Spring Design

and Application
EDITED BY

Nicholas P. Chironis
Associate Editor, PRODUCT ENGINEERING

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

New York Toronto London 1961

 Preface

Here, in the form of an easy-to-use manual, is a wealth of spring design data,

equations, and theory, contributed by over a hundred experts on the subject.
This is the first book on the subject with such an extensive scope. It covers a
wide variety of spring types, design considerations, materials, and applications
of springs to machines and components. The articles herein have been carefully
selected from the pages of Product Engineering, with the practicing design
engineer in mind. This brings together in one source the information that he
needs when designing a spring.
Many of these articles include theory; all of them lead to useful design equa-
tions or charts, and, in the case of spring applications, to specific design details.
Also, the overwhelming majority of the articles present important concepts and
formulas not to be found in textbooks. When the articles do cover fundamentals,
they frequently include unique refinements in the method.
Some of the problems analyzed are designing for optimum values, buckling,
dynamic loading, surge waves, tangling, fastening, residual stresses, relaxation,
creep, fatigue, manufacture, and testing. Applications include springs for shock
and vibration absorption, mechanisms, clutches, brakes, flexures, balances, car
suspensions, spindles, and gears.
Nicholas P. Chironis
 Contents

Preface v

Introduction xi

Chapter I. Helical SpringsBasic Design Considerations . . . 1

New Approach to Compression Spring Design 2
Simplified Procedure for Helical Wire Springs 8
Reducing Trial and Error in Compression Spring Design 12
For Minimum Values: Design of Helical Springs for Minimum Values 15
For Minimum Weight: Proportioning Springs for Minimum Weight 18
For Performance: Designing Springs for Performance 19
Dimensional Analysis of Helical Compression Springs 24
Dimensional Tolerance Charts for Helical Springs 30
Specifying Springs: Check Lists for Helical, Torsion and Spiral Springs 33
Fastening Springs: 29 Ways to Fasten Springs 38
Adjusting Methods:
Compression Spring Adjusting MethodsI
Compression Spring Adjusting MethodsII
Adjustable Extension Springs
Spring Ends: Typical Ends of Commercial Helical Springs 48
Design Charts:
For Helical Steel Springs 49
For Finding Stress and Stiffness 50
For Large Compression Springs 52

Chapter 2. Helical SpringsDynamic and Stress Considerations 55

Buckling: How to Predict Buckling and Unseating of Coil Springs 56
Side Deflection: How Much Force to Deflect a Spring Sideways? 61
Surge Waves in Compression Springs 63
Fluctuating Loads: Long Helical Spring Behavior under Fluctuating Loads 71
Initial Tension: Deflections of Coiled Springs Wound with Initial Tension 74
Creep: High Temperature Creep of Coil Springs 77
Residual Stresses in Springs 82

Chapter 3. Helical SpringsSpecial Shapes and Wire Forms . . 85

Rectangular Wire:
Streamlining the Selection of Rectangular Wire Springs 86
Design Charts for Rectangular Wire Helical Springs 89
Stranded Wire: Helical Springs 92
Double Springs: Double Helical Steel Springs 97
Volute Springs Design Data 100
Conical Springs Design Data 102
VII
 Chapter 4. Flat Springs .................................................................... 103
Dimensioning: Functional Gaging for Flat Springs 104
Flat Curved Springs: Design Equations for Curved Springs 108
Flat Tension Springs: Design of Flat Wound Tension Springs 110
Cantilever (Leaf) Springs:
Calculating Large Deflections of Cantilever Beams 112
For Spring ActionWhich Cantilever Is Best? 113
Cantilever Springs That Roll with the Load 118
Easier Way to Find Trapezoidal-spring Deflections 120
Cost and Stress Factors of Flat Spring Material 122
Formability of Flat Spring Material 123

Chapter 5. Torsion Springs and Bars ...............................................725

Torsion Springs
Design: Torsion Spring Design 126
Chart: Torsion Spring Charts for Round and Square Wire 134
Nomograph: For Steel Torsion Springs 136
Special Shapes: Torsion SpringsStress Calculations for Various Wire Forms 138
Torsion Bars
Design: Torsion Bar Springs 141
Application:
Applying Torsion Bar Springs 147
Engine Tranquillized by Torsion Bars 150
Shortcut to Designing Torsion Bars 151

Chapter 6. Constant-force and Variable-rate Springs . . . 753

Constant Force:
Constant-force Compression Springs 154
The Negative SpringA Basic New Elastic Member 161
Jobs for the Constant-force Spring 166
Springs Save Energy in Satellite Tape Recorder 168
Multi-rate: How to Design Multi-rate Helical Springs 169
Variable Rate: Springs: How to Design for Variable Rate 172
Modified Wire: Altering Wound Springs to Modify Their Deflection Rates 174
Spring Motor: Balance Springs Position X-ray Safely 176

Chapter 7. Belleville and Ring Springs ...........................................777

Belleville (Conical-washer) Springs:
Deflections and Capacity of Belleville Springs 178
Belleville Springs for Thrust-loaded Spindles 181
Belleville Springs Give Better Brakes 182
Calibration Rings: Circular Calibration Ring with Two Axes of Symmetry 184
Disk Springs: Radially Tapered Steel Disk Spring 189
Ring Springs: Characteristics of Ring Springs 192
Ring Bushings: When Expandable Bushings Are the Answer 196
Split Rings: Deflections of Perpendicularly Loaded Split Circular Rings 200

Chapter 8. Liquid and Air Springs .................................................203

Liquid Springs:
Saving Space with the Liquid Spring 204
Hydraulic Shock Absorbers 207
Air Springs:
3 Looks at Air Springs 210
Air Cushion Supports Rear Springs 212
VIII
Chapter 9. Plastic and Rubber Springs........................................... 213
Plastic Springs
Sleeve: Glass-fiber Sleeve Spring for High Energy Absorption 214
Flat: How to Design Flat Reinforced-plastic Springs 218
Coil: Plastic Coil Springs 221
Rubber Springs
Sleeve: Rubber Spring in This New Shock Absorber 225
Torsion:
Elastic Rubber Cushion Springs for Torque Applications 228
Torsional Rubber Spring Design 233
Sandwich: Deflections of Rubber Compression Sandwiches 238

Chapter 70. Springs for Absorbing Shock and Vibration . . . 241

Absorb Shock: How Light a Spring for Absorbing Shock? 242
Storing Energy: Your Guide to Springs That Store Energy Best 247
Vibration Isolation: Vibration Isolators with Constant-force Springs 252
Damping: Hexagonal Damping Spring Eliminates Torsional Fluctuations 254
Impact Stress in Elastic Bodies 256

Chapter 7 7 . Springs for Mechanisms and Devices ........................267

Mechanisms:
Spring Actuated Linkage Analysis to Increase Speed 262
Spring MechanismsForce Analysis 268
Spring Mechanisms for Point Balancing 271
Spring MechanismsContinuous Balancing 274
Flexure Pivots: Flexure PivotsDesign Formulas and Charts 276
Overload Protection: Springs Prevent Overload 285
Levers:
One Spring Returns the Hand LeverI 286
One Spring Returns the Hand LeverII 288
Overriding Spring Mechanisms for Low-torque Drives 290

Chapter 12. Special-purpose Springs .............................................. 293

For Measurements: Designing Springs for Precision Measurements 294
To Simulate Load: Differential Springs Can Simulate Load 298
For Chucks: Spring-loaded Chucks and Holding Devices 300
For Clutches:
Spring Clutches for Faster Response 301
Whip the Backlash in Spring Clutches 304
Unusual Uses for Helical Wire Springs 306

Chapter 73. Spring Materials ..........................................................309

General Purpose:
Properties of Spring Materials and Allowable Stress 310
Commonly Used Spring Materials 313
High Temperatures:
Best Spring Material for High Temperature Service 314
Spring Materials for High Temperature Service 318
Maximum Design Load vs. Temperature for Springs 326
Ceramics: Now-Ceramics That Bounce 327
Fatigue Characteristics of Spring Materials 328
Relaxation Characteristics of Spring Materials 331
Costs: Approximate Relative Costs of Spring Materials 332
ix
Chapter 14. Spring Manufacture and Testing ............................. 333
Manufacture:
Complete Springs in 1-2-3 Operation 334
How to Lick Spring Tangling 336
Testing:
Will That Spring Do Its Job? 338
17 Ways of Testing Springs 340
Testing Small Springs 342

Index.............................................................................................. 343
 Introduction

The subject of springs has always been of high interest value to design engineers.
Perhaps the reason for this is that springs are by far the most popular means of
mechanically storing and issuing energy, and, like fasteners, they can be found
in a wide variety of machines and products. Almost every mechanical designer
is faced with a spring problem sooner or later.
What is a spring? Its basic purpose is to store energy as a function of displace-
ment. Although every machine member is, in a sense, a spring, for all materials
are elastic to some degree, springs are generally characterized by distortion to a
considerable degree under a relatively moderate load.
A spring may have any shape and be made from a wide variety of materials.
Even fluids can behave as compression springs, and, of late, springs employing
air or liquid are finding many applications. Most springs are made of metal, and
today there are many new alloys to choose from, but nonmetallic materials, such
as the reinforced plastics and the ceramics, have been coming into the picture.
Springs are employed for many purposes:
To supply motive power to mechanismsThis is one of the earliest and still
most common uses of springs. Examples: clocks, movie cameras, toys.
To measure forces, as in spring balances, dynamometers, calibrating devices.
To return a machine member to its original starting point, as in cam followers,
linkages, valve stems, actuators.
To absorb shock and vibration, as in automobiles, railways, vibration mounts.
To transfer power, as in spring clutches, couplings, spring belting.
To provide constant pressure, as in brakes, friction clutches.
The historical background of springs is rather interesting. Philo of Byzantium
(second century B.C.) is first to be credited with realizing the potentialities of
the elasticity of metals. It must have been a new idea for that period, because
Philo devotes an entire section in his writings to the existence of metal elasticity.
He cites the method of testing Celtic and Spanish swords by bending them and
notes the exact and immediate resumption of their former shape. Philo suggested
the use of bronze springs and compressed air as a source of power in catapults
and crossbows, but there is no proof that these devices were actually built.
The use of springs in mechanical timepieces greatly accelerated the art. By
the mid 1400's, "portable clocks" utilizing a spring device enabled people to
carry their time with them. The first watch springs were hog's bristles, but soon
metal springs won favor. Later, the Italian Alemannus developed the first
constant-force spring system by coupling an unwinding spring to a spirally
grooved conical pulley by means of a rope arrangement. Several years later,
XI
 da Vinci designed a spring-driven cart, which is the first known design for a self-
propelled vehicle. Da Vinci also added shock springs to the axle mounts for better
riding performance.
However, it was not until Robert Hooke published the first laws of elasticity
that spring design began reaching the status of an art. In a pamphlet printed in
1678, Hooke stated, "The power of any spring is in the same proportion as the
tension thereof; that is, if one power stretches or bends it one space, two
(powers) will bend it two, and three will bend it three, and so forward." But
soon, he noted that his "Hooke law" seemed to be affected by temperature.
Today we realize that the most simple spring may require an analysis of such
complex factors as buckling tendencies, minimum space requirements, creep
rate, fatigue resistance, effect of tolerances, dynamic response, damping charac-
teristics, volume efficiency and expansion velocities. Perhaps the first considera-
tion is that of selecting the spring type best for the application, for there are
many configurations available to the designer today. This added complexity
calls for the most refined design procedures and concepts available, and it is to
fill this need that the material in this book is offered.

XII
 1
Helical Springs-Basic
Design Considerations

New Approach to Compression Spring Design 2

Simplified Procedure for Helical Wire Springs 8
Reducing Trial and Error in Compression Spring Design 12
For Minimum Values: Design of Helical Springs for Minimum Values 15
For Minimum Weight: Proportioning Springs for Minimum Weight 18
For Performance: Designing Springs for Performance 19
Dimensional Analysis of Helical Compression Springs 24
Dimensional Tolerance Charts for Helical Springs 30
Specifying Springs: Check Lists for Helical, Torsion and Spiral Springs 33
Fastening Springs: 29 Ways to Fasten Springs 38
Adjusting Methods:
Compression Spring Adjusting MethodsI 42
Compression Spring Adjusting MethodsII 44
Adjustable Extension Springs 46
Spring Ends: Typical Ends of Commercial Helical Springs 48
Design Charts:
For Helical Steel Springs 49
For Finding Stress and Stiffness 50
For Large Compression Springs 52
 A New Approach to
Compression
Table IDefinitions of Spring Parameters

G = Modulus of torsion, psi CALCULATION PROBLEMS for helical compression springs

d Wire diameter, in. are of two basic types, depending on whether or not the
D Mean coil dia at free height, in. spring itself is given. Having the spring given means
that five independent parameters are fixed. For example,
D = Outer coil dia at free height, in.
referring to Table I for definitions, G, d, D, N and H,
Ha = Active solid height, in. may be given. The remaining parameters and static char-
H> = Free height, in. acteristics, that is, the loads and stresses at specific heights
H, = Actual solid height, in. then can be found readily by using the conventional load-
N = Number of active coils deflection rate RPJ1., stress-deflection rate RSP, and/or the
Nt Total number of coils load-stress rate RPS, where
P = Spring load, Ib (Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to P (D
initial and final conditions, respectively). F
F = Deflection from H/ to some height H
(2)
C = Spring index = D/d RSF
S Unconnected max torsional stress, psi
(3)
K = Stress concentration factor = = -s- = -77-
RPS
4
and R Pf = R PS X RSF ()
4C - 1 0.615
+
4C - 4 C This type of problem, however, is not the one usually
S' = Corrected max. torsional stress = KS i encountered. More often, the designer must select a
Precompression factor s = Stroke of spring, spring to satisfy given space and load requirements.
in.

Table IITolerances for Diameter of Table IIIWire Diameter Tolerances

Bar Stock
Type of Wire Wire Diameter, in. Tolerance, in.
Tolerance, in. (Plus or (Plus or Minus)
Bar Diameter, in. Minus)
Music wire Up to 0.026 0.0003
0.006 0.027 to 0.063 0.0005
Over 5/16 to 7/16 inclusive Over 0.064 to 0.250 0.001
7/16 to 5/8 inclusive Over 5/8 to 0.007
7/8 inclusive Over 7/8 to 1 0.008 Carbon steel wire, Up to 0.075 0.001
inclusive Over 1 to 1 1/8 inclusive 0.009 hard drawn or oil 0.076 to 0.375 0 . 0.002
Over 1 1/8 to 1 1/4 inclusive Over 0.010 tempered 376 and larger 0.003
1 1/4 to 1 3/8 inclusive Over 1 3/8 0.011
0.012 Valve spring quality and Up to 0 . 148 0.149 0.001
to 1 1/2 inclusive Over 1 1/2 to 2 alloy steel wire to 0.177 0.178 to 0.00)5
inclusive 0.014
0.016 0.375 0.376 and 0.002
larger 0.003

lilt 8AB Handbook 15 SAB Handbook