTIALCONTRAPOSITION
Itconsistsinobvertingtheoriginal
proposition,thenconvertingitsobverse.
Itissimplytheconverseoftheobverseof
thegivenproposition.

Rules:
Obvertthegivenpropostion
Converttheresultantpropsition.

Examples:
A:Allrosesareflowers.
Obverse:Norosesarenonflowers
Converse:Nonflowersarenotroses

E:Nodogsarecats
Obverse:Alldogsarenoncats
Converse:Somenoncatsaredogs
Examples:

A:Allrosesareflowers.
Obverse:Norosesarenonflowers
Converse:Nonflowersarenotroses

E:Nodogsarecats
Obverse:Alldogsarenoncats
Converse:Somenoncatsaredogs
 I:Somelawyersarejudges.
Obverse:Somelawyersarenotnonjudges
Converse:SomeNonjudgesarenotlawyers.
(Note:Conversionrequiresthe
retentionofthequalityofthe
originalproposition.But,in
Iproposition,itisnotthecase.
Likewise,aparticulartermcant
becomeauniversaltermforit
involveachangeinmeaning.)

O:Somestudentsarenotscholars.
Obverse:Somestudentsarenonscholars.
Converse:Somenonscholarsarestudents.
 Full Contraposition

It consists in obverting the outcome of partial

contraposition. It is simply the obverse of the
converse of the obverse of the given proposition.
The resultant inference is, nevertheless, the
equivalent of the original contraposit.

Rules:
1. Obvert the given proposition.
2. Convert its obverse.
3. Obvert its converse.
 A:Allrosesarefollowers.
Obverse:Norosesarenonflowers.
PC:Nonflowersarenotroses.
FC:Nonflowersarenonroses.

E:Nodogsarecats
Obverse:Alldogsarenoncats.
PC:Somenoncatsaredogs
FC:Somenoncatsaredogs

I:Somelayersarejudges.
Obverse:Somelawyersarenotnonjudges.
PC:Somenonjudgesarenotlawyers.(notvalid)
FC:SinceIcannotbepartially
contraposited,itcannotbebullycontrapositedeither.

O:Somestudentsarenotscholars.
Obverse:somestudentsarenonscholars
PC:Somenonscholarsarestudents.
FC:Somenonscholarsarenotnonstudents.
 Brief Rules for Contraposition:

Type 1 Type 2
1.The subject is the 1.The subject is the
contradictory of the contradictory of the
original predicate. original predicate.
2.The quality is 2.The quality is not
changed. changed.
3.The predicate is the 3.The predicate is the
original subject. contradictory of the
original subject.
Inversion
consist in the formulation of a new
proposition whose subject is the
contradictory of the original subject.
it is effected by a series of obversions
and conversions.
the original proposition is called the
"invertend," the new proposition the
"inverse", and the process itself
"inversion".
InversionofAProposition
TogetthefullinverseofanAproposition,
convertitscontraposit.Togainthepartialinverse,
obvertthefullinverse.

A:Allrosesareflowers.
Obverse:Norosesarenonflowers.
Converse:Nonflowersarenottoses
Obverse:Allnonflowersarenonroses
Converse:Somenonrosesarenonflowers(FI)
Obverse:Somenonrosesarenotflowers(PI)
Eproposition
TogetthepartialinverseofEproposition,
convert,obvertandconvertagaintheoriginal
proposition.Toobtainthefullinverse,obvertthe
partialinverse.

E:Nodogsarecats
Converse:Nocatsaredogs.
Obverse:Allcatsarenondogs
Converse:Somenondogsarecats.(PI)
Obverse:Somenondogsarenoncats(FI)
CRITICALTHINKING

The Thinker, Auguste Rodin, 1879-1889

WHATISCRITICALTHINKING?
Criticalthinking =df.Thecareful,deliberate
determinationofwhetherweshouldaccept,reject,
orsuspendjudgement aboutaclaim andofthe
degreeofconfidence withwhichweshouldaccept
orrejectit.
Theabilitytothinkcritically isvitallyimportant;infactour
livesdependonit.Thewayweconductourlives depends
onwhatwebelievetobetrue onwhatclaims we
accept.
Themorecarefully weevaluateaclaimandthemorefully
weseparateissues thatarerelevant toitfrom thosethat
arenot,themorecritical isourthinking.
GOALSOFCRITICALTHINKING
Thinkingcriticallyisnotaboutattackingotherpeople.
Whatiscritiquedistheideasofpeople,notthepeople
themselveswhoholdtheideas.
Thegoalofphilosophyisknowledgethrougha
disinterestedsearchfortruth,notwinningorsimply
appearingtodefeatanotherinargument.
Criticalthinkinghelpsbothourselvesandotherswhenit
helpsusrecognizethataposition,theory,orideais
incompleteorunclear,insufficientlysupported,orinsome
otherwayunconvincing,andthushelpsustoarriveatthe
truthwhichisthegoalofknowledgeseekers.
BASICCRITICALTHINKINGSKILLS

Knowingwhensomeoneistakingapositiononanissue,
whichmeansknowing
whattheissueis,and
whatthepersonsclaimisaboutit.
Knowingwhatconsiderationsarerelevant totheissue.
Knowingwhetherthereasoning(ifany)underlyingthe
personsclaimsisgoodreasoning.
Knowingwhether,everythingconsidered,weshould
accept,reject,orsuspendjudgmentonwhattheperson
claimed.
Beinglevelheadedandobjectiveandnotbeinginfluenced
byextraneousfactors.
ISSUESI
Anissuecanbeconsideredbytwoormoreindividuals,
orbyasingleindividual.
Debatingcorrectforeignpolicyisagroupissue.
Decidingwheretoattendcollegeisanissuewhichasingle
personcanconsider.
Whatmakessomethinganissue isitsbeingamatterof
controversy,andhenceanissuehasanuncertaintruth
value relativetothepersonorpersonsforwhomthe
matterisuncertain.
Thereisanindependenttruthabouttheexistenceoflife
elsewhereintheuniverse,butitisadebatedsubject
betweenscientists.
Soitisanissuebecausewedontknowthetruthvalueof
theclaimthatlifeexistselsewhere.
ISSUESII

Issuescanbeposedasquestionsoraswhether
statements;Hasreligionhadapositiveimpacton
history?isanissuewhichcanberephrasedaswhether
religionhasmadeusefulcontributionstocivilization.
Issuesaredifferentfromtopicsofconversation;baseball
ortravelingintheAlpscanbetopicsofconversation,but
neitherisanissue.
Anissueisnotapsychologicalproblem,notsomethinga
personhas(orhasgot);ratheritissomethingaperson
raises oraddresses ortriestoresolve.
ISSUESIII

Ideally,anissueshouldbefocusedonone
clear andprecise question.
Aworthwhilediscussionfocusesonasingle
topicandthenona particularquestionat
issue,otherwisetheensuingargumentwill
tendtobedisorganizedandincoherent.
WHATISACLAIM?

Aclaim=df.Astatement thatiseither trueor

false.
Aclaimissuchthatitmustalways haveatruth
value,eithertrue orfalse(evenifwedontknow
whichoneitis.)
Soaclaimisastatementwhichmakesan
assertionaboutreality whicheitheristhecase
(true)orisnotthecase(false).
Thus,makingaclaimistakingapositiononan
issue!
CLAIMSANDLANGUAGE
Noteverykindoflinguisticconstructionisaclaim,
sincenoteverykindoflinguisticconstructionthat
weuseandunderstandisastatementthatmakes
anassertionaboutrealitythatiseithertrueor
false.
Forinstance,askingwhattimeitisisnotaclaim.
Neitherissayinghellotosomeone,expressingaregret
aboutsomething,orrequestingafavor.
Althoughsuchinstancesinvolvereality,theydonot
makeassertions aboutreality,andsoarenot
statements whichhavetruthvalues.
Sinceaclaimmustalwayshaveatruthvalue,these
instancesoflanguageusearenotclaims.
EXAMPLESOFCLAIMS
WearenowinaroominKettlerHallatIPFW.
Wearenowonthemoon.
Philosophy120atIPFWishistoryofancient
philosophy.
Philosophy120atIPFWiscriticalthinking.
Theuniversehasthreedimensionsofspaceand
onedimensionoftime.
Theuniversehastendimensionsofspaceandone
dimensionoftime.
PicassoisagreaterpainterthanRembrandt.*
RembrandtisagreaterpainterthanPicasso.*
ARGUMENTSANDTHEIRPARTSI

Anargument =df.Anattempttosupporta
claimrepresentingacertainpositiononan
issuebyprovidingotherclaimsthatserveas
areasonorreasons forbelievingit.
Theconclusion (ofanargument)=df.The
claim(positiononanissue)oneis
attemptingtosupport,ortheclaimfor
whichoneisarguing.
Thepremises(ofanargument)=df.The
claimsthatserveasreasons forbelieving the
conclusion.
ARGUMENTSANDTHEIRPARTSII

Thusanargument isasetofclaimsthatinvolves
therelations ofclaimstooneanother.
Therelationsbetweenanargumentsclaimsare
thatthepremisessupport theconclusionorthat
theconclusionfollowsfrom thepremises.
Therecognition,construction,evaluation,and,
wherenecessary,criticism ofargumentsisacrucial
partofcriticalthinking.
TWOMISCONCEPTIONSABOUTARGUMENTS

1. Argumentsareattemptstopersuade
Whileargumentsmaybeusedforthispurposenotall
argumentsattempttopersuadeandnotallattemptsto
persuadearearguments.
Thebetterviewisthatargumentsareattemptstoprove
orestablishorsupportsomeclaim.
2. Argumentsareattemptstoexplain.
Argumentsandexplanationsdohaveasuperficial
resemblancebuttheirpurposesaredifferent.
Anargumentattemptstoestablishthatsomeclaimis
truewhereasanexplanationattemptstospecifyeither
howsomethingworksorwhatcausedorbroughtit
about.
RECOGNIZINGARGUMENTS

Identifyingargumentscanhelptoidentifyissues.
Anargumentalwayshasaconclusionwhichwecan
sometimesidentifybythepresenceofconclusionindicator
wordslikethusorthereforeorso.
Anargumentalwayshasatleastonepremisewhichwecan
sometimesidentifybythepresenceofpremiseindicator
wordslikebecauseorsinceorfor.
Sometimestheconclusionorapremisemaybeimplied
ratherthanovertlystated.
IDENTIFYINGISSUESI
Thinkingcriticallymeansrationallydetermining
whetherornottoaccept,reject,orsuspend
judgmentonaclaim,andforapersontothink
criticallyitmustfirstbedeterminedthathe/sheis
focusingonthecorrectclaimwhichmeans
identifyingtheissue.
Anissue=df.Anymatterofcontroversyor
uncertainty,whetherindispute,indoubt,orsimply
underconsideration.
Issueisusedtoidentifythefocus ofadebate,
discussion,ordisputeandisoftenintroducedby
thewordwhether whetherornotstudentsare
betternowthanfiveyearsagoisanissue.
IDENTIFYINGISSUESII
Sometimesargumentsaddressissueswhicharerelated
butwhicharenotthesameeventhoughthedisputing
partiesmaythinktheyare!
Hereweneedtothinkcriticallyinordertoseethatthe
issuesarenotthesame.
Identifyingtheconclusionsofanyargumentsgivenmay
provideimportantcluesastotherealunderlyingissue.
Whenpeoplearefinallydiscussingthesameissuewestill
needcriticalthinkingtoevaluatetheissuebeing
discussed.
Sometimespeoplepurposelyconfuseissues inorderto
drawattentionawayfromaclaim theydontwanttodeal
withortomakeitlook asthoughtheyhaveproveda
pointwheninfacttheyhavent.
FACTUALISSUESI
Afact =df.Aclaimthatiseithertrue [thestronger
sense]orforwhichthereisexcellentevidenceor
justification[theweakersense].
Afact inthestrongersense issomethingthatis the
case.
Itsafactthat[inthisstrongersense]meansthe
samethingasItstruethat.
Afactinthestrongersenseisnotsubjecttorevision.
Afact intheweakersense issomethingthatis
takentobethecaseforexcellentreason(s).
However,ifthesereasonsarelaterthoughttofallshort,
thenafactintheweakersensecanberevisedor
replacedbyafactorfactsforwhichthereisbetter
justification.
FACTUALISSUESII
Anissueisfactualif:
thereareestablishedmethodsforsettlinganissue,and
itisthecasethatiftwopeopledisagreeabouttheissueat
leastoneofthemmustbewrong.
Twopointstoremember:
Sayingthatanissueisnonfactualdoesnotmeanitis
uncontroversialorunimportantornotwortharguing.
Someissuesmaypassonecriteriabutfailtheother;the
dividinglinebetweenfactualandnonfactualisnottotally
clearanddistinct.
Examples:
Factualissue:WhetheritisnooninSingapore.
Nonfactualissue:WhetherunderGodshouldbeinthe
PledgeofAllegiance.
FACTUALCLAIMS

Aclaim isafactualclaimifitconcernsafactualissue.
Notethatcallingitafactualclaimdoesnotmeanthatitis
true!
Examples:
Factualclaim(true):Marsisthefourthplanetfromthesun.
Factualclaim(false):Earthisthefourthplanetfromthesun.
Nonfactualclaim(probablytrue):Mozartwasagreater
musicianthanMadonnaorBarryManilow.
Nonfactualclaim(probablyfalse):Thingsgobetterwith
Coke.
TWOBIGMISTAKES

Onemistakeisbelievingthat,whenitcomestononfactual
issues,allopinionsareequallyreasonable.
Anothermistakeistofailtoseethedistinctionbetween
factualandnonfactualissuesandclaims.
Oneversionofthismistakeissubjectivism,theviewthat,
justastwopeoplecanbecorrectintheirdiffering
opinionsonnonfactualissues,theycanalsobecorrectin
theirdifferingopinionsonfactualissues.
Anotherversionisrelativism,theviewthattwodifferent
culturescanbecorrectintheirdifferingopinionsonthe
samefactualissue.
OPINIONS
Anopinion=df.Aclaimthatsomebodybelieves
tobetrue.
Thetermopinionrefersonlytobeliefina
claim;somethingistrueinmyopinionwhenI
simplyjudgeittobetrue.
Someopinionsaretrueandothersarenot.
Forinstance,myopinionthatIamherenowistrue,
andstatingthatIamherenowstatesafact.
MyopinionthatIamonMarsnowisfalse,andmy
statingthatIamonMarsnowsayssomethingfalse.
RIGHTSANDKNOWLEDGEI
Everyonehasarighttohisorheropinionstates
amorallaw thatwetakefreedomofthoughtto
besomethingtowhichwearemorallyentitled.
Butwhileitistruethateveryoneissoentitledto
anopinion,itisnottrue thatallopinionsare
equal.
Someopinionsarebetterthanothers,namely
Thoseopinionswhicharetrueorwhichare
statementsoffact,and
Thoseopinionswhicharebettersupported.
ARGUMENTSANDRHETORIC
Argumentattemptstoproveapointwhilerhetoric
aimsatpersuasion,theattempttowinotherstoa
pointofview.
Thetwoarenotantithetical,butonemustbe
awareofthedangerofirrationalseductionbythe
rhetoricalelementsofapresentationorposition.
Oneespeciallyneedstobesensitivetothe
psychologicalorrhetoricalpowerofwordssoasto
avoidbeingmanipulatedbythem.
Sopartofcriticalthinkingisrecognizingthe
rhetoricalforceoflanguageandtryingnottobe
influencedbyit.
TRUTHANDKNOWLEDGE
Moore&ParkertreatXistrueasjustanotherwayofsayingI
agreethatX,thuspuntingtheissueoftruth toPhil.110(wherewe
examinetheoriesoftruth.)
Withregardtoknowledgetheysaythatweknow suchandsuchis
trueif
1. webelieve itistrue
2. wehaveevidencethatshowsthatitistruebeyondanyreasonable
doubt
3. wehavenoreasontothinkwearemistaken.
Forinstance,IcanbesaidtoknowthatIamnowinthisroom
because
1. IbelieveIamnowinthisroom
2. Ihavegoodevidence thatIamintheroomthroughmysenses and
throughthefactthatothersagreewithme, and
3. thereisnogoodreasontothinkthatwearemistakendueto
somethinglikedreamingorhallucinations.
THINKINGANDFEELING

Criticalthinkingisaboutapplyingreason tomaking
decisions,butthinkingdoesnotexcludefeeling.
Feelings,withthinking,areanessentialaspectof
ourhumanity,andfeelingsandemotionscancause
orinfluencedecisionswemake.
However,itiscriticalthatweexercisecarefullyour
capacitytoreason toconsiderrelevantfactsand
cogentarguments ifwearegoingtobegood,
intelligentthinkers.
THEARTOFDECIEVING
LogicalFallaciesorFallaciesinArgumentation

Therearedifferentkindsoflogicalfallaciesthatpeoplemakein
presentingtheirpositions
Belowisalistofsomeofthemajorfallacies. Itisagoodideatobe
familiarwiththemsothatyoucanpointthemoutinadiscussion
therebyfocusingtheissueswheretheybelong.
Ihavediscoverednumeroustimesthatduringadebateonan
issue,ifyousimplypointouttoyour"opponent"alogicalfallacythat
he/shehasjustmade,thatitgenerallygivesyoutheupperhand. But
then,merelyhavingtheupperhandisnotthepoint. Truthisthe
point. Nevertheless,itislogicalfallaciesthathidethetruth. So,
pointingthemoutcanbeveryuseful.
Adhominem Attackingtheindividualinsteadof
theargument.

Example: Youaresostupidyou
argumentcouldn'tpossiblybetrue.

Example: Ifiguredthatyoucouldn'tpossibly
getitright,soIignoredyourcomment.
Appealtoforce Theheareristoldthat
somethingbadwillhappentohimifhedoesnot
accepttheargument.

Example: Ifyoudon'twanttogetbeatup,
youwillagreewithwhatIsay.

Example: Convertordie.
Appealtopity Thehearerisurgedtoacceptthe
argumentbaseduponanappealtoemotions,
sympathy,etc.

Example: YouowemebigtimebecauseIreally
stuckmyneckoutforyou.

Example: Ohcomeon,I'vebeensick. That's

whyImissedthedeadline.
Appealtothepopular thehearerisurgedto
acceptapositionbecauseamajorityofpeople
holdtoit.

Example: Themajorityofpeoplelike
soda. Therefore,sodaisgood.

Example: Everyoneelseisdoingit. Why

shouldn'tyou?
Appealtotradition tryingtogetsomeoneto
acceptsomethingbecauseithasbeendoneor
believedforalongtime.

Example: Thisisthewaywe'vealwaysdoneit.
Therefore,itistherightway.

Example: TheCatholicchurch'stradition
demonstratesthatthisdoctrineistrue.
BeggingtheQuestion Assumingthethingtobe
truethatyouaretryingtoprove. Itiscircular.

Example: GodexistsbecausetheBiblesays
so. TheBibleisinspired. Therefore,weknow
thatGodexists.

Example: IamagoodworkerbecauseFrank
saysso. HowcanwetrustFrank? Simple. Iwill
vouchforhim.
CauseandEffect assumingthattheeffectis
relatedtoacausebecausetheeventsoccur
together.

Example: Whentheroostercrows,thesun
rises. Therefore,theroostercausesthesunto
rise.

Example: Whenthefuellightgoesoninmy
car,Isoonrunoutofgas. Therefore,thefuel
lightcausesmycartorunoutofgas.
Division assumingthatwhatistrueofthewhole
istruefortheparts.

Example: Thatcarisblue. Therefore,itsengine

isblue.

Example: Yourfamilyisweird. Thatmeansthat

youareweirdtoo.
Equivocation Thesametermisusedinan
argumentindifferentplacesbutthewordhas
differentmeanings.

Example: Abirdinthehandisworthtwointhe
bush. Therefore,abirdisworthmorethan
PresidentBush.

Example: Evolutionstatesthatonespeciescan
changeintoanother. Weseethatcarshave
evolvedintodifferentstyles. Therefore,since
evolutionisafactincars,itistrueinspecies.
FalseDilemma Twochoicesaregivenwhenin
actualitytherecouldbemorechoicespossible.

Example: Youeitherdidknocktheglassover
oryoudidnot. Whichisit?

Example: Doyoustillbeatyourwife?
GeneticFallacy Theattempttoendorseor
disqualifyaclaimbecauseoftheoriginorirrelevant
historyoftheclaim

Example: TheNaziregimedevelopedthe
VolkswagenBeetle. Therefore,youshouldnot
byaVWBeetlebecauseofwhostartedit.

Example: Frank'sjustgotoutofjaillastyearand
sinceitwashisideatostartthehardwarestore,I
can'ttrusthim.
GuiltbyAssociation Rejectinganargumentorclaim
becausethepersonproposingitlikessomeoneis
dislikedbyanother.

Example: Hitlerlikeddogs. Thereforedogsare

bad.

Example: Yourfriendisathief. Therefore,I

cannottrustyou.
NonSequitar Commentsorinformationthatdo
notlogicallyfollowfromapremiseorthe
conclusion.

Example: Weknowwhyitrainedtoday,because
Iwashedmycar.

Example: Idon'tcarewhatyousay. Wedon't

needanymorebookshelves. Aslongasthe
carpetisclean,wearefine.
Poisoningthewell Presentingnegative
informationaboutapersonbeforehe/shespeaks
soastodiscredittheperson'sargument.

Example: Frankispompous,arrogant,and
thinksheknowseverything. So,let'shear
whatFrankhastosayaboutthesubject.

Example: Don'tlistentohimbecauseheisa
loser.
RedHerring Theintroductionofatopicnot
relatedtothesubjectathand.

Example: Iknowyourcarisn'tworking
right. But,ifyouhadgonetothestoreoneday
earlier,you'dnotbehavingproblems.

Example: IknowIforgottodepositthecheck
intothebankyesterday. But,nothingIdo
pleasesyou.
SpecialPleading(doublestandard) Applyinga
differentstandardtoanotherthatisappliedto
oneself.

Example: Youcan'tpossiblyunderstand
menopausebecauseyouareaman.

Example: Thoserulesdon'tapplytomesince
sinceIamolderthanyou.
StrawManArgument Producinganargumentto
attackthatisaweakerrepresentationofthetruth.

Example: Thegovernmentdoesn'ttakecareof
thepoorbecauseitdoesn'thaveatax
specificallytosupportthepoor.

Example: Weknowthatevolutionisfalse
becausewedidnotevolvefrommonkeys.