The Family Journal http://tfj.sagepub.

com/

Depression and Parentification among Adults as Related to Parental Workaholism and Alcoholism
Jane J. Carroll and Bryan E. Robinson
The Family Journal 2000 8: 360
DOI: 10.1177/1066480700084005

The online version of this article can be found at:

http://tfj.sagepub.com/content/8/4/360

Published by:

http://www.sagepublications.com

On behalf of:

International Association of Marriage and Family Counselors

Additional services and information for The Family Journal can be found at:

Email Alerts: http://tfj.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts

Subscriptions: http://tfj.sagepub.com/subscriptions

Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav

Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav

Citations: http://tfj.sagepub.com/content/8/4/360.refs.html

>> Version of Record - Oct 1, 2000

What is This?

Downloaded from tfj.sagepub.com by Jitaru Daiana on October 8, 2014

THE FAMILY
Carroll, Robinson
JOURNAL:
/ PARENTIFICATION
COUNSELING INAND
ADULTS
THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / October 2000
Depression and Parentification
Among Adults as Related to Parental
Workaholism and Alcoholism
Jane J. Carroll
Bryan E. Robinson
University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Investigators examined relationships among levels of depression
and parentification in undergraduate university students. Instru-
ment scores were used to identify participants as (a) adult children
with alcoholic parents, (b) adult children with workaholic parents,
(c) adult children with at least one parent who was both alcoholic
and workaholic, and (d) a comparison group composed of adult chil-
dren who met none of the other group criteria. Children of
workaholics scored significantly higher on measures of depression
and parentification, and they reported parents worked more hours
than did parents of children of alcoholics and the comparison group.
Children of alcoholics scored significantly higher than the compari-
son group on the measure of parentification. Children with parents
who met both descriptions scored significantly higher than children
of alcoholics and the comparison group on the three dimensions de-
scribed and on combined number of hours both parents worked.
T he literature on the psychological and familial correlates
of workaholism and alcoholism consistently indicate
that both conditions contribute to family dysfunction (Robin-
son, 1998b; Robinson & Chase, 2000; Robinson & Rhoden,
1998). For several decades, however, investigators have
reported separately on the theory and empiricism of these two
constructs. A body of empirically based literature has evolved
on children of alcoholics, showing them to be at risk as adults
in terms of psychosocial adjustment and intimate relation-
ships (e.g., Kelly & Myers, 1996; Post & Robinson, 1998;
Post, Webb, & Robinson, 1991; Robinson & Rhoden, 1998;
Tweed & Ryff, 1991; Webb, Post, Robinson, & Moreland,
1992). Parental alcoholism has been linked to low
self-esteem, external locus of control, higher levels of depres-
sion, and greater anxiety among children. Moreover, three
decades ago, clinical reports indicated that while attempting
to medicate emotional pain by overworking, workaholics suf-
fered some of the same symptoms as alcoholics (Robinson,
1998a, 1998b). Workaholics have similar denial defenses,
reality distortion, need to control, and emotional highs and
THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES, Vol. 8 No. 4, October 2000
2000 Sage Publications, Inc.
360
Downloaded from tfj.sagepub.com by Jitaru Daiana on October 8, 2014
lows. Careers prosper, and marriages and friendships falter as
workaholics get adrenaline highs from their work binges and
experience hangovers as they ultimately start to come down.
The downward swing is often accompanied by irritability,
anxiety, and depression. It would follow that if children of
workaholics live in similar symptomatic families of origin
that they would experience similar coping problems to those
of children of alcoholics.
It was hypothesized, therefore, in this study, that measur-
able relationships exist among these constructs and that they
have implications for mental health care professionals. It was
postulated that relationships would be seen among parental
workaholism and alcoholism and participants levels of
depression and parentification and that the numbers of hours
participants parents worked would be related to workaholic
tendencies. It was believed that such differences could be
accounted for based on reports of psychological stress in off-
spring of workaholics (Navarette, 1998; Robinson & Kelley,
1998) and alcoholics (Chase, Deming, & Wells, 1998;
Goglia, Jurkovic, Burt, & Burge-Callaway, 1992; Kelly &
Myers, 1996; Post & Robinson, 1998). Clinical and empirical
data indicate that the structural and dynamic characteristics of
the workaholic family and alcoholic family contribute to the
breakdown of the family system of evolving family relation-
ships and overall family functioning (Robinson, 1998a). No
studies have been reported, however, that examine relation-
ships among parental workaholism and alcoholism with off-
springs levels of depression and parentification. Such com-
plicated dynamics in individual and family relationships and
circumstances present challenges to mental health clinicians
and to other helping professionals. Awareness of the phenom-
ena studied here is a potentially valuable resource for profes-
sionals when assessing and treating clients.
Constructs
The constructs workaholism, parentification, alcoholism,
and depression have been studied from numerous perspec-
360-367
 Carroll, Robinson / PARENTIFICATION IN ADULTS 361

