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CIVILIZACION II (NC II)

XIV European Civilization, 1871 1914

demography / dmrfi $ -m- / noun [ uncountable ]

the study of human populations and the ways in which they change,
for example the study of how many births, marriages and deaths
happen in a particular place at a particular time
demographer noun [ countable ]

elapse / lps / verb [ intransitive not in progressive ]

formal if a particular period of time elapses, it passes :
Several months elapsed before his case was brought to trial.
The assignment must be completed within an overall elapsed time of
one week.

exert / zt $ -rt / verb [ transitive ]

1 to use your power, influence etc in order to make something
happen :
They exerted considerable influence within the school.
Environmental groups are exerting pressure on the government to
tighten pollution laws.
2 exert yourself to work very hard and use a lot of physical or
mental energy :
He has exerted himself tirelessly on behalf of the charity.
COLLOCATIONS
NOUNS
exert pressure Did Democratic leaders exert pressure on their
colleagues to vote for the new law?
exert influence These large companies exert considerable influence
over the government.
exert control The state should not exert control over the media.
exert power He exerts considerable power within the family.
exert authority It is every parent's responsibility to exert their
authority by laying down some firm rules.
exert discipline Exerting discipline is essential, especially when there
are problem students in the class.
exert effort We exerted every effort to get there on time.
exert your will (= make something happen in the way that you want )
The army exerted its will by arresting anti-government supporters.

hitherto / htu $ -r- / adverb formal

up to this time :
a species of fish hitherto unknown in the West

undermine / ndman $ -r- / verb [ transitive ]

to gradually make someone or something less strong or effective :
economic policies that threaten to undermine the health care system
undermine sbs confidence/authority/position/credibility etc
The constant criticism was beginning to undermine her confidence.
THESAURUS
spoil to have a bad effect on something so that it is much less
attractive, enjoyable etc : New housing developments are spoiling the
countryside. | The bad weather completely spoiled our holiday.
ruin to spoil something completely and permanently : Using harsh soap
to wash your face can ruin your skin. | The argument ruined the
evening for me.
mar written to spoil something by making it less attractive or
enjoyable : His handsome Arab features were marred by a long scar
across his face. | Outbreaks of fighting marred the New Year
celebrations.
detract from something to slightly spoil something that is generally
very good, beautiful, or impressive : The huge number of tourists rather
detracts from the citys appeal. | There were a few minor irritations, but
this did not detract from our enjoyment of the holiday.
undermine to spoil something that you have been trying to achieve :
The bombings undermined several months of careful negotiations.
sour to spoil a friendly relationship between people or countries : The
affair has soured relations between the UK and Russia.
poison to spoil a close relationship completely, so that people can no
longer trust each other : Their marriage was poisoned by a terrible dark
secret.
mess something up informal to spoil something important or
something that has been carefully planned : If theres any delay, it will
mess up our whole schedule.

tenet / tent, tent / noun [ countable ]

 a principle or belief, especially one that is part of a larger system of
beliefs
central/basic/fundamental etc tenet
one of the basic tenets of democracy
tenet of
the main tenet of his philosophy

wane 1 / wen / verb [ intransitive ]

1 if something such as power, influence, or a feeling wanes, it
becomes gradually less strong or less important :
My enthusiasm for the project was waning.
The groups influence had begun to wane by this time.
2 when the moon wanes, you gradually see less of it OPP wax
wax and wane at WAX 2 ( 4 )

offshoot / fut $ f- / noun [ countable ]

1 something such as an organization which has developed from a
larger or earlier one
offshoot of
The company was originally an offshoot of Bell Telephones.
the Mafia and its offshoots
2 a new stem or branch on a plant

inordinate / nd nt, nd nt $ -r- / adjective

far more than you would reasonably or normally expect SYN
excessive :
Testing is taking up an inordinate amount of teachers time.
inordinately adverb :
Shes inordinately fond of her parrot.

secularize ( also secularise British English ) / sekjlraz,

sekjlraz / verb [ transitive ]
to remove the control or influence of religious groups from a society
or an institution
secularization / sekjlraze n, sekjlraze n $ -r- / noun
[ uncountable ]
 caste / kst $ kst / noun [ uncountable and countable ]
1 one of the fixed social classes, which cannot be changed, into
which people are born in India :
the caste system
2 a group of people who have the same position in society

caste
BrE / kst /
NAmE / kst /
noun
WORD ORIGIN
EXAMPLE BANK
1 [ countable ] any of the four main divisions of Hindu society, originally those
made according to functions in society
the caste system
high-caste Brahmins
2 [ countable ] a social class, especially one whose members do not allow others
to join it
the ruling caste
3 [ uncountable ] the system of dividing society into classes based on
differences in family origin, rank or wealth
Oxford University Press, 2010

exertion / z n $ -r- / noun [ uncountable and countable ]

1 a lot of physical or mental effort :
The afternoons exertions had left us feeling exhausted.
mental exertion
2 the use of power, influence etc to make something happen :
the exertion of authority

lumber 2 noun [ uncountable ]

1 pieces of wood used for building, that have been cut to specific
lengths and widths SYN timber
2 British English informal large objects that are no longer useful or
wanted

marauding / mrd $ -r- / adjective [ only before noun ]

written
a marauding person or animal moves around looking for something
to destroy or kill :
marauding street gangs
marauder noun [ countable ]

Clan Tokugawa

Mon (emblema) del clan Tokugawa.

El clan Tokugawa (Kyujitai: , Shinjitai: Tokugawa-shi ) fue uno de

?

los clanes ms poderosos de Japn. Alcanzaron el dominio de Japn durante el perodo Edo,
en donde estableceran el shogunato Tokugawa entre 1603 y 1868.
Originalmente son descendientes del Emperador Seiwa (56 Emperador de Japn, 850 - 880)
de parte de una rama del clan Minamoto, elclan Nitta. Del clan Nitta desciende el clan
Matsudaira, que tuvo como base el Castillo Okazaki y controlaran la provincia de Mikawa a
partir del siglo XV. En 1567, Matsudaira Takechiyo recibi el permiso del Emperador en tomar
el apellido Tokugawa, y cambi su nombre a Ieyasu.
A partir de entonces, en los ltimos aos de la era Sengoku, Ieyasu comienza a ejercer poder
sobre tierras vecinas y expande la influencia del clan en Japn, hasta que en 1603 Ieyasu se
convierte en shogun. En total, unos quince shogun dominaron Japn durante un perodo de
dos siglos y medio, caracterizado por una paz relativa, hasta que en 1868 el poder de los
Tokugawa es transferido al Emperador Meiji, quien apoyado por algunos clanes rivales a los
Tokugawa, estableci la Restauracin Meiji.

Manch
Manch,
 Emperador Kangxi Yongzheng Qianlong

Emperatriz Cix Puyi Lang Lang

Otros nombres Manju

Poblacin total 10.700.000 (aproximada)

Idioma Manch

Religin Lamasmo,atesmo[cita requerida]

Etnias relacionadas Xibe, otros pueblos tunguses

[editar datos en Wikidata]

Los manches (chino simplificado: ; chino tradicional: ; pinyin: Mnz) son un grupo
tnico, originario de Manchuria.
Fueron los fundadores de la dinasta Qing que gobern China hasta el ao 1911. Actualmente,
su poblacin es de aproximadamente 10.000.000 de personas que se concentran en las
provincias de Liaoning, Jilin y Heilongjiang. Los manches forman una de las 56 minoras
tnicas oficialmente reconocidas por el gobierno de la Repblica Popular China.

curve 2 verb [ intransitive and transitive ]

to bend or move in the shape of a curve, or to make something do
this :
The track curved round the side of the hill.
A smile curved her lips.
 raid 2 verb [ transitive ]
1 if police raid a place, they make a surprise visit to search for
something illegal :
Police found weapons when they raided his home.
2 to make a sudden military attack on a place :
air bases on the mainland from which the island could be raided
raiding party (= a group taking part in an attack )
3 to go into a place and steal things :
The gang raided three homes in the area.
4 to go to a place that has supplies of food or drink and take some
because you are hungry :
Peter went into the kitchen to raid the fridge.

raid 1 / red / noun [ countable ]

1 a short attack on a place by soldiers, planes, or ships, intended to
cause damage but not take control :
a bombing raid
an air raid warning siren
raid on/against
The colonel led a successful raid against a rebel base.
launch/carry out/stage a raid
The army launched several cross-border raids last night.
AIR RAID
2 a surprise visit made to a place by the police to search for
something illegal :
a police raid
an FBI raid
raid on
Four people were arrested during a raid on a house in London.
a dawn raid (= one made very early in the morning )
3 an attack by criminals on a building where they believe they can
steal money or drugs :
a bank raid
raid on
an armed raid on a shop in Glasgow
RAM-RAIDING
4 technical an attempt by a company to buy enough SHARE s in
another company to take control of it
COLLOCATIONS
VERBS
make a raid Pirates often made daring raids on the port.
carry out a raid (= make a raid ) They were encouraged by the French
king to carry out raids upon English ships.
 launch a raid (= start a raid ) Rebel forces launched cross-border
raids.
take part in a raid They took part in various raids, including the
bombing of Cologne in 1942.
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + RAID
an air raid (= when bombs are dropped from planes ) His parents were
killed in an air raid.
a bombing raid Bombing raids had destroyed most of the country's oil
refineries.
a commando raid (= a raid by specially trained soldiers ) There had
been two unsuccessful British commando raids.
a guerrilla raid (= a raid by a small unofficial military group ) From
their base in the rainforest they staged guerilla raids on Nicaragua.
a night raid (= an attack that takes place at night ) The night raids
were almost non-stop.
a cross-border raid (= across a border between two countries ) Cross-
border raids into Kenya last year caused a serious diplomatic conflict.

smallpox / smlpks $ smlpks / noun [ uncountable ]

a serious disease that causes spots which leave marks on your skin

thence / ens / adverb formal

from there or following that :
We went to Trieste, and thence by train to Prague.

embed 1 / mbed / verb ( past tense and past participle embedded ,

present participle embedding )
1 [ intransitive, transitive usually passive ] to put something firmly
and deeply into something else, or to be put into something in this way
be embedded in something
A piece of glass was embedded in her hand.
2 [ transitive usually passive ] if ideas, attitudes, or feelings etc are
embedded, you believe or feel them very strongly :
Feelings of guilt are deeply embedded in her personality.
3 [ transitive ] to put something such as a GRAPHIC into a computer
program or page on the Internet

Cdigo Civil de Francia

Cdigo de Napolen redirige aqu. Para otras acepciones, vase Cdigo de Napolen
(desambiguacin).

Primera pgina de la edicin original del Cdigo Civil Francs de1804.

El Cdigo Civil francs (llamado Cdigo de Napolen o Cdigo Napolenico) es uno de

los ms conocidos cdigos civiles del mundo. Denominacin oficial que en 1807 se dio hasta
entonces llamado Cdigo Civil de los franceses, aprobado por la Ley del 21 de
marzo de 1804 y todava en vigor, aunque con numerosas e importantes reformas. Creado por
una comisin a la que le fue encomendada la recopilacin de la tradicin jurdica francesa, dio
como resultado la promulgacin del Code civil des Franais el 21 de marzo de 1804, durante
el gobierno de Napolen Bonaparte.
Al asumir el Primer Consulado, Napolen se propuso refundir en un solo texto legal el cmulo
de la tradicin jurdica francesa, para as terminar con la estructura jurdica del Antiguo
Rgimen, eliminando las normas especiales que afectaban slo a sectores determinados de la
poblacin (leyes para la aristocracia, leyes para los campesinos, leyes para los gremios, etc.),
y suprimiendo las normas locales que suponan un obstculo para la administracin pblica,
formulando una serie de normas aplicables de manera general; tambin se pretenda eliminar
las contradicciones y superposiciones nacidas de la convivencia de diversos regmenes
legales, apoyando la estabilidad poltica.
Esta nueva estructura se encontraba sostenida en dos ejes. Primero, tena por base el
tradicional derecho franco-germano del norte, con influencias germnicas tanto de los
principados alemanes como de los Pases Bajos. En segundo lugar, la
tradicin romanista basada en el Corpus Iuris Civilis, aunque modificada por los
comentaristas medievales, del sur de Francia.
La comisin encargada de la redaccin del Cdigo estuvo compuesta por el presidente de la
Corte de Casacin Tronchet, el juez de la misma corte Malleville, el alto oficial
administrativo Portalis y el antiguo miembro del Parlamento de Pars Bigot de Prameneu, la
comisin estuvo bajo la direccin de Cambacrs. En el plazo de cuatro meses present un
borrador que fue enviado a la Corte Superior y la Corte de Casacin para que presentaran sus
observaciones.
Finalmente fue revisado por el Consejo de Estado, presidido por Napolen, antes de ser
enviado al parlamento para su aprobacin. Pese a que Bonaparte era slo un soldado, su
poderosa e impresionante personalidad ayud a superar los obstculos formales que
presentaron las Cortes y la obstruccin del aparato burocrtico, forzando su rpida aprobacin
y entrada en vigencia. No obstante, la real participacin de Napolen en el Cdigo se vio
reducida slo a pequeos aunque trascendentales aspectos (como eldivorcio y la adopcin)
donde jugaron ante todo sus intereses personales. Recin con el paso de los aos Bonaparte
entendi la importancia capital de la codificacin legal para la vida nacional francesa:
ma vraie gloire, ce nest pas davoir gagn quarante batailles ; Waterloo effacera le souvenir de tant de
victoires. Ce que rien neffacera, ce qui vivra ternellement, cest mon code civil (en francs).

Mi verdadera gloria no est en haber ganado cuarenta batallas; Waterloo eclipsar el recuerdo de tantas
victorias. Lo que no ser borrado, lo que vivir eternamente, es mi Cdigo Civil (traduccin).

dowry / dari $ dari / noun ( plural dowries ) [ countable ]

property and money that a woman gives to her husband when they
marry in some societies

offspring / fspr $ f- / noun ( plural offspring ) [ countable ]

1 someones child or children often used humorously :
a young mother trying to control her offspring
2 an animals baby or babies SYN young :
a lion and its offspring

bulky AC / blki / adjective

1 something that is bulky is bigger than other things of its type, and
is difficult to carry or store :
a bulky parcel
2 someone who is bulky is big and heavy :
Andrew is a bulky man.
bulkiness noun [ uncountable ]

influx / nflks / noun [ countable ]

the arrival of large numbers of people or large amounts of money,
goods etc, especially suddenly
influx of
a sudden influx of cash
massive/great/huge etc influx
a large influx of tourists in the summer

propel / prpel / verb ( past tense and past participle propelled , present
participle propelling ) [ transitive ]
1 to move, drive, or push something forward propulsion :
a boat propelled by a small motor
One of our students was unable to propel her wheelchair up the ramp.
propel yourself along/through etc
She used the sticks to propel herself along.
2 written to make someone move in a particular direction, especially
by pushing them :
He took her arm and propelled her towards the door.
3 to move someone into a new situation or make them do
something
propel somebody to/into something
The film propelled her to stardom.
Company directors were propelled into action.

serfdom / sfdm $ srf- / noun [ uncountable ]

the system of using serfs, or the state of being a serf feudalism

krone / krn $ kro- / noun ( plural kroner / -n $ -nr / )

[ countable ]
the standard unit of money in Denmark and Norway

lira / lr $ lr / noun ( plural lire / -re / or liras ) [ countable ]

the standard unit of money in Malta and Turkey, and used in Italy
before the EURO

swell 1 / swel / verb ( past tense swelled , past participle swollen /

swln $ swo- / )
1 SIZE [ intransitive ] ( also swell up ) to become larger and rounder
than normal used especially about parts of the body swollen :
Her ankle was already starting to swell.
The window frame was swollen shut.
2 AMOUNT/NUMBER [ intransitive and transitive ] to increase in
amount or number
swell to
The crowd swelled to around 10,000.
The river was swollen with melted snow.
swell the ranks/numbers of something (= increase the number of
people in a particular situation )
Large numbers of refugees have swollen the ranks of the unemployed.
3 swell with pride/anger etc to feel very proud, angry etc :
His heart swelled with pride as he watched his daughter collect her
prize.
4 SHAPE [ intransitive and transitive ] ( also swell out ) to curve or
make something curve :
The wind swelled the sails.
5 SOUND [ intransitive ] literary to become louder :
Music swelled around us.
6 SEA [ intransitive ] to move suddenly and powerfully upwards
GROUNDSWELL

tap 2 verb ( past tense and past participle tapped , present participle
tapping )
1 HIT LIGHTLY [ intransitive and transitive ] to hit your fingers lightly
on something, for example to get someones attention
tap somebody on the shoulder/arm/chest etc
He turned as someone tapped him on the shoulder.
tap on
I went up and tapped on the window.
tap something on/against/from etc something
Mark tapped his fingers on the tabletop impatiently.
She tapped ash from her cigarette.
2 MUSIC [ transitive ] to make a regular pattern of sounds with your
fingers or feet, especially when you are listening to music :
She tapped her feet in time to the music.
a toe-tapping tune
3 ENERGY/MONEY [ transitive ] ( also tap into ) to use or take what is
needed from something such as an energy supply or an amount of
money :
People are tapping into the power supply illegally.
We hope that additional sources of funding can be tapped.
4 IDEAS [ transitive ] ( also tap into ) to make as much use as
possible of the ideas, experience, knowledge etc that a group of people
has :
Your advisers experience is there to be tapped.
helping people tap into training opportunities
5 TELEPHONE [ transitive ] to listen secretly to someones telephone
by using a special piece of electronic equipment :
Murrays phone calls to Australia were tapped .
6 TREE [ transitive ] to get liquid from the TRUNK of a tree by making
a hole in it
7 PLAYER [ transitive ] ( also tap up ) British English informal if a
football club taps a player from another team, it illegally tries to
persuade that player to join its team
tap something in ( also tap something into something ) phrasal
verb British English
to put information, numbers etc into a computer, telephone etc by
pressing buttons or keys :
Tap in your password before you log on.
tap something out phrasal verb
1 to hit something lightly, especially with your fingers or foot, in
order to make a pattern of sounds :
He whistled the tune and tapped out the rhythm.
2 to write something with a computer :
Brian tapped out a name on his small electronic organizer.

covet / kvt, kvt / verb [ transitive ] formal

to have a very strong desire to have something that someone else
has :
The Michelin Awards are coveted by restaurants all over the world.

coal tar noun [ uncountable ]

a thick black sticky liquid made by heating coal without air, from
which many drugs and chemical products are made :
coal tar soap

bewildering / bwld r / adjective

confusing, especially because there are too many choices or things
happening at the same time
a bewildering variety/array/range
a bewildering variety of choices
bewilderingly adverb :
The details are bewilderingly complex.
THESAURUS
confusing unclear and difficult to understand : a confusing message |
The road signs were very confusing and we ended up getting lost.
puzzling ( also perplexing formal ) confusing, especially because
something is different from what you expect : Jan's decision not to take
part in the race was very puzzling. | It was the trivial details which he
found so perplexing.
baffling extremely difficult to understand even though you have tried
for a long time : Police are close to solving one of Australia's most
baffling murder cases. | The failure was baffling, given the success of
his previous businesses.
bewildering very confusing, especially because something is strange or
new, or because there are a lot of different things : Brain diseases can
cause many bewildering changes in a person's emotions and behaviour.
| There is a bewildering number of mobile phone deals on offer.

array 1 / re / noun [ countable ]

1 [ usually singular ] a group of people or things, especially one that
is large or impressive
array of
a dazzling array of flowers
a bewildering array of options
a vast/impressive/wide array
There was a vast array of colours to choose from.
2 technical a set of numbers or signs, or of computer memory units,
arranged in lines across or down

gamut / mt / noun [ singular ]

the complete range of possibilities
gamut of
College life opened up a whole gamut of new experiences.
Her feelings that day ran the gamut of emotions (= included all the
possibilities between two extremes ) .

ore / $ r / noun [ uncountable and countable ]

rock or earth from which metal can be obtained :
iron ore
veins of rich ore

alloy 1 / l $ l, l / noun [ uncountable and countable ]

a metal that consists of two or more metals mixed together :
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.

mileage / mald / noun

1 [ countable usually singular, uncountable ] the number of miles a
vehicle has travelled since it was made :
Always check the mileage before you buy a secondhand car.
 2 [ countable usually singular, uncountable ] the number of miles
someone travels in a vehicle in a particular period of time :
Look for a car hire agreement that offers unlimited mileage.
3 [ countable usually singular, uncountable ] the number of miles a
vehicle can travel using a particular amount of FUEL :
The cars average mileage is 22.73 miles per gallon.
4 [ uncountable ] the amount of use or advantage you get from
something :
The newspapers wanted to get as much mileage from the story as they
could.
5 [ countable usually singular, uncountable ] ( also mileage
allowance ) an amount of money that is paid to someone for each mile
that they travel when they use their own car for work :
Community nurses are paid a mileage allowance.
6 [ uncountable ] the number of miles covered by a countrys roads
or railways :
plans to treble the countrys railway mileage

outstrip / atstrp / verb ( past tense and past participle outstripped ,

present participle outstripping ) [ transitive ]
1 to do something better than someone else or be more successful :
We outstripped all our competitors in sales last year.
2 to be greater in quantity than something else :
Demand for new aircraft production is outstripping supply.
3 to run or move faster than someone or something else :
Speeding at 90 mph, Denny outstripped police cars for an hour.

conveyor belt noun [ countable ]

a long continuous moving band of rubber, cloth, or metal, used in a
place such as a factory or an airport to move things from one place to
another :
We lifted our baggage from the conveyor belt.

Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, 8th edition

the Corn Laws
BrE
NAmE
noun
[ pl]
a set of British laws, first introduced in the Middle Ages , which controlled the
import and export of grain in order to protect the price of British wheat. They were
 unpopular in the 19th century when there was a shortage of wheat and the laws
were keeping the prices high. Many Members of Parliament owned agricultural
land and made large profits from these high prices. In 1846 , under pressure from
the Anti-Corn Law League, the government changed the laws.

commodity / kmdti, kmdti $ km- / noun ( plural

commodities ) [ countable ]
1 a product that is bought and sold :
agricultural commodities
Commodity prices fell sharply.
2 formal a useful quality or thing :
Time is a precious commodity.
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES
an important commodity Crude oil is the worlds most important
commodity.
an expensive commodity Consumers began to find that they could
afford more expensive commodities.
a valuable/precious commodity Land is an extremely valuable
commodity.
a rare/scarce commodity Soap was a scarce commodity during the
war.
a hot commodity (= one that a lot of people want to buy ) Web
domains ending in .com became hot commodities.
a saleable/tradeable commodity (= one that can be sold or traded )
Land is a freely saleable commodity.
agricultural commodities The falling prices of agricultural
commodities such as coffee have severely affected the economy.
industrial commodities Sales of the old industrial commodities of iron
and coal are still important.
COMMODITY + NOUN
commodity prices Commodity prices are very high in the UK.
a commodity market Coffee is facing the deepest crisis in a global
commodity market since the great depression of the 30s.
THESAURUS
product noun [ countable ] something that is made or produced in large
quantities, usually in order to be sold : consumer products such as
mobile phones | dairy products
goods noun [ plural ] things that are produced in order to be sold,
especially for use in the home : They sell furniture and other
household goods . | electrical goods | white goods (= large
electrical goods used in the home such as washing machines and
refrigerators )
commodity noun [ countable ] formal a type of product or raw material
that can be bought and sold used especially about basic food products,
metals, and fuels : The decline in prices for agricultural commodities
made the economic situation worse. | All metal was a valuable
commodity and was rarely wasted.
merchandise noun [ uncountable ] formal things that are being sold,
especially in shops : Customers are not allowed to handle the
merchandise. | Sales of books, videos, and other merchandise have
increased.
wares noun [ plural ] written things that are offered for sale, especially
in a market or on the street : In the market, the traders began selling
their wares. | Merchants brought their wares from all over the world.
export noun [ countable often plural ] a product that is sent to a foreign
country in order to be sold : US exports rose to $11.935 billion. | At the
moment, oil is their biggest export.
import noun [ countable often plural ] goods that are brought from one
country into another to be sold there : The UK clothing industry cannot
compete with foreign imports on price.

render / rend $ -r / verb [ transitive ]

1 to cause someone or something to be in a particular condition
render somebody/something impossible/harmless/unconscious
etc
He was rendered almost speechless by the news.
The blow to his head was strong enough to render him unconscious.
2 formal to give something to someone or do something, because it
is your duty or because someone expects you to :
an obligation to render assistance to those in need
render a decision/opinion/judgment etc
It is unlikely that the court will render an opinion before November 5.
a bill of $3200 for services rendered (= for something you have
done )
3 to express or present something in a particular way
render something as something
She made a sound that in print is rendered as harrumph.
render something sth
Infrared film renders blue skies a deep black.
render something in something
a sculpture rendered in bronze
4 render something into English/Russian/Chinese etc formal
to translate something into English, Russian etc
5 technical to spread PLASTER or CEMENT on the surface of a wall :
a brick wall that has been rendered and whitewashed
 6 to melt the fat of an animal as you cook it :
Steam the goose to render some of the fat.

hide 2 noun [ countable ]

1 British English a place from which you can watch animals or birds
without being seen by them SYN blind American English
2 an animals skin, especially when it has been removed to be used
for leather :
ox hide gloves
3 have/tan sbs hide spoken to punish someone severely used
humorously
4 sbs hide spoken used to talk about someone when they are in a
difficult situation :
He would say anything in court to try and save his own hide (= save
himself ) .
5 not see hide nor hair of somebody spoken to not see someone
anywhere for a fairly long time :
I havent seen hide nor hair of him for ages.

vessel / ves l / noun [ countable ]

1 formal a ship or large boat :
a fishing vessel
2 technical a VEIN in your body :
a burst blood vessel
3 old use a container for holding liquids

freight 1 / fret / noun

1 [ uncountable ] goods that are carried by ship, train, or aircraft,
and the system of moving these goods :
freight services
Well send your personal belongings by air freight and your furniture
by sea freight.
2 [ countable ] American English a FREIGHT TRAIN

far-flung adjective
1 very distant
far-flung corners/places/regions etc
expeditions to far-flung corners of the globe
people flying to far-flung destinations
2 spread out over a very large area :
 Email enables far-flung friends to keep in touch.

bond 1 AC / bnd $ bnd / noun [ countable ]

1 MONEY an official document promising that a government or
company will pay back money that it has borrowed, often with INTEREST :
My father put all his money into stock market bonds.
furious trading on the bond market
JUNK BOND , PREMIUM BOND , SAVINGS BOND
2 RELATIONSHIP something that unites two or more people or
groups, such as love, or a shared interest or idea tie
bond between
the emotional bond between mother and child
bond with
the United States special bond with Britain
bond of
lifelong bonds of friendship
3 bonds [ plural ] literary something that limits your freedom and
prevents you from doing what you want
bonds of
the bonds of fear and guilt
4 WITH GLUE the way in which two surfaces become attached to each
other using glue :
Use a glue gun to form a strong bond on wood or china.
5 CHEMISTRY technical the chemical force that holds atoms together
in a MOLECULE :
In each methane molecule there are four CH bonds.
6 WRITTEN AGREEMENT a written agreement to do something, that
makes you legally responsible for doing it contract
7 my word is my bond formal used to say that you will definitely
do what you have promised
8 in/out of bond technical in or out of a BONDED WAREHOUSE
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES
a close/strong bond A strong bond had developed between them.
a common bond (= one that people share ) They shared a common
bond a love of literature.
a special bond There was a special bond between him and his mother.
an emotional bond As soon as we met we felt an emotional bond.
VERBS
form/forge a bond (= make a bond ) Frequently horses form a strong
bond with their riders.
have a bond Twins often have a very close bond.
feel a bond The people of the island feel a strong bond with each other.
strengthen a bond Sharing experiences strengthens bonds with
friends.
break/destroy a bond He didnt want to do anything to break the
bond between them.
a bond develops (= a bond of friendship developed between them )
Over six months of working together, a close bond developed.

clime / klam / noun [ countable usually plural ] literary

a place that has a particular type of CLIMATE :
sunnier climes

thrifty / rfti / adjective

using money carefully and wisely SYN economical :
hard-working, thrifty people
thriftily adverb
thriftiness noun [ uncountable ]

forgo / f $ fro / verb ( past tense forwent / -went / , past

participle forgone / -n $ -n / , present participle forgoing ) [ transitive ]
to not do or have something pleasant or enjoyable SYN go without
I had to forgo lunch.

holding W3 / hld $ hol- / noun [ countable ]

something which a person owns, especially land or SHARE s in a
company
holding in
The government has decided to sell its 21% holding in the firm.
land/property/currency etc holding
companies with large property holdings

hostage / hstd $ h- / noun [ countable ]

1 someone who is kept as a prisoner by an enemy so that the other
side will do what the enemy demands kidnap :
The group are holding two tourists hostage (= keeping them as
hostages ) .
a family taken hostage at gunpoint
 2 be (a) hostage to something to be influenced and controlled by
something, so that you are not free to do what you want :
Our country must not be held hostage to our past.
3 a hostage to fortune something that you have promised to do
that may cause you problems in the future
THESAURUS
prisoner someone who is kept in a prison as a punishment for a crime,
or while they are waiting for their TRIAL : Prisoners may be locked in
their cells for twenty-two hours a day. | a prisoner serving a life
sentence for murder
convict especially written someone who has been found guilty of a
crime and sent to a prison. Convict is used especially about someone
who is sent to prison for a long time. It is more commonly used in
historical descriptions, or in the phrase an escaped convict : The
convicts were sent from England to Australia. | Police were hunting for
an escaped convict. | Low-risk convicts help to fight forest fires and
clean up public lands.
inmate someone who is kept in a prison or a mental hospital : Some
inmates are allowed to have special privileges. | He was described by a
fellow inmate as a quiet man.
captive especially literary someone who is kept somewhere and not
allowed to go free, especially in a war or fighting. Captive is a rather
formal word which is used especially in literature : Their objective was
to disarm the enemy and release the captives. | She was held captive
(= kept as a prisoner ) in the jungle for over three years.
prisoner of war a soldier, member of the navy etc who is caught by
the enemy during a war and kept in the enemys country : My grandad
was a prisoner of war in Germany. | They agreed to release two Iranian
prisoners of war.
hostage someone who is kept somewhere as a prisoner, in order to
force people to agree to do something, for example in order to get
money or to achive a political aim : Diplomats are continuing their
efforts to secure the release of the hostages. | The US hostages were
held in Tehran for over a year.
detainee/internee someone who is kept in a prison, usually because
of their political views and often without a trial : In some cases, political
detainees have been beaten or mistreated. | 23,531 people passed
through the camps between 1944 and 1962, including 14,647 political
internees. | the detainees at Guantanamo Bay

proceeds AC / prsidz $ pro- / noun [ plural ] formal

the money that is obtained from doing something or selling
something profit :
We sold the business and bought a villa in Spain with the proceeds.
proceeds of/from
The proceeds of the concert will go to charity.

lag 1 / l / verb ( past tense and past participle lagged , present participle
lagging )
1 [ intransitive and transitive ] to move or develop more slowly than
others
lag behind
She stopped to wait for Ian who was lagging behind.
Britain is lagging behind the rest of Europe.
2 [ transitive ] British English to cover water pipes etc with a special
material to prevent the water inside them from freezing or the heat from
being lost :
Weve had the hot-water tank lagged.

Crimean War, the

(185356) a war between Russia on one side, and Britain, France,
Turkey, and Sardinia on the other. It started because Britain and France
believed that Russia intended to take control of the Balkans (=
southeast Europe ) , and it ended when the Russians were defeated and
lost control of their naval base at Sevastopol. In the UK most people
connect the Crimean War with Florence NIGHTINGALE , who cared for the
injured soldiers and developed new ideas about nursing, and with a
battle called the CHARGE OF THE LIGHT BRIGADE , a serious military mistake
in which many British soldiers were killed.

the Crimean War

BrE
NAmE
a war fought by Britain, France and Turkey against Russia between 1853 and 1856
in the Crimea, a part of the Ukraine. Russia wanted power over Turkey, and Britain
and France wanted to end Russias power in the Black Sea. Most of the military
action was around Sebastopol, the Russian navy base. It was the first war during
which the European public were able to follow events as they happened, because of
the invention of the telegraph (= a device for sending messages along wires by the
use of electric current ) .
See also Charge of the Light Brigade , See also Nightingale
Oxford University Press, 2010
 gross adjective, adverb, verb, noun
BrE / rs /
NAmE / ros /
adjective
WORD ORIGIN
SYNONYMS
EXAMPLE BANK
( gross er , gross est )

1 [ only before noun ] being the total amount of sth before anything is taken
away
gross weight (= including the container or wrapping)
gross income/wage (= before taxes, etc. are taken away)
Investments showed a gross profit of 26%.
compare net
2 [ only before noun ] ( formal or law ) ( of a crime, etc. ) very obvious and
unacceptable
gross indecency/negligence/misconduct
a gross violation of human rights
3 ( informal ) very unpleasant
disgusting
He ate it with mustard. Oh, gross!
4 very rude
crude
gross behaviour
5 very fat and ugly
She's not just fat, she's positively gross!
gross ness / BrE rsns ; NAmE rosns / noun [ uncountable ]

adverb
WORD ORIGIN
in total, before anything is taken away
She earns 25000 a year gross.
compare net
verb
VERB FORMS
WORD ORIGIN
EXAMPLE BANK
~ sth
to earn a particular amount of money before tax has been taken off it
It is one of the biggest grossing movies of all time.
The concert grossed a massive 2 million at the box office.
gross sb out ( NAmE , informal ) to be very unpleasant and make sb feel
disgusted
disgust
His bad breath really grossed me out.
noun
WORD ORIGIN
1 ( pl. gross ) a group of 144 things
two gross of apples
to sell sth by the gross
2 ( pl. grosses ) ( especially US ) a total amount of money earned by sth,
especially a film/movie, before any costs are taken away
Oxford University Press, 2010

draft 1 S2 W3 AC / drft $ drft / noun [ countable ]

1 PIECE OF WRITING a piece of writing or a plan that is not yet in its
finished form :
the rough draft of his new novel
I read the first draft and thought it was very good.
All parties eventually approved the final draft (= finished form ) of the
peace treaty.
2 MILITARY the draft American English
a) a system in which people are ordered to join the army, navy etc,
especially during a war SYN conscription
b) the group of people who are ordered to do this
3 MONEY especially British English a written order for money to be
paid by a bank, especially from one bank to another
4 SPORTS American English a system in which professional teams
choose players from colleges to join their teams
5 COLD AIR/BEER the American spelling of DRAUGHT
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES
the first/second etc draft The second draft of the agreement
contained a few important changes.
the final draft (= the finished form ) He showed me the final draft of
his letter.
a rough draft (= not the finished form ) Could you let me see a rough
draft of your report?
the original draft (= the first one ) The hero had a different name in
the original draft of the story.
an early/earlier draft (= written before others ) In earlier drafts of
the speech, he criticized the pace of political progress.
a preliminary draft (= coming before others ) A preliminary draft of
the charter has been issued.
VERBS
write/draw up/prepare a draft (= write one ) Always write a rough
draft of your essay first. | He drew up a draft of the clubs rules and
regulations.
 approve a draft (= officially accept one ) The draft was approved by
the Senate.

burden 1 / bdn $ brdn / noun

1 [ countable ] something difficult or worrying that you are
responsible for :
His family responsibilities had started to become a burden.
burden of
The burden of taxation has risen considerably.
burden on
I dont like being a burden on other people.
bear/carry the burden
If things go wrong he will bear the burden of guilt.
the tax/financial/debt burden
2 the burden of proof law the duty to prove that something is true
3 [ countable ] something that is carried SYN load
BEAST OF BURDEN
COLLOCATIONS
VERBS
bear/carry/shoulder the burden (= be responsible for something )
At the age of 16, Suzy bore the burden of providing for her family.
place/put a burden on somebody This situation places the main
burden of family care on women.
share the burden I was glad my brother was there to share the
burden.
ease/reduce/lighten the burden Smaller classes would ease the
burden for teachers.
shift the burden (= change who carries it ) The tax shifts the burden
towards the rich.
a burden falls on somebody The tax burden falls most heavily upon
the poorest people.
lift the burden from somebody's shoulders If I deal with the all the
practical problems, that will lift the burden from your shoulders.
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + BURDEN
a heavy/great burden Caring for elderly relatives can be a heavy
burden.
a financial burden the financial burden of a large mortgage
a tax burden These changes will ease the tax burden for small
businesses.
a debt burden He made a serious attempt ease the country's debt
burden.
an intolerable burden (= very hard to bear ) Too many exams can
place an intolerable burden on young people.
 an unfair/undue burden The new legislation put an unfair burden on
employers.
PHRASES
the burden of responsibility He felt unable to cope with the burden of
responsibility.
the burden of taxation The burden of taxation falls more heavily on
the poor.

apex / epeks / noun [ countable ]

1 technical the top or highest part of something pointed or curved :
the apex of the roof
the apex of a pyramid
2 formal the most important position in an organization or society :
The king was at the apex of society.
3 formal the most successful part of something SYN peak :
He was at the apex of his career.

pinch 2 noun [ countable ]

1 pinch of salt/pepper etc a small amount of salt, pepper etc that
you can hold between your finger and thumb :
Add a pinch of salt to taste.
2 when you press someones skin between your finger and thumb :
She gave him a playful pinch.
3 at a pinch British English , in a pinch American English used to
say that you could do something if necessary in a difficult or urgent
situation :
Theres space for three people. Four at a pinch.
If youre in a pinch, Im sure theyd look after Jenny for a while.
4 take something with a pinch of salt used to say that you
should not always completely believe what a particular person says :
You have to take what he says with a pinch of salt.
5 feel the pinch to have financial difficulties, especially because
you are not making as much money as you used to make :
Local stores and businesses are beginning to feel the pinch.

slacken / slkn / verb [ intransitive and transitive ] written

1 ( also slacken off ) to gradually become slower, weaker, less
active etc, or to make something do this :
The heavy rain showed no signs of slackening off.
slacken your pace/speed (= go or walk more slowly )
Guy slackened his pace as he approached the gate.
 2 to make something looser, or to become looser OPP tighten :
He did not let her go, but his grip on her slackened.

laissez-faire , laisser-faire / lese fe, le- $ -fer / noun

[ uncountable ]
1 the principle that the government should allow the ECONOMY or
private businesses to develop without any state control or influence :
the policy of laissez-faire
laissez-faire economics/capitalism
2 laissez-faire attitude/approach etc when you do not become
involved in other peoples personal affairs

liability / lablti, lablti / noun

1 [ uncountable ] legal responsibility for something, especially for
paying money that is owed, or for damage or injury
liability for
Tenants have legal liability for any damage they cause.
liability to
your liability to capital gains tax
liability to do something
The court ruled there was no liability to pay any refund.
2 liabilities [ plural ] technical the amount of debt that must be
paid OPP assets
3 [ singular ] someone or something that is likely to cause problems
for someone :
A kid like Tom would be a liability in any classroom.
liability to
The outspoken minister has become a liability to the government.
4 liability to something law the amount by which something is
likely to be affected by a particular kind of problem, illness etc
LIMITED LIABILITY
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + LIABILITY
full liability (= complete responsibility ) The driver of the other car
accepted full liability for the accident.
limited liability (= when someone is responsible for damages or debts
for a limited amount of money ) Limited liability encourages managers
to take more risks with shareholder funds than they would otherwise.
unlimited liability (= when someone is responsible for damages or
debts for the full amount of money ) Under the agreement, the
insurance company has unlimited liability.
 legal liability (= responsibility for something that is covered by laws )
What is the legal liability of an employer in the event of an accident at
work?
criminal liability (= responsiblity for injury or damage covered by
criminal law ) A child under the age of ten cannot face criminal liability
for its acts.
civil liability (= responsiblity for injury or damage covered by civil
law ) A company operating a ship which spills oil into the sea will face
civil liability.
tax liability (= a legal responsibility to pay tax ) The government is
planning to increase the tax liability on company cars.
personal liability (= when an individual person is legally responsible )
Directors can incur personal liability for errors made by their companies.
VERBS
have liability The parents of these children may have some liability.
accept/admit liability The company accepts no liability for any loss,
inconvenience, or delay caused by a cancellation of train services.
assume liability (= take the responsibility for something, which you
did not have before ) You would then assume the tax liability for the
account.
incur liability (= be in a situation in which you must take responsibility
for something ) The transfer of property will not incur a liability to
inheritance tax.
deny liability (= say you are not responsible for something ) The
defendants continued to deny liability for Peck's death.
escape/avoid liability The defendant escaped liability by proving that
he had taken all possible measures to avoid the accident.
LIABILITY + NOUN
a liability claim (= a claim that someone is legally responsible ) A
liability claim was made by a consumer injured by the product.
liability insurance/cover (= insurance that protects you against a
liability claim ) Many house and contents insurance policies have
provision for liability insurance for claims of negligence against you.

enact / nkt / verb [ transitive ]

1 formal to act in a play, story etc :
a drama enacted on a darkened stage
2 law to make a proposal into a law :
Congress refused to enact the bill.
enactment noun [ uncountable and countable ]

pool 1 S2 W2 / pul / noun

 1 FOR SWIMMING [ countable ] a hole or container that has been
specially made and filled with water so that people can swim or play in it
SYN swimming pool :
They have a nice pool in their backyard.
a shallow pool suitable for children
2 AREA OF WATER [ countable ] a small area of still water in a hollow
place :
pools of water with tiny fish in them
Mosquitoes breed in stagnant pools of water.
3 pool of water/blood/light etc a small area of liquid or light on
a surface :
A guard found him lying in a pool of blood.
a pool of light formed by the street lamp above
4 GAME [ uncountable ] a game in which you use a stick to hit
numbered balls into holes around a table, which is often played in bars
shoot/play pool
We went to the pub and played pool.
5 GROUP OF PEOPLE [ countable ] a group of people who are available
to work or to do an activity when they are needed
pool of
a pool of talented applicants to choose from
The region has a large and talented labour pool .
6 SHARED MONEY/THINGS [ countable usually singular ] a number of
things that are shared or an amount of money that is shared by a group
of people :
Both partners put money into a common pool.
7 the pools a system in Britain in which people try to win money
each week by guessing the results of football games :
I do the pools sometimes.
Dad won 40 on the pools .
8 SPORTS [ countable ] American English a game in which people try
to win money by guessing the result of a sports game, or the money
that is collected from these people for this :
the office basketball pool
THESAURUS
lake a large area of water surrounded by land : Lake Michigan | We
went for a swim in the lake.
lagoon an area of water that is separated from the sea by rocks, sand,
or CORAL : a tropical lagoon | coastal lagoons
loch in Scotland, a lake or an area of sea water that is almost
completely surrounded by land : Loch Ness | a sea loch
reservoir a lake, especially an artificial one, where water is stored
before it is supplied to people's houses : The reservoirs supply water to
Greater Manchester.
pond a small area of fresh water that is smaller than a lake, which is
either natural or artificially made : There were several ducks on the
village pond.
pool a small area of still water in a hollow place : a pool of water near
the summit of the mountain | a rockpool (= a pool in some rocks near
the sea )
puddle a very small area of water on the ground, especially after it has
been raining : She turned quickly to avoid stepping in a puddle.
waterhole a small area of water in a dry country, where wild animals
go to drink : The waterhole is used by elephants.

retail 1 / ritel / noun [ uncountable ]

the sale of goods in shops to customers, for their own use and not
for selling to anyone else wholesale
the retail trade/business
a manager with twenty years experience in the retail business
retail outlet/shop/store/chain
We are looking for more retail outlets for our products.
a retail price of 8.99
The retail value would be around $500.
Retail sales fell by 1.3% in January.

blast furnace noun [ countable ]

a large industrial structure in which iron is separated from the rock
that surrounds it

furnace / fns, fns $ fr- / noun [ countable ]

1 a large container for a very hot fire, used to produce power, heat,
or liquid metal
2 a piece of equipment used to heat a building

antitrust / ntitrst / adjective [ only before noun ]

intended to prevent companies from unfairly controlling prices :
new tougher antitrust laws
an antitrust investigation

Sherman Antitrust Act

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sen. John Sherman (ROH), the principal author of the Sherman Antitrust Act.

Competition law

Basic concepts

History of competition law

Monopoly

Coercive monopoly

Natural monopoly

Barriers to entry

HerfindahlHirschman Index

Market concentration

Market power
 SSNIP test

Relevant market

Merger control

Anti-competitive practices

Monopolization

Collusion

Formation of cartels

Price fixing

Bid rigging

Product bundling and tying

Refusal to deal

Group boycott

Essential facilities

Exclusive dealing

Dividing territories

Conscious parallelism

Predatory pricing

Misuse of patents andcopyrights

Enforcement authorities and organizations

International Competition Network

List of competition regulators

 This box:

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The Sherman Antitrust Act (Sherman Act,[1] 26 Stat. 209, 15 U.S.C. 17) is a landmark
federal statute in the history of United States antitrust law (or "competition law") passed by
Congress in 1890. Passed under the presidency of Benjamin Harrison, it prohibits certain
business activities that federal government regulators deem to be anti-competitive, and
requires the federal government to investigate and pursue trusts.
In the general sense, a trust is a centuries-old form of a contract whereby one party entrusts its
property to a second party. These are commonly used to hold inheritances for the benefit of
children, for example. The specific sense from 19th Century America used in the law refers to a
type of trust which combines several large businesses for monopolistic purposes - to exert
complete control over a market - though the law addresses monopolistic practices even if they
have nothing to do with this specific legal arrangement. [2] In most countries outside the United
States, antitrust law is known as "competition law."
The law attempts to prevent the artificial raising of prices by restriction of trade or supply.
[3]
"Innocent monopoly", or monopoly achieved solely by merit, is perfectly legal, but acts by a
monopolist to artificially preserve that status, or nefarious dealings to create a monopoly, are
not. The purpose of the Sherman Act is not to protect competitors from harm from legitimately
successful businesses, nor to prevent businesses from gaining honest profits from consumers,
but rather to preserve a competitive marketplace to protect consumers from abuses.
(European competition law extends beyond this, to the protection of competitors, at the
expense of consumers and overall efficiency.[4])
Over time, the Act has also been used more broadly, to oppose the combination of entities that
could potentially harm competition, such asmonopolies or cartels.

trust 1 S1 W2 / trst / noun

1 BELIEF [ uncountable ] a strong belief in the honesty, goodness etc
of someone or something :
At first there was a lack of trust between them.
an agreement made on the basis of mutual trust (= when people trust
each other )
put/place your trust in somebody/something
You shouldnt put your trust in a man like that.
You betrayed your fathers trust (= did something bad even though he
trusted you ) .
breach of trust at BREACH 1 ( 3 )
2 ORGANIZATION [ countable usually singular ] an organization or
group that has control over money that will be used to help someone
else :
a charitable trust
3 FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENT [ uncountable and countable ] an
arrangement by which someone has legal control of your money or
property, either until you are old enough to use it or to INVEST it for
you :
The money your father left you will be held in trust until you are 21.
TRUST FUND , UNIT TRUST
4 take something on trust to believe that something is true
without having any proof :
I just had to take it on trust that he would deliver the money.
5 position of trust a job or position in which you have been given
the responsibility of making important decisions
6 COMPANIES [ countable ] especially American English a group of
companies that illegally work together to reduce competition and control
prices :
anti-trust laws

amenable / minb l $ min- men- / adjective

1 willing to accept what someone says or does without arguing :
She was always a very amenable child.
amenable to
Young people are more amenable than older citizens to the idea of
immigration.
2 suitable for a particular type of treatment
amenable for/to
Such conditions may be amenable to medical intervention.

Chartists, the / ttsts, ttsts $ tr- /

a political group of people that was active in the UK in the 1830s and
1840s. They demanded changes that were regarded as very extreme at
that time, such as giving all men the right to vote and to become
Members of Parliament. Some of them were sent to prisons in Australia
as a punishment.

welfare state / $ ... / noun

1 the welfare state a system in which the government provides
money, free medical care etc for people who are unemployed, ill, or too
old to work social security
2 [ countable ] a country with such a system

cleavage / klivd / noun [ uncountable and countable ]

1 the space between a womans breasts
 2 formal a difference between two people or things that often causes
problems or arguments

Bismarck, Otto von / bzmk $ -mrk, t vn $ t vn /

(181598) a German politician who was mainly responsible for
joining all the separate German states together to form one country,
and who then became CHANCELLOR of Germany. He was known as the
Iron Chancellor.

besiege / bsid / verb [ transitive ]

1 to surround a city or castle with military force until the people
inside let you take control siege :
In April 655, Osmans palace was besieged by rebels.
2 [ usually passive ] if people, worries, thoughts etc besiege you,
you are surrounded by them :
Miller was besieged by press photographers.
3 be besieged with letters/demands/requests etc to receive a
very large number of letters, requests etc SYN be inundated
THESAURUS
TO ATTACK A PLACE
attack to use weapons to try to damage or take control of a place : The
village was attacked by enemy warplanes. | We will attack at dawn.
invade to enter a country and try to get control of it using force : The
Romans invaded Britain 2,000 years ago.
storm to suddenly attack a city or building that is well defended by
getting inside it and taking control : Elite troops stormed the building
and rescued the hostages.
besiege / bsid / to surround a city or building with soldiers in order to
stop the people inside from getting out or from receiving supplies : In
April 655, Osmans palace was besieged by rebels.

Jacobite / dkbat / noun [ countable ]

someone in the 17th or 18th centuries who supported King James II
of England and wanted one of his DESCENDANT s to rule England
Jacobite adjective

commune 1 / kmjun $ k-, kmjun / noun [ countable ]

1 a group of people who live together and who share the work and
their possessions :
a hippie commune
 2 the smallest unit of local government in countries such as France
and Belgium
3 a group of people in a Communist country who work as a team on
a farm, and give what they produce to the state

inveterate / nvet rt, nvet rt / adjective [ only before noun

] written
1 inveterate liar/smoker/womanizer etc someone who lies a
lot, smokes a lot etc and cannot stop
2 inveterate fondness/distrust/hatred etc an attitude or feeling
that you have had for a long time and cannot change

French Third Republic

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

French Republic

Rpublique franaise

18701940

Flag Emblem
(unofficial)

Motto
"Libert, galit, fraternit" (French)
"Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"

Anthem
"La Marseillaise"
 MENU

0:00

France in 1939

France

French protectorates

France in September 1939

Dark blue: Metropolitan territory of the Republic
Light blue: Colonies, mandates, and protectorates of
France

Capital Paris

Languages French
Religion Catholicism,
disestablished
1905

Government Parliamentary
republic
President
18711873 Adolphe
Thiers (first)
19321940 Albert
Lebrun (last)
President of the Council
of Ministers
18701871 Louis Jules
Trochu
1940 Philippe Ptain

Legislature Parliament
Upper house Senate
Lower house Chamber of
Deputies

History
Proclamation by Leon 4 September
Gambetta 1870
Vichy Franceestablished 10 July 1940

Population
est. 35,565,800

Currency French Franc

Today part of France

Algeria

Part of a series on the

History of France
 Prehistory[show]

Ancient[show]

Early Middle Ages[show]

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v
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The French Third Republic (French: La Troisime Rpublique, sometimes written as La

IIIe Rpublique) is the term used to denote the system of government adopted in France from
1870, when the Second French Empire collapsed, until 1940, when France's defeat by Nazi
Germany in World War II led to the formation of the Vichy government in France. It came to an
end on 10 July 1940, when the National Assembly of the Third Republic under its last
President Paul Reynaud delegated all constitutional powers[1][2] to Marshal Philippe Ptain of the
rump French State in the Zone libre ("Free Zone") in the south of France.
The early days of the Third Republic were dominated by political disruptions caused by
the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, which the Republic continued to wage after the fall of
Emperor Napoleon III in 1870. Harsh reparations exacted by the Prussians after the war
resulted in the loss of the French regions of Alsace (in its entirety) and Lorraine (the
northeastern part, i.e. present-daydpartement de la Moselle), social upheaval, and the
establishment of the Paris Commune. The early governments of the Third Republic considered
re-establishing the monarchy, but confusion as to the nature of that monarchy and who should
be awarded the throne caused those talks to stall. Thus, the Third Republic, which was
originally intended as a provisional government, instead became the permanent government of
France.
The French Constitutional Laws of 1875 defined the composition of the Third Republic. It
consisted of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate to form the legislative branch of government
and a president to serve as head of state. Issues over the re-establishment of the monarchy
dominated the tenures of the first two presidents, Adolphe Thiers and Patrice de MacMahon,
but the growing support for the republican form of government in the French population and a
series of republican presidents during the 1880s quashed all plans for a monarchical
restoration.
The Third Republic established many French colonial possessions, including French
Indochina, French Madagascar, French Polynesia, and large territories in West Africa during
the Scramble for Africa, all of them acquired during the last two decades of the 19th century.
The early years of the 20th century were dominated by the Democratic Republican Alliance,
which was originally conceived as a centre-left political alliance, but over time became the
main centre-right party. The period from the start of World War I to the late 1930s featured
sharply polarized politics, between the Democratic Republican Alliance and the
more Radicalsocialists. The government fell during the early years of World War II as the
Germans occupied France and was replaced by the rival governments of Charles de
Gaulle's Free France (La France libre) and Philippe Ptain's Vichy France (L'tat franais).
Adolphe Thiers called republicanism in the 1870s "the form of government that divides France
least," however, politics under the Third Republic were sharply polarized. On the left stood
Reformist France, heir to the French Revolution. On the right stood conservative France,
rooted in the peasantry, the Roman Catholic Church and the army.[3] In spite of France's sharply
divided electorate and persistent attempts to overthrow it, the Third Republic endured for
seventy years, which makes it the longest lasting system of government in France since the
collapse of the Ancien Rgime in 1789. The present French Fifth Republic would have to
endure at least to the year 2028 to exceed this record.

bloc / blk $ blk / noun [ countable usually singular ]

a large group of people or countries with the same political aims,
working together :
the former Soviet bloc
EN BLOC

prefecture / prifekt $ -tr / noun [ countable ]

a large area which has its own local government in some countries :
Saitama prefecture
upheaval / phiv l / noun [ uncountable and countable ]
a very big change that often causes problems :
political upheaval
Moving house is a major upheaval .

curb 1 / kb $ krb / verb [ transitive ]

to control or limit something in order to prevent it from having a
harmful effect :
measures to curb the spread of the virus
 disgruntled / dsrntld / adjective
annoyed or disappointed, especially because things have not
happened in the way that you wanted :
a disgruntled client

Dreyfus, Alfred / drefs, lfrd /

(18591935) a French army officer who was put in prison in 1894
for selling military secrets to the Germans. It was soon discovered that
he was not guilty, and many French writers and politicians protested
about him being in prison, especially the writer Emile ZOLA , who wrote a
famous newspaper article with the title J'accuse! (=I accuse). But the
army and many newspapers persuaded the government to keep him in
prison because they had an unreasonable dislike of him because he was
Jewish. He was eventually let out of prison and officially judged to be
not guilty. These events became known as the Dreyfus Affair.

riddled / rdld / adjective

1 riddled with something very full of something bad or unpleasant
:
The whole house was riddled with damp.
By this time her body was riddled with cancer.
2 riddled with holes full of small holes :
The wall of the fort was riddled with bullet holes.

propertied / prptid $ prpr- / adjective [ only before noun ]

formal
owning a lot of property or land :
the propertied classes

compel / kmpel / verb ( past tense and past participle compelled ,

present participle compelling ) [ transitive ]
1 to force someone to do something compulsion
compel somebody to do something
The law will compel employers to provide health insurance.
She felt compelled to resign because of the scandal.
2 formal to make people have a particular feeling or attitude
compulsion :
His performance compelled the audiences attention .
THESAURUS
force to make someone do something they do not want to do. Used
when people or situations make you do something : They were beaten
and forced to confess to crimes they had not committed. | The drought
forced millions of farmers to sell their cattle.
make to force someone to do something by using pressure, threats, or
violence. Make somebody do something is more common than force
somebody to do something in everyday English : Her parents
disapproved of Alex and they made her stop seeing him. | Two men
with guns made the staff hand over the money.
pressure ( also pressurize British English ) to try to force someone to
do something by making them feel that they should do it : Some
employers pressure their staff into working very long hours. | She felt
they were trying to pressurize her into getting married.
blackmail to force someone to give you money or do what you want by
threatening to tell embarrassing secrets about them : She tried to
blackmail him with photographs of them together at the hotel.
compel [ usually passive ] formal to force someone to do something
using official power or authority. Also used when someone has to do
something because of their situation : The town was surrounded and
compelled to surrender. | I felt compelled to offer them some kind of
explanation. | You are compelled by law to carry an ID card.
coerce / ks $ kors / formal to force someone to do something by
threatening them : Local people were coerced into joining the rebel
army.
be obliged to do something formal if someone is obliged to do
something, they must do it because it is the law or the rule, or because
of the situation they are in : You are not obliged to say anything which
may harm your defence in court. | They were obliged to sell the land.

weather 2 verb
1 [ transitive ] to come through a very difficult situation safely :
The company weathered the storm of objections to the scheme.
Northern Ireland weathered the recession better than any other region
in the UK.
2 [ intransitive and transitive ] if rock, wood, or someones face is
weathered by the wind, sun, rain etc, or if it weathers, it changes colour
or shape over a period of time :
The brick has weathered to a lovely pinky-brown.
Her face was weathered by the sun.
 Chartist
BrE
NAmE
noun
[ usu pl]
a member of a group of people in Britain in the 1830s and 1840s who supported the
Peoples Charter . This document demanded improvements to the political
system, such as the right to vote for all adult men, the right to vote in secret, and
the right to become a Member of Parliament without owning land. Over three
million people signed the Charter, and some Chartists took part in political
violence, but most of the changes they demanded were not made until much later.
Oxford University Press, 2010

Gladstone, William Ewart / ldstn $ -stn, wljm jut

$ -rt /
(180998) a British politician in the Liberal Party, who was Prime
Minister four times (186874, 188085, 1886, 189294). He established
a system of primary education for all children, and also introduced
secret voting rights for most males. He supported the idea of limited
independence for Ireland, but did not succeed in persuading Parliament
to accept this policy.

Disraeli, Benjamin / dzreli, bendmn /

(180481) a British politician in the CONSERVATIVE PARTY who was
Prime Minister of the UK in 1868 and from 1874 to 1880. He also wrote
several novels, including Sybil .
Reform Act 1832
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Start of parchment roll of the Reform Act 1832, with royal assent of King William IVmarked above Le Roy
le veult

A painting by Sir George Hayter that commemorates the passing of the Act. It depicts the first session of
the newly reformed House of Commons on 5 February 1833 held in St. Stephen's Chapel. In the
foreground, the leading statesmen from the Lords: Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey (17641845), William
Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne (17791848) and the Whigs on the left; and Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of
Wellington (17691852) and the Tories on the right. Currently in theNational Portrait Gallery.

The Representation of the People Act 1832 (known informally as the 1832 Reform
Act, Great Reform Act or First Reform Act to distinguish it from subsequent Reform Acts)
was an Act of Parliament (indexed as 2 & 3 Will. IV c. 45) that introduced wide-ranging
changes to the electoral system of England and Wales. According to its preamble, the Act was
designed to "take effectual Measures for correcting divers Abuses that have long prevailed in
the Choice of Members to serve in the Commons House of Parliament".[1]Before the reform,
most members nominally represented boroughs. The number of electors in a borough varied
widely, from a dozen or so up to 12,000. Frequently the selection of MPs was effectively
 controlled by one powerful patron: for example Charles Howard, 11th Duke of
Norfolk controlled eleven boroughs. Criteria for qualification for the franchise varied greatly
among boroughs, from the requirement to own land, to merely living in a house with a hearth
sufficient to boil a pot.
There had been calls for reform long before 1832, but without success. The Act that finally
succeeded was proposed by the Whigs, led by Prime Minister Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey. It
met with significant opposition from the Pittite factions in Parliament, who had long governed
the country; opposition was especially pronounced in the House of Lords. Nevertheless, the bill
was eventually passed, mainly as a result of public pressure. The Act granted seats in the
House of Commons to large cities that had sprung up during the Industrial Revolution, and
removed seats from the "rotten boroughs": those with very small electorates and usually
dominated by a wealthy patron. The Act also increased the electorate from about 500,000 to
813,000, with about one in five adult males allowed to vote, from a total population (including
women and children) of some 14 million (about 5.8% of the total population - in comparison: in
Baden, Germany, it was 17% at that time, in France 5%).[2]
The full title is An Act to amend the representation of the people in England and Wales. Its
formal short title and citation is "Representation of the People Act 1832 (2 & 3 Wm. IV, c. 45)".
The Act applied only in England and Wales; the Scottish Reform Act 1832 and Irish Reform Act
1832 brought similar changes to Scotland and Ireland, respectively.[3]

Second Reform Act 1867

The 1832 Reform Act proved that change was possible. The parliamentary elite
felt that they had met the need for change but among the working classes there
were demands for more. The growth and influence of the Chartist Movement from
1838 onwards was an indication that more parliamentary reform was desired.

The Chartist Movement had peaked by the 1850s but there was an acceptance among
Members of Parliament that there was more work to be done to remove anomalies in the
system that the first Reform Act had not addressed.

Landowners
However, the call for universal manhood suffrage or 'one man, one vote' was still resisted
by Parliament and the second Reform Act, passed in 1867, was still based around property
qualifications.

There was no question of campaigning for the right to vote for women too. They were still
excluded.

The 1867 Reform Act:

granted the vote to all householders in the boroughs as well as lodgers who paid
rent of 10 a year or more
reduced the property threshold in the counties and gave the vote to agricultural
landowners and tenants with very small amounts of land
Men in urban areas who met the property qualification were enfranchised and the Act
roughly doubled the electorate in England and Wales from one to two million men.
 sportsmanship / sptsmnp $ sprts- / noun [ uncountable ]
behaviour that is fair, honest, and polite in a game or sports
competition :
His sportsmanship and style of play are refreshing.
good/bad/poor sportsmanship (= good or bad behaviour in a sport )
We try to teach the kids good sportsmanship.

The 1870 Education Act

In the 1860s the annual funding allocated for schools by Parliament exceeded
800,000. But there was growing pressure for the state to provide schools in
areas where none existed. One of the chief stumbling blocks was the vested
interests of religious societies. There was conflict of opinion over whether the
state should pay for schools run by particular religious denominations, or
whether schools should have no association with any denomination.

School funding

National Education League

Matters began to move forward, however, in 1869 when the recently formed National
Education League began its campaign for free, compulsory and non-religious education for
all children.

The views expressed by industrialists that mass education was vital to the nation's ability to
maintain its lead in manufacture carried considerable weight in Parliament. A Bill which met
many, but not all, of the League's wishes was drafted and introduced by W. E. Forster, and
quickly passed.

1870 Education Act

The 1870 Education Act stands as the very first piece of legislation to deal specifically with
the provision of education in Britain. Most importantly, it demonstrated a commitment to
provision on a national scale.

The Act allowed voluntary schools to carry on unchanged, but established a system of
'school boards' to build and manage schools in areas where they were needed. The boards
were locally elected bodies which drew their funding from the local rates. Unlike the
voluntary schools, religious teaching in the board schools was to be 'non-denominational'. A
separate Act extended similar provisions to Scotland in 1872.

More Education Acts

The issue of making education compulsory for children had not been settled by the Act. The
1876 Royal Commission on the Factory Acts recommended that education be made
compulsory in order to stop child labour. In 1880 a further Education Act finally made school
attendance compulsory between the ages of five and ten, though by the early 1890s
attendance within this age group was falling short at 82 per cent.

Many children worked outside school hours - in 1901 the figure was put at 300,000 - and
truancy was a major problem due to the fact that parents could not afford to give up income
earned by their children.

Fees were also payable until a change in the law in 1891. Further legislation in 1893
extended the age of compulsory attendance to 11, and in 1899 to 12.

Compulsory education was also extended to blind and deaf children under the Elementary
Education (Blind and Deaf Children) Act of 1893, which established special schools. Similar
provision was made for physically-impaired children in the Elementary Education (Defective
and Epileptic Children) Act of 1899.

civil service noun

the civil service the government departments that manage the
affairs of the country

commission 1 S3 W2 / km n / noun
1 [ countable ] a group of people who have been given the official
job of finding out about something or controlling something :
The Government set up a commission to investigate allegations of
police violence.
commission on
the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution
2 [ uncountable and countable ] an extra amount of money that is
paid to a person or organization according to the value of the goods
they have sold or the services they have provided :
The dealer takes a 20% commission on the sales he makes.
on commission
He sold cosmetics on commission.
3 [ countable ] a request for an artist, designer, or musician to make
a piece of art or music, for which they are paid :
a commission from the Academy for a new sculpture
4 [ countable ] the position of an officer in the army, navy etc
5 [ uncountable ] formal the commission of a crime is the act of
doing it commit
6 out of commission
a) not working or not available for use :
One of the ships anchors was out of commission.
b) informal ill or injured, and unable to work
7 in commission available to be used :
The operating theatres will be back in commission next week.
 COLLOCATIONS
VERBS
set up/establish/create a commission They set up a commission to
investigate the problem of youth crime.
appoint a commission (= choose the members of a commission ) The
President appointed a commission to develop standards in schools.
head a commission (= be in charge of one ) He was elected to head a
commission on tax reform.
a commission recommends something The commission
recommended that the federal government change the way it measures
inflation.
a commission approves something The commission approved the
plan.
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + COMMISSION
a special commission A special commission was set up to investigate
the killings.
an independent commission The plan requires approval by an
independent commission.
an international commission an international commission on climate
change
a parliamentary commission A report was made by a special
parliamentary commission.
a government commission A government commission regulates the
process.
a national/federal commission the National Commission on
Terrorism
a presidential commission the Presidentail Commission on Health
Care
a joint commission (= involving two or more countries or groups ) a
new India-Sri Lanka joint commission
an investigative/investigating commission An investigative
commission was set up immediately after the incident.

Tory / tri / noun ( plural Tories ) [ countable ]

a member of the British Conservative Party :
a lifelong Tory
Tory adjective [ only before noun ] :
Tory principles

Conservative Party, the

 also the Conservatives, the Tory Party, and the Tories. One of the
three main political parties in the UK. The Conservative Party has RIGHT-
WING principles, and strongly supports the idea of FREE ENTERPRISE (= an
economic system in which private companies compete against each
other to make profits, and there is not much government control of
economic activity ) . The Conservative Party was especially powerful
during the period from 1979 to 1997, when it established a programme
of PRIVATIZATION (= selling state-owned services such as electricity, gas,
and the telephone service, so that they became private companies ) and
made new laws that limited the rights of workers and their TRADE UNION s
. It was heavily defeated by the Labour Party in the 1997 election.

enact / nkt / verb [ transitive ]

1 formal to act in a play, story etc :
a drama enacted on a darkened stage
2 law to make a proposal into a law :
Congress refused to enact the bill.
enactment noun [ uncountable and countable ]

liability / lablti, lablti / noun

1 [ uncountable ] legal responsibility for something, especially for
paying money that is owed, or for damage or injury
liability for
Tenants have legal liability for any damage they cause.
liability to
your liability to capital gains tax
liability to do something
The court ruled there was no liability to pay any refund.
2 liabilities [ plural ] technical the amount of debt that must be
paid OPP assets
3 [ singular ] someone or something that is likely to cause problems
for someone :
A kid like Tom would be a liability in any classroom.
liability to
The outspoken minister has become a liability to the government.
4 liability to something law the amount by which something is
likely to be affected by a particular kind of problem, illness etc
LIMITED LIABILITY
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + LIABILITY
full liability (= complete responsibility ) The driver of the other car
accepted full liability for the accident.
 limited liability (= when someone is responsible for damages or debts
for a limited amount of money ) Limited liability encourages managers
to take more risks with shareholder funds than they would otherwise.
unlimited liability (= when someone is responsible for damages or
debts for the full amount of money ) Under the agreement, the
insurance company has unlimited liability.
legal liability (= responsibility for something that is covered by laws )
What is the legal liability of an employer in the event of an accident at
work?
criminal liability (= responsiblity for injury or damage covered by
criminal law ) A child under the age of ten cannot face criminal liability
for its acts.
civil liability (= responsiblity for injury or damage covered by civil
law ) A company operating a ship which spills oil into the sea will face
civil liability.
tax liability (= a legal responsibility to pay tax ) The government is
planning to increase the tax liability on company cars.
personal liability (= when an individual person is legally responsible )
Directors can incur personal liability for errors made by their companies.
VERBS
have liability The parents of these children may have some liability.
accept/admit liability The company accepts no liability for any loss,
inconvenience, or delay caused by a cancellation of train services.
assume liability (= take the responsibility for something, which you
did not have before ) You would then assume the tax liability for the
account.
incur liability (= be in a situation in which you must take responsibility
for something ) The transfer of property will not incur a liability to
inheritance tax.
deny liability (= say you are not responsible for something ) The
defendants continued to deny liability for Peck's death.
escape/avoid liability The defendant escaped liability by proving that
he had taken all possible measures to avoid the accident.
LIABILITY + NOUN
a liability claim (= a claim that someone is legally responsible ) A
liability claim was made by a consumer injured by the product.
liability insurance/cover (= insurance that protects you against a
liability claim ) Many house and contents insurance policies have
provision for liability insurance for claims of negligence against you.

Labour Party (UK)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 Labour Party

Leader Jeremy Corbyn MP

Deputy Leader Tom Watson MP

General Secretary Iain McNicol

Founded 27 February 1900; 116 years ago[1][2]

Headquarters Labour Central

Kings Manor
Newcastle upon Tyne
NE1 6PA

Student wing Labour Students

Youth wing Young Labour

Membership (2016) 388,407 [3]

Ideology Social democracy

Democratic socialism

Political position Centre-left

European affiliation Party of European Socialists

International affiliation Progressive Alliance,

Socialist International(observer)

European Parliament group Progressive Alliance of Socialists and

Democrats

Colours Red
House of Commons 230 / 650

House of Lords 210 / 802

European Parliament 20 / 73

Scottish Parliament 24 / 129

Welsh Assembly 29 / 60

London Assembly 12 / 25

Local government 6,885 / 20,565

Police & Crime 15 / 40

Commissioners

Directly-elected Mayors 13 / 17

Website

www.labour.org.uk

Politics of the United Kingdom

Political parties

Elections

Part of a series on

Organized labour

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British
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List of Labour Parties

Academic disciplines[show]

v
t
e

The Labour Party is a centre-left political party in the United Kingdom.[4][5][6][7] Growing out of
the trade union movement andsocialist parties of the nineteenth century, the Labour Party has
been described as a "broad church", encompassing a diversity of ideological trends from
strongly socialist to moderate social democratic.
Founded in 1900, the Labour Party overtook the Liberal Party as the main opposition to
the Conservative Party in the early 1920s, forming minority governments under Ramsay
MacDonald in 1924 and from 1929 to 1931. Labour later served in the wartime coalition from
1940 to 1945, after which it formed a majority government under Clement Attlee. Labour was
also in government from1964 to 1970 under Harold Wilson and from 1974 to 1979, first under
Wilson and then James Callaghan.
The Labour Party was last in government from 1997 to 2010 under Tony Blair and Gordon
Brown, beginning with a landslide majority of 179, reduced to 167 in 2001 and 66 in 2005.
Having won 232 seats in the 2015 general election, the party is the Official Opposition in
the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
Labour is the largest party in the Welsh Assembly, the third largest party in the Scottish
Parliament and has twenty MEPs in theEuropean Parliament, sitting in the Socialists and
Democrats Group. The party also organises in Northern Ireland, but does not contest elections
to the Northern Ireland Assembly. The Labour Party is a full member of the Party of European
Socialists andProgressive Alliance, and holds observer status in the Socialist International. In
September 2015, Jeremy Corbyn was electedLeader of the Labour Party.
 Chancellor of the Exchequer noun ( plural Chancellors of
the Exchequer ) [ countable ]
the British government minister in charge of taxes and government
spending

welfare S3 W2 AC / welfe $ -fer / noun [ uncountable ]

1 someones welfare is their health and happiness :
Our only concern is the childrens welfare.
2 help that is provided for people who have personal or social
problems
welfare benefits/services/programmes etc
the provision of education and welfare services
The companys welfare officer deals with employees personal problems.
3 American English money that is paid by the government in the US
to people who are very poor or unemployed SYN benefit British English
on welfare
Most of the people in this neighborhood are on welfare.

bureau / bjr $ bjro / noun ( plural bureaus or bureaux /

-rz $ -roz / ) [ countable ]
1 an office or organization that collects or provides information :
an employment bureau
the Citizens Advice Bureau
2 a government department or a part of a government department
in the US :
the Federal Bureau of Investigation
3 an office of a company or organization that has its main office
somewhere else :
the London bureau of the Washington Post
4 British English a large desk or writing table
5 American English a piece of furniture with several drawers, used to
keep clothes in SYN chest of drawers British English

wage 2 verb [ transitive ]

to be involved in a war against someone, or a fight against
something
wage war (on somebody/something)
The police are waging war on drug pushers in the city.
wage a campaign/struggle/battle etc
The council has waged a vigorous campaign against the proposal.
The Osborne Judgment of
1909
History & Policy Trade Union Forum
28 November 2009

John Edmonds (JE), in the chair, made introductions.

Jim Moher
Jim Moher (JM) gave a presentation on the history of the 1909 Osborne
Judgment and its continued implications today (for a full account, please
see his subsequent H&P paper 'The Osborne Judgment 1909: trade union
funding of political parties in historical perspective').

Key points of Jim Moher's presentation:

In Osborne, the House of Lords in December 1909 ruled that it was

unlawful for trade unions to collect and spend a levy of members for
political objects.

Walter Osborne was branch secretary of the Amalgamated Society of

Railway Servants (ASRS, today's RMT), a libertarian and Liberal
supporter. He brought the case against his union leadership's decision
to levy members one shilling a year to support the new Labour
Representation Committee (LRC).
 The original LRC was a creation of the TUC and socialist
organisations (Independent Labour Party mainly) in 1900, as a broad-
based labour lobbying body, which with a tiny parliamentary presence
did not command exclusive support from the unions or Lib-Lab MPs.

However, another Law Lords' ruling of 1901, (Taff Vale Railway

Company v ASRS), exposed all union funds to legal attack by
employers during industrial action. The unions were outraged and
alarmed and so increasingly threw their weight behind the LRC.

The LRC also tightened its rules to become a separate party with a
distinct programme and Whip in the Commons. Each of its sponsored
candidates and MPS had to sign a pledge to support this party only,
and this drew a strong reaction from the Lib-Lab trade unionist MPs,
who wanted to retain their tactical alliance with a major government
party, the Liberals.

Richard Bell MP, also General Secretary of the ASRS, refused to sign
the pledge and so fell out with the LRC and his own pro-LRC union
leadership. The dispute rumbled on until the 1906 general election,
when ironically, as a result of an electoral pact with the Liberals, the
Labour Party emerged with 29 MPs.

It was after this triumph by what he saw as a Socialist Labour Party,

that Osborne started his successful legal challenge. The set-back was
short-lived however, as with 42 MPs (the miners joined in 1909), the
unions and Labour Party were able to persuade the Liberal
government to legislate to remove the ban with the Trade Union Act
1913.

This law required unions to ballot all members before setting up a

separate political fund, and to allow individual members to opt-out of
paying the levy. It remains (as amended in 1984 to require five-yearly
ballots) the legal position for union political funds today.

Manchester Liberalism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Manchester Liberalism, Manchester School, Manchester Capitalism,
and Manchesterism are terms for the political, economic, and social movements of the 19th
century that originated in Manchester, England. Led by Richard Cobden and John Bright, it
won a wide hearing for its argument that free trade would lead to a more equitable society,
 making essential products available to all. Its most famous activity was the Anti-Corn Law
League that called for repeal of the Corn Laws that kept food prices high. It expounded the
social and economic implications of free trade and laissez faire. The Manchester School took
the theories of economic liberalism advocated by classical economists such as Adam
Smith and made them the basis for government policy. The School also promoted pacifism,
anti-slavery, freedom of the press and separation of church and state.[1]

outstrip / atstrp / verb ( past tense and past participle outstripped ,

present participle outstripping ) [ transitive ]
1 to do something better than someone else or be more successful :
We outstripped all our competitors in sales last year.
2 to be greater in quantity than something else :
Demand for new aircraft production is outstripping supply.
3 to run or move faster than someone or something else :
Speeding at 90 mph, Denny outstripped police cars for an hour.

French Revolution, the

the REVOLUTION which began in France in 1789 with the Storming of
the Bastille on 14th July, when the people of Paris attacked and took
control of the Bastille prison. Four years later, the French king and
queen, Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were killed by having their heads
cut off by the GUILLOTINE . Many other people of high rank were also
killed and France became a REPUBLIC (= a country without a king or
queen ) . During the revolution, the people demanded Liberty, Equality,
and Fraternity, and the events and ideas of the revolution had an
important influence on European history.

grievance / riv ns / noun [ uncountable and countable ]

a belief that you have been treated unfairly, or an unfair situation or
event that affects and upsets you :
anyone who has a legitimate grievance against the company
a means of overcoming genuine grievances
There must be an opportunity for both sides to air their grievances .
The teachers contract established a grievance procedure .
the sense of grievance which characterized him as a young man
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES
a genuine grievance (= one that is definitely true ) He felt that he had
a genuine grievance and was prepared to take the company to court
over the matter.
 a legitimate grievance (= one that is reasonable ) Many people feel
that the rebels have a legitimate grievance.
an old grievance (= one that you have felt unhappy about for a long
time ) Years later, we became friends again and sorted out our old
grievances.
a personal grievance He has no personal grievance against Frank.
VERBS
have a grievance (against somebody) I had no grievance against
him.
air your grievances (= tell people you think you have been treated
unfairly ) These committees act as a forum for various groups to air
their grievances.
nurse a grievance (= think a lot or for a long time about the fact you
have been treated unfairly ) He was nursing a grievance about not being
picked for the team.
file a grievance American English (= officially complain ) She filed a
grievance after failing to get a promotion.
settle a grievance (= solve one ) The union decided to settle its
grievance in the law courts.
redress/remedy a grievance formal (= do something to make a
problem better ) Governments which have not redressed genuine
grievances often pay a heavy price later on.
GRIEVANCE + NOUN
a grievance procedure (= a system for dealing with employees'
grievances ) You should pursue your complaint through the company's
grievance procedure.
PHRASES
a sense of grievance (= when you feel that you have been treated
unfairly ) Anti-Americanism in these countries comes from a deep sense
of grievance against the United States.
a source of grievance (= something that causes grievance ) Salaries
are a traditional source of grievance in industry.
THESAURUS
complaint something that you say or write when you are complaining,
especially to someone in an official position : If you have any
complaints, please contact our customer relations department. | Our
main complaint is the poor standard of service. | If you have a
complaint, you should write to the manager. | make a complaint :
Some employees are worried about what will happen to them if they
make a complaint. | complaint about : Keating was dismissed after
complaints about the quality of his work. | formal complaint : Mr Kelly
has made a formal complaint against the police. | letters of complaint
: The commission has so far received nearly 10,000 letters of complaint.
protest when someone complains publicly about something that they
think is wrong or unfair and should not be allowed to happen : Despite
their protests, the students fees were increased. | in protest (= as a
way of making a protest ) : When two members of the team were
dismissed, the rest of them walked out in protest. | protest against :
The ambassador lodged a formal protest against the proposals. | ignore
somebodys protests : Ignoring my protests, he took off his jacket
and wrapped it around my shoulders.
grievance something that you feel unhappy about because you think
that you have been treated unfairly use this especially about an official
complaint you make about the place where you work : file a grievance
(= officially complain ) : She filed a grievance last year after her
supervisor refused to promote her. | grievance against : Anyone who
has a legitimate grievance against the company can take it to the
arbitration committee. | air a grievance (= discuss a grievance publicly
) : The meetings give employees the opportunity to express their views
or air grievances.

tithe / ta / noun [ countable ]

1 a particular amount that some Christians give to their church
2 a tax paid to the church in the past
tithe verb [ intransitive and transitive ]

Ulster / lst /
another name for Northern Ireland. The name Ulster is often used in
news reports, and it is also the name preferred by the mainly Protestant
political parties and groups who want Northern Ireland to remain part of
the UK.

home rule noun [ uncountable ]

the right of a country or area to have its own government and laws

Republic of Ireland, the ( also Ireland, the Irish

Republic, Eire, Southern Ireland )
a country that forms the larger part of the island of Ireland, which is
a member of the EU (European Union). Population: 4,156,119 (2008)).
Capital: Dublin. It was formerly ruled by the British, but it became an
independent country in 1921 after a long fight, when Ireland was
divided into Northern Ireland (which remained as part of the UK) and
the Irish Free State, which later became the Republic of Ireland. Ireland
is mainly a Roman Catholic country, and its PATRON SAINT is Saint Patrick
and its national SYMBOL is the SHAMROCK . Its official languages are Irish
Gaelic and English. Traditionally, Irelands main industry was farming,
and many Irish people left the country to find work abroad, especially in
the UK and the US. But it is now developing new industries and many
Irish people who left the country are returning to live there. Ireland is
known for its beautiful countryside, mountains, and coasts, so tourism is
also an important industry. The Irish are typically thought of as friendly
people who enjoy conversation and are good talkers. They are known
for their PUB s , where people drink Guiness (= a dark beer ) and listen
to Irish FOLK MUSIC . Many famous writers, such as James Joyce, Oscar
Wilde, and George Bernard Shaw come from Ireland. IRELAND ,
NORTHERN IRELAND

Bismarck, Otto von / bzmk $ -mrk, t vn $ t vn /

(181598) a German politician who was mainly responsible for
joining all the separate German states together to form one country,
and who then became CHANCELLOR of Germany. He was known as the
Iron Chancellor.

Kaiser, the / kaz / noun

Wilhelm II, the King of Germany from 1888 to 1918. He was given
the NICKNAME Kaiser Bill by the British in World War I.

Junker (Prussia)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Rittergut Neudeck, East Prussia (today Ogrodzieniec, Poland), presented to Reich President Paul von
Hindenburg in 1928

The Junkers (/jkr/ YUUNG-kr; German: [jk]) were the members of the landed
nobility in Prussia. They owned great estates that were maintained and worked by peasants
with few rights.[1] They were an important factor in Prussian and, after 1871, German military,
political and diplomatic leadership. The most famous Junker was Chancellor Otto von
Bismarck.[2]
Those who lived in the eastern provinces that either were annexed by Poland or the Soviet
Union or became East Germany fled or were expelled by the Soviet or the Polish or East
German communist regime after 1944 and their lands were confiscated. In western and
southern Germany, the land was often owned by small independent farmers or a mixture of
small farmers and estate owners, and this system was often contrasted with the dominance of
the large estate owners of the east.

encroach / nkrt $ -krot / verb [ intransitive always +

adverb/preposition ]
1 to gradually take more of someones time, possessions, rights etc
than you should
encroach on/upon
Bureaucratic power has encroached upon the freedom of the individual.
2 to gradually cover more and more land
encroach into
The fighting encroached further east.
encroachment noun [ uncountable and countable ] :
foreign encroachment

dismay 1 / dsme / noun [ uncountable ]

the worry, disappointment, or unhappiness you feel when something
unpleasant happens
with/in dismay
They stared at each other in dismay.
to sbs dismay
I found to my dismay that I had left my notes behind.
The thought of leaving filled him with dismay .

revenue W2 AC / revnju, revnju $ -nu / noun [ uncountable ] (

also revenues [ plural ] )
1 money that a business or organization receives over a period of
time, especially from selling goods or services income :
advertising revenue
Strikes have cost 20 million in lost revenues .
2 money that the government receives from tax :
an increase in tax revenues of 8.4%
INLAND REVENUE , INTERNAL REVENUE SERVICE

Ferdinand Lassalle
Ferdinand Lassalle

Ferdinand Lassalle

Informacin personal

Nacimiento 11 de abril de 1825

 Breslau, Prusia

Fallecimiento 31 de agosto de 1864 (39 aos)

Carouge, Suiza

Causa de
Heridas recibidas durante un duelo.
muerte

Nacionalidad Alemana

Partido
Asociacin General de Trabajadores de Alemania
poltico

Informacin profesional

Ocupacin Escritor