tives and reported in varied disciplines in professional litera- individuals responses to other peoples actions and, thus, dif-
ture (Robinson & Chase, 2000). Each of these constructs has ferent understandings of phenomena. For that reason, alco-
distinct, site-specific meanings depending on the perspec- holism and depression are defined as they are described in
tives of researchers and the focus of studies. For clarity, current psychiatric and psychological literature.
descriptions of these constructs are offered below. Alcoholism is a construct or term often applied to individ-
uals who meet the criteria for alcohol dependence found in the
Workaholism. The concept of workaholism and its effects
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th
on families have been scrutinized, defined, and refined over
ed., DSM-IV) (American Psychiatric Association, 1994, p. 195).
the past 30 years (Doerfler & Kammer, 1986; Oates, 1971;
Alcoholics are defined here as individuals who meet those
Robinson, 1998b; Robinson & Post, 1995; Robinson, Post, &
criteria. According to the DSM-IV, alcohol dependence is a
Khakee, 1992; Spence & Robbins, 1992). Robinson (1998a)
cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological symp-
operationalized workaholism when he developed the Work
toms occurring at any time in the same 12-month period,
Addiction Risk Test (WART), an instrument counselors can
even in the presence of significant problems related to the use
use to identify individuals who meet criteria for workaholism.
of alcohol (p. 176). Moreover, the individuals compulsive
Workaholism is defined as an obsessive-compulsive disorder
drinking often results in signs of tolerance and withdrawal.
that manifests itself through self-imposed demands, an
Depression is defined as the mood disorder experienced by
inability to regulate work habits, and an overindulgence in
individuals who meet necessary criteria as measured by the
work to the exclusion of most other life activities (Robinson,
Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) (Beck, Ward, Mendelson,
1998a). A discriminate analysis of the WART suggests that
Mock, & Erbaugh, 1961). The BDI is used to assess the sever-
workaholism is a multidimensional construct characterized
ity of depression and to identify certain symptoms such as sui-
by (a) compulsive tendencies, (b) obsessive need for control,
cidal ideation. The BDI also assesses clients negative think-
(c) impaired communication/self-absorption, (d) inability to
ing about themselves and about their future. Scores on the
delegate, and (e) impaired self-worth (Flowers & Robinson,
BDI range from nondepressive normal to extreme depression.
2000).
Parentification. When the generation lines that insulate RESEARCH ON
children from the parental adult world become violated or DEPRESSION AND PARENTIFICATION IN
blurred, children become what family therapists call ADULT CHILDREN OF ALCOHOLICS AND
parentified (Chase, 1999b; Jurkovic, 1997). Parentified ADULT CHILDREN OF WORKAHOLICS
children, by definition, are parents to their own parents and
Research on alcoholics and their families is abundant.
sacrifice their own needs for attention, comfort, and guidance
Some studies cite alcoholism as a major cause of disruption
to accommodate and care for the emotional needs and pur-
and discord in families (Goglia et al., 1992; Johnson & Ben-
suits of parents or another family member (Chase, 2000;
nett, 1989; McCord, 1988; Vaillant, 1983). Other research
Jurkovic, Morrell, & Casey, 2000; Jurkovic, Morrell, &
reports higher scores among children of alcoholics than
Thirkield, 1999; Robinson & Chase, 2000; Wells & Miller,
among children of nonalcoholics on measures of depression
2000). Immediate and intergenerational influences contribute
(Kelly & Myers, 1996; Tweed & Ryff, 1991). Furthermore,
to the multifaceted construct of parentification, which has
investigations have linked parental alcoholism with their off-
been appropriately described from various theoretical per-
springs parentification (Chase et al., 1998; Goglia et al.,
spectives including self-psychology, family systems, and
1992; Olson & Gariti, 1993). Anecdotal evidence of depres-
sociocultural contexts (Boszormenyi-Nagy & Krasner, 1986;
sion in parentified children suggests they assume emotional
Harkness & Super, 1983; Kohut, 1977; Minuchin, 1974). In
burdens usually reserved for functioning adults. For a
1965, Boszormenyi-Nagy first offered the term to describe
detailed and substantive analysis of the literature on
situations in which adults view their children as replacements
parentification, see Chase (1999b), Jurkovic (1997), and
for missing parents. Within this context, adults expect their
Robinson and Chase (2000).
children to protect and support them and generally act as sub-
Traditionally, workaholism has been addressed in research
stitute parents, fulfilling the needs the original parents failed
related to conditions in the workplace and in career develop-
to meet.
ment (e.g., Chaska et al., 1992; Naughton, 1987; Porter,
Alcoholism and depression. As with workaholism and 1996). Since the mid-1990s, it has become a burgeoning topic
parentification, the meanings individuals give to the more as it relates to family functioning. Within families where
familiar constructs of alcoholism and depression depend on parental workaholism is present, adult children exhibit
various factors, including personal perspectives and cultural greater levels of anxiety, depression, and external locus of
considerations. Differences in life experiences and the subse- control than do children from families with nonworkaholic
quent interpretation of others behavior account for parents (Robinson & Kelley, 1998). Higher levels of work

Downloaded from tfj.sagepub.com by Jitaru Daiana on October 8, 2014

362 THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / October 2000
addiction in families are related to less (a)
effective problem solving, (b) communi-
cation, (c) well-defined family roles, and
(d) affective involvement as well as fewer
affective responses (Robinson & Post, . . . this study
1995). Workaholism also has been linked
to negative effects on marital relationships shows that the
(Robinson, Carroll, & Flowers, 2000).
Spouses of workaholics reported a signifi- children of
cantly lower degree of caring, attachment,
and desire for emotional intimacy with their workaholics
partners than spouses of nonworkaholics.
Kelly and Myers (1996) concluded that experience some
higher levels of depression and parentifi-
cation (Chase et al., 1998) were found of the same
among adult children of alcoholics
(ACOAs) than among nonACOAs. It was difficulties as
unknown, however, to what extent adult
children of workaholics (ACOWs) and those experienced
ACOAs differ in levels of depression and
parentification. by children of
Literature on alcohol addiction and its
impact on families is comprehensive. Data alcoholics.
on workaholism and how it relates to
parentification of children and depression
in adulthood are less abundant. How
ACOAs and ACOWs compare on these two
dimensions is important information for clinicians who tion Questionnaire (PQ) (Jurkovic, 1997), and the BDI (Beck
assess and treat individuals whose etiology of depression and et al., 1961).
origins of maladjusted behavior are unknown.
METHOD
Participants
Undergraduate students (N =207, 182 women, 25 men) in
various programs in the College of Education at a southeast-
ern university in the United States participated in this study.
About 72% of participants were ages 18 to 25 years. Instru-
ment scores were used to classify participants into one of four
groups. The ACOWs (n = 28) included participants who
scored 1 standard deviation above the mean on the Children of
Workaholics Screening Test (COWST) (Robinson & Carroll,
1999). ACOAs (n = 29) included participants who gave six or
more positive responses on the Children of Alcoholics
Screening Test (CAST) (Jones, 1983). Adult children of
workaholics and alcoholics (ACOWs/ACOAs) (n = 15) were
adult children with at least one parent who was alcoholic and
workaholic. The fourth group was derived from a random
sample of the 135 participants whose scores did not place
them in these categories. This was the comparison group (n =
28). Thus, the final sample consisted of 100 participants. The
mean age of the sample (n = 100) was 25.1, with ages ranging
from 19 to 55 years.
Downloaded from tfj.sagepub.com by Jitaru Daiana on October 8, 2014
Procedure
Participants were surveyed to determine
if there are significant differences among
the four groups on levels of depression and
parentification. With instructors permis-
sion, and at their convenience, students
were invited to participate in this study.
They were told the purpose of the study was
to examine families and their work pat-
terns. Students who volunteered to partici-
pate were given a packet containing an
informed consent form and the four instru-
ments chosen for use in this study. Partici-
pants were asked to respond to the items on
the instruments and return them to the
administrators. The administration process
required about 30 to 40 minutes.
Instruments
Four instruments were selected to deter-
mine relationships among levels of (a)
depression, (b) parentification, (c) parental
workaholism, and (d) alcoholism. Partici-
pants were asked to respond to questions on
the COWST (Robinson & Carroll, 1999),
the CAST (Jones, 1983), the Parentifica-
COWST. The COWST (Robinson & Carroll, 1999) mea-
sures individuals attitudes, feelings, perceptions, and experi-
ences related to their parents work habits. This 30-item
instrument has high test-retest reliability. The split-half corre-
lation coefficient on the first test was rxx = .92 and on the sec-
ond test, rxx = .93. A stability coefficient of .68 was found for
an interval of 2 weeks. The COWST (Robinson & Carroll,
1999) has concurrent validity as indicated by its correlation
with the BDI (rxy = .46) and the PQ (Jurkovic, 1997) (rxy =
.60). No correlation (rxy = .13) was found between this test and
the CAST (Jones, 1983).
CAST. The CAST examines individuals attitudes, feel-
ings, perceptions, and experiences related to their parents
alcohol drinking behavior (Jones, 1983). Participants check
yes or no to answer each question. Six or more questions
answered yes distinguish children of alcoholics from children
of nonalcoholics. The CAST has a .98 split-half reliability for
a sample of 133 latency children and adolescents. Predictive
validity was established by indicating that the 30 items on the
CAST effectively discriminated 100% of children of clini-
cally diagnosed alcoholics from children of nonalcoholics
(Jones, 1983).
PQ. The PQ (Jurkovic, 1997) measures the subjective
experiences of adults who, as children, assumed respon-
 Carroll, Robinson / PARENTIFICATION IN ADULTS 363

TABLE 1 TABLE 2
Means and Standard Deviations for Levels of One-Way Analysis of Variance of Depression,
Depression, Parentification, and Numbers Parentification, Mother Work Hours, Father Work
of Hours Mothers, Fathers, and Hours, and Combined Parent Work Hours
Both Parents Worked
Source MS df F
Variable and Group n M SD
Depression
Depression Group 491.53 3 5.37*
ACOWs 28 12.89 9.40 Error 91.47 96
ACOAs 29 7.48 7.45 Parentification
ACOWs/ACOAs 15 17.93 15.45 Group 828.64 3 18.41*
Comparison 28 7.68 7.45 Error 45.02 96
Parentification Mother work hours
ACOWs 28 24.82 8.64 Group 727.39 3 2.44
ACOAs 29 20.52 5.67 Error 297.84 92
ACOWs/ACOAs 15 28.60 7.32 Father work hours
Comparison 28 14.43 4.93 Group 689.97 3 3.29
Hours mothers worked Error 209.81 86
ACOWs 28 38.82 12.95 Combined work hours
ACOAs 29 28.69 18.30 Group 3158.01 3 5.46
ACOWs/ACOAs 14 38.79 15.98 Error 578.80 85
Comparison 25 29.88 20.59
Hours fathers worked *p < .05.
ACOWs 27 50.85 13.02
ACOAs 27 41.37 10.32
ACOWs/ACOAs 14 52.86 15.28 Validity coefficients were .69 when the BDI was compared
Comparison 22 42.91 19.31 with the construct of generalized anxiety and .49 with locus of
Combined parental hours
ACOWs 27 89.63 19.74
control (Robinson & Kelley, 1996).
ACOAs 27 69.03 21.00
ACOWs/ACOAs 14 91.64 13.36 RESULTS
Comparison 21 70.52 35.55
An alpha level of .05 was used for all statistical tests.
NOTE: ACOW = adult children of workaholics; ACOA = adult children One-way ANOVAs were conducted to determine if signifi-
of alcoholics; ACOW/ACOA = adult children with at least one parent cant differences existed among groups. Means and standard
who is both alcoholic and workaholic. deviations for levels of depression, parentification, and par-
p = .05.
ental working patterns for participating groups are presented
in Table 1. Significant main effects (see Table 2) were found
sibilities for parental caregiving (Jurkovic, 1997). The PQ has
for participants levels of depression, degrees of
a reported Spearman-Brown split-half reliability of .85. A
parentification, numbers of hours father worked, and com-
stability coefficient of .86 was found for an interval of 2
bined numbers of hours both parents worked. There was no
weeks (Burt, 1992). Documented convergent validity of the
significant main effect for the number of hours participants
PQ indicates that scores on it are related to predicted variables
mothers reportedly worked (see Table 2).
such as lack of differentiation from the family of origin,
Follow-up procedures (i.e., for least significant difference)
choice of a caregiving profession, features of depression, and
indicated mean differences in scores on levels of depression
ambivalence about dependency needs (Sessions, 1986;
were significant between ACOWs (M = 12.89) and ACOAs
Wolkin, 1984). Furthermore, recent research found that chil-
(M = 7.48) and the comparison group (M = 7.68). Mean differ-
dren of alcoholics scored significantly higher on the PQ than
ences between scores on parentification also were significant
did controls (Chase et al., 1998).
between ACOWs (M = 24.82) and ACOAs (M = 20.52) and
BDI. Each participants level of depression was measured the comparison group (M = 14.43). The mean differences in
using the BDI (Beck et al., 1961). The BDI is the most fre- scores on depression were significant between ACOWs/
quently used measure of depression in the literature on ACOAs (M = 17.93) and ACOAs (M = 7.48) and the compari-
depression in children of alcoholics (Kelly & Myers, 1996). son group (M = 7.68). Mean differences between scores on
The BDI is scored by summing the ratings participants give parentification also were significant between ACOWs/
for each of the 21 items. Each item consists of a group of four ACOAs (M = 28.60) and ACOAs (M = 20.52) and the com-
statements rated 0 to 3. The maximum score is 63. Internal parison group (M = 14.43). The mean difference in the score
consistency ratings for the BDI (Cronbachs alpha) range on parentification between ACOAs (M = 20.52) and the com-
from .79 to .90 for varying samples (Beck & Steer, 1984). parison group (M = 14.43) was significant.

Downloaded from tfj.sagepub.com by Jitaru Daiana on October 8, 2014

364 THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / October 2000
For both mothers and fathers singly, a significant mean dif-
ference of about 10 hours per week was reported between
ACOAs and ACOWs. ACOWs reported their mothers worked
an average of 39 hours per week, and their fathers worked an
average of 51 hours per week. ACOAs mothers and fathers
worked an average of 19 and 41 hours per week, respectively.
ACOWs/ACOAs reported significantly higher means (M =
53) than ACOAs (M = 41) and the comparison group (M = 43)
on the number of hours their fathers worked.
Relationships among workaholism, alcoholism, and
depression were further analyzed. Scores on the BDI (Beck
et al., 1961) ranged from normal to extreme depression.
Although participants in all groups exhibited symptoms of
depression, larger percentages of ACOWs were classified in
the more frequently and severely depressed categories than
members of the other three groups. A chi-square test was used
to determine whether the frequency of responses differed
among the groups on scores of depression. The obtained =
2
28.07, df = 15, was significant at the .05 level.
DISCUSSION
The findings reported here fit with a growing body of liter-
ature that suggests parental workaholism can have a negative
psychological impact on children (Navarette, 1998; Robinson &
Kelley, 1998). The results of the present study help to debunk
the myth that workaholism is a virtue, as proposed by some
(Machlowitz, 1985). Rather, this study shows that the chil-
dren of workaholics experience some of the same difficulties
as those experienced by children of alcoholics. Robinson
(1998a) calls workaholism the best-dressed mental health
problem of the 20th century (p. 4). The contribution of par-
ental workaholism to levels of depression and parentification
in children is clear when it is considered that the combined
influences of alcoholism and workaholism, as shown in this
study, appear to have a significant effect on children, as con-
trasted with the individual effects of alcoholism. This conclu-
sion is arrived at in light of the significantly higher levels of
depression and parentification among ACOWs than among
ACOAs. It is suggested, therefore, that clinicians be alert
regarding the insidious problems related to workaholism and
learn specific ways to intervene with workaholics, their part-
ners, and their children.
Care must be taken in attributing specific life experiences
to the responses of ACOAs and ACOWs. Children contempo-
raneously and over time interpret for themselves the mean-
ings of having parents who, by standards of Western society,
engage in destructive behavior. Researchers should be cogni-
zant that children of addicted parents, at different times and
among each other, will vary in their perceptions, interpreta-
tions, assumptions, and cognitive predilections related to the
experience of being ACOWs and ACOAs. Researchers also
should be aware of bringing to the analyses of present data
their personally constructed knowledge and understandings
Downloaded from tfj.sagepub.com by Jitaru Daiana on October 8, 2014
of what ACOWs and ACOAs experience. A cause and effect
relationship cannot be assumed.
When contemplating how children perceive parental
workaholism and alcoholism, an important consideration is
the nature of childrens understandings. Various philosophi-
cal and theoretical orientations prompt questions about the
data in this study. For example, (a) Did depression and
parentification precede parents workaholism and/or alcohol-
ism, or were the participants disorders occasioned by the
compulsive behavior? (b) Were depression and parenti-
fication logical manifestations of exposure to the compulsive
behaviors and therefore predictable in an ongoing process of
individual or family evolution? (c) As levels of depression
and parentification were inconsistent among groups, were
parental behaviors, therefore, part of a matrix of interactions
and, when taken together, were they negatively perceived by
some children, but not by all?
Diverse factors could contribute to levels of depression
and parentification among participants. For example, this
study indicates differences in the impact on children of mater-
nal and paternal workaholism and alcoholism. It may be
assumed that the severity of effects and the nature of differ-
ences could depend on (a) the amount of time parents were
engaged in addictive behavior, (b) learning and/or emotional
developmental levels of participants at the time they experi-
enced critical incidents and parents chronic behavior, (c)
relationships among parents and children, and (d) the nature
and meanings of the memories of their environment that chil-
dren retained and carried into adulthood. Adlerian psychol-
ogy suggests that participants perceptions of their places in
family constellations and their relationships with their par-
ents could affect how they respond to parental workaholism
and alcoholism (Shulman, 1979).
Limitations
The threats to validity in this study include (a) bias result-
ing from the convenient selection of participants studying a
particular discipline at a university, (b) lack of controlling for
dissimilar numbers of males and females, (c) lack of control-
ling for diversity among racial and ethnic groups, and (d) the
small number of participants (n = 15) who composed the
ACOWs/ACOAs group. Representativeness of the sample
may be influenced by three major factors. First, participants
were not selected randomly but were available volunteers;
therefore, the interpretation and generalizability of results
may be compromised. Second, 72% of the participants in this
study were 18 to 25 years of age; however, in 1997, the most
recent year for which figures could be found, only 4% of the
total national population ages 18 to 24 were enrolled in 4-year
educational institutions, as were the participants in this study
(U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999a, 1999b). Finally, in the
current study, 88% of the participants were female, and only
12% were males. Of the 4% of the population enrolled in

4-year institutions in 1997, slightly more than one half (52%)
were females, and 48% were males (U.S. Bureau of the Cen-
sus, 1999b).
Suggestions for Future Research
The results of this study clearly support the need for more
studies on the psychological outcomes of parental
workaholism on children of workaholics, particularly among
nonconvenience samples. The only empirical study of such a
group known to the authors indicated that parental
workaholism correlated with greater obsessive-compulsive
tendencies, higher anxiety, and more extrinsic motivation
(Navarette, 1998). Navarettes study, however, did not sup-
port findings from studies of convenience samples, both here
and previously (Robinson & Kelley, 1998), that parental
workaholism is related to offsprings depression.
Another potential area of inquiry is the meaning of the dis-
crepancy in significance between the number of hours moth-
ers and fathers worked. Statistics imply that (a) about one
third of the participants in this study were reared in one-parent
households and (b) in homes where both parents were pres-
ent, about one third were homes where both parents worked
(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1997).
Research also is needed to further develop knowledge
about the effects of living in families where one parent com-
pulsively works and/or consumes alcohol and the other parent
does not. Further study also is needed on the effects and
meanings to children of being reared by a single parent who is
an alcoholic and/or workaholic.
Studies are needed that address the presence of both
workaholism and/or alcoholism in families and that also
address various differences such as gender responses, charac-
teristics of siblings, the nature of their relationships, types of
work in which parents engage, and characteristics of leisure
time spent with children.
Implications for Counselors
The findings presented here fit with increasing informa-
tion that workaholism, like alcoholism, may take its toll on
other family members who live in workaholism. Previous
studies reported that workaholics described a breakdown in
their families functioning as the level of addiction increased
(Robinson & Post, 1995) and that workaholics reported
greater health problems than control groups (Spence & Rob-
bins, 1992). Children may be affected by workaholism in neg-
ative ways that, similar to alcoholism, leave scars well into
young adulthood (Robinson & Kelley, 1998). Family coun-
selors can learn which clients carry the private pain of
being ACOWs and prepare to address their unmet needs in
treatment.
Clinicians can assess for association among workaholism,
alcoholism, depression, and parentification in clients who
seek counseling for mental health or family concerns. It is not
Downloaded from tfj.sagepub.com by Jitaru Daiana on October 8, 2014
Carroll, Robinson / PARENTIFICATION IN ADULTS 365
unusual for clients to be screened for alcohol dependence if
counselors are attuned to the signs and symptoms of chemical
dependence and are knowledgeable about assessment proce-
dures. In 1983, the CAST (Jones, 1983) became available for
screening children of alcoholics. Until recently, however, no
procedure was available for screening children of
workaholics. Aware that no instrument existed to screen adult
children of workaholics, Robinson and Carroll (1999) devel-
oped the COWST for mental health professionals to use to
screen clients for parental workaholism. If clients present
with evidence of depression and/or parentification, clinicians
may want to know if parental workaholism is a contributing
cause. They also can counsel clients regarding possible
effects on children of parents compulsive work behavior.
The presence of parentification among ACOWs in this
study is evident in the significant mean difference between
ACOWs and ACOAs. A greater level of parentification was
found among ACOWs. It can be inferred that this finding has
serious implications in light of additional research that shows
significantly greater parentification in ACOA university stu-
dents than in controls (Chase et al., 1998; Goglia et al., 1992).
University and college counselors, in particular, may want to
explore with adolescent clients the difficulties ascribed to
being parentified. Depression, suicide attempts, guilt, and
separation anxiety are some of the ways Jurkovic (1997) and
others have found college students struggle with the transi-
tional act of leaving home and attending college (Held & Bel-
lows, 1983; Lopez, 1986).
If, among participants in this study, depression and
parentification preceded parental workaholism or alcohol-
ism, participants cognitions regarding their parents compul-
sive behavior may have exacerbated psychological difficul-
ties such as depression. Offspring of workaholics and
alcoholics in this study may exemplify depressed individuals
whom clinicians meet as clients. Beck, Rush, Shaw, and
Emery (1979) stated that such individuals experience cogni-
tive distortions or assumptions that are characterized by their
overgeneralizing the significance of particular events and
self-referencing in regard to blame for adversity. If clients are
depressed because they perceive parental workaholism or
alcoholism as circumstances they cannot change and/or for
which they are responsible, they may perceive their future
negatively. Beck et al. (1979) emphasized the importance of
therapists helping clients to perceive their problems as
solvable.
Clinicians are encouraged to be aware of the implications
for clients of their own or others workaholism and the diffi-
culties experienced when it is combined with alcohol
dependence. Screening is suggested for depressed and/or
parentified clients for evidence of parental workaholism and
alcoholism. This approach will provide counselors with a
more complete contextual framework in which to address
treatment issues.
366 THE FAMILY JOURNAL: COUNSELING AND THERAPY FOR COUPLES AND FAMILIES / October 2000
REFERENCES
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical man-
ual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy
of depression. New York: Guilford.
Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1984). Internal consistencies of the original and
revised Beck Depression Inventory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40,
1365-1367.
Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An
inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4,
561-571.
Boszormenyi-Nagy, I. (1965). A theory of relationships: Experience and
transaction. In I. Boszormenyi-Nagy & J. L. Framo (Eds.), Intensive fam-
ily therapy: Theoretical and practical aspects (pp. 38-86). New York:
Harper & Row.
Boszormenyi-Nagy, I., & Krasner, B. R. (1986). Between give and take: A
clinical guide to contextual therapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Burt, A. (1992). Generation boundary distortion: Implications for object
relations development. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Georgia State
University, Atlanta.
Chase, N. (Ed.). (1999a). Burdened children: Theory, research, and treat-
ment of the parentified child. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Chase, N. (1999b). The parentified child. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Chase, N. (2000). Parentified children grow up: Dual patterns of high and low
functioning. In B. E. Robinson & N. Chase (Eds.), High-performing fam-
ilies: Causes, consequences, and solutions. Washington, DC: American
Counseling Association.
Chase, N. D., Deming, M. P., & Wells, M. C. (1998). Parentification, parental
alcoholism, and academic status among young adults. The American
Journal of Family Therapy, 26, 105-114.
Chaska, N., Eaton, S., Shaw, C., Bryant, P., Campbell, K., Williams, A., &
Koenig, D. (1992). Balance/imbalance in work approaches among nurse
managers. Unpublished manuscript, Indiana University, Indianapolis.
Doerfler, M. C., & Kammer, P. P. (1986). Workaholism, sex, and sex-role ste-
reotyping among female professionals. Sex Roles, 14, 551-560.
Flowers, C., & Robinson, B. E. (2000). A structural and discriminate analy-
sis of the Work Addiction Risk Test. Unpublished paper, University of
North Carolina, Charlotte.
Goglia, L. R., Jurkovic, G. J., Burt, A. M., & Burge-Callaway, K. G. (1992).
Generational boundary distortions by adult children of alcoholics:
Child-as-parent and child-as-mate. The American Journal of Family
Therapy, 20, 291-299.
Harkness, S., & Super, C. M. (1983). The cultural construction of childhood:
A framework for the socialization of affect. Ethos, 11, 221-231.
Held, B., & Bellows, D. (1983). A family systems approach to crisis reactions
in college students. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 9, 365-373.
Johnson, J. L., & Bennett, L. A. (1989). Adult children of alcoholics: Theory
and research. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University, Center of Alco-
hol Studies.
Jones, J. W. (1983). The children of alcoholics screening test: Test manual.
Chicago: Camelot Unlimited.
Downloaded from tfj.sagepub.com by Jitaru Daiana on October 8, 2014
Jurkovic, G. J. (1997). Lost childhoods: The plight of the parentified child.
New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Jurkovic, G. J., Morrell, R., & Casey, S. (2000). Parentification in the lives of
high-profile individuals and their families: A hidden source of strength
and distress. In B. E. Robinson & N. Chase (Eds.), High-performing fam-
ilies: Causes, consequences, and clinical solutions. Washington, DC:
American Counseling Association.
Jurkovic, G. J., Morrell, R., & Thirkield, A. (1999). Assessing childhood
paraentification: Guidelines for researchers and clinicians. In N. Chase
(Ed.), Burdened children: Theory, research, and treatment of the
parentified child. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kelly, V. A., & Myers, J. E. (1996). Parental alcoholism and coping: A com-
parison of female children of alcoholics with female children of
nonalcoholics. Journal of Counseling & Development, 74, 501-504.
Kohut, H. (1977). The restoration of the self. New York: International Uni-
versities Press.
Lopez, F. G. (1986). Family structure and depression: Implications for the
counseling of depressed college students. Journal of Counseling and
Development, 64, 508-511.
Machlowitz, M. (1985). Workaholics: Living with them, working with them
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
McCord, J. (1988). Alcoholism: Toward understanding genetic and social
factors. Psychiatry, 51(2), 131-141.
Minuchin, S. (1974). Families and family therapy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Naughton, T. J. (1987). A conceptual view of workaholism and implications
for career counseling and research. Career Development Quarterly, 35,
180-187.
Navarette, S. (1998). An empirical study of adult children of workaholics:
Psychological functioning and intergenerational transmission. Unpub-
lished doctoral dissertation, California Graduate Institute.
Oates, W. (1971). Confessions of a workaholic. New York: World Publishing.
Olson, M., & Gariti, P. (1993). Symbolic loss in horizontal relating: Defining
the role of parentification in addictive/destructive relationships. Contem-
porary Family Therapy, 15(3), 197-208.
Porter, G. (1996). Organizational impact of workaholism: Suggestions for
researching the negative outcomes of excessive work. Journal of Occu-
pational Health Psychology, 1, 70-84.
Post, P., & Robinson, B. E. (1998). School-age children of alcoholics and
non-alcoholics: Their anxiety, self-esteem, and locus of control. Profes-
sional School Counseling, 1, 36-40.
Post, P., Webb, W., & Robinson, B. E. (1991). Relationship between self-con-
cept, anxiety, and knowledge by gender and age among adult children of
alcoholics. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 8, 91-95
Robinson, B. E. (1998a). Chained to the desk: A guidebook for workaholics,
their partners and children, and the clinicians who treat them. New York:
New York University Press.
Robinson, B. E. (1998b). Spouses of workaholics: Implications for psycho-
therapy. Psychotherapy, 35, 260-268.
Robinson, B. E., & Carroll, J. J. (1999). Assessing the offspring of worka-
holic parents: The Children of Workaholics Screening Test. Perceptual
and Motor Skills, 88, 1127-1134.

Robinson, B. E., Carroll, J. J., & Flowers, C. (2000, March). Marital
estrangement, positive feelings, and locus of control among spouses of
workaholics and non-workaholics: A national study. Paper presented at
the North Carolina Association of Marriage and Family Therapists,
Charlotte, NC.
Robinson, B. E., & Chase, N. (2000). High-performing families: Causes,
consequences, and clinical solutions. Washington, DC: American Coun-
seling Association.
Robinson, B. E., & Kelley, L. (1996). Concurrent validity of the Beck
Depression Inventory as a measure of depression. Psychological
Reports, 79, 23-24.
Robinson, B. E., & Kelley, L. (1998). Adult children of workaholics:
Self-concept, anxiety, depression, and locus of control. The American
Journal of Family Therapy, 26, 223-238.
Robinson, B. E., & Post, P. (1995). Work addiction as a function of family of
origin and its influence on current family functioning. The Family Jour-
nal, 3, 200-206.
Robinson, B. E., Post, P., & Khakee, J. (1992). Test-retest reliability of the
Work Addiction Risk Test. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 74, 926.
Robinson, B. E. & Rhoden, L. (1998). Working with children of alcoholics:
The Practitioners handbook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Sessions, M. W. (1986). Influence of parentification on professional role
choice and interpersonal style. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47,
5066. (University Microfilms No. 87-06815)
Shulman, B. H. (1979). The family constellation in personality diagnosis. In
J. Carlson & S. Slavik (Eds.), Techniques in Adlerian psychology (pp. 56-68).
Washington, DC: Accelerated Development.
Spence, J. T., & Robbins, A. S. (1992). Workaholics: Definition, measure-
ment, and preliminary results. Journal of Personality Assessment, 58,
160-178.
Tweed, S. H., & Ryff, C. D. (1991). Adult children of alcoholics: Profiles of
wellness amid distress. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 52, 133-141.
Downloaded from tfj.sagepub.com by Jitaru Daiana on October 8, 2014
Carroll, Robinson / PARENTIFICATION IN ADULTS 367
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1999a). [Population estimates program, Popula-
tion Division.] Available: http://webcenters.netscape.com/webcenters/
research/education.adp.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1999b). School enrollment-social and economic
characteristics of students: October, 1997. Available: http://www.census.
gov/prod/99pubs/p20-516u.pdf.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1997). Trends in the
well-being of Americas children & youth: Family structure percentage
distribution of U.S. children by number of parents in household. Avail-
able: http://aspe.os.dhhs.gov/hsp/97trends/PF2-1.htm.
Vaillant, G. E. (1983). The natural history of alcoholism. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Webb, W., Post, P., Robinson, B., & Moreland, L. (1992). Self-concept, anxi-
ety, and knowledge exhibited by adult children of alcoholics and adult
children of nonalcoholics. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 38,
106-114.
Wells, M., & Miller, R. (2000). High performance, parentification, and per-
sonality development from an object relations perspective. In B. E.
Robinson & N. Chase (Eds.), High-performing families: Causes, conse-
quences, and clinical solutions. Washington, DC: American Counseling
Association.
Wolkin, J. R. (1984). Childhood parentification: An exploration of long-term
effects. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45, 2702. (University
Microfilms No. 84-24601)
Jane J. Carroll, Ph.D., NCC, LPC, MAC, CCAS, is an assistant pro-
fessor of counseling at the University of North Carolina at Char-
lotte. She also has a private practice in Charlotte.
Bryan E. Robinson, Ph.D., LPC, is a professor of child and family
development at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. He
also is a licensed marriage and family therapist in private practice in
Charlotte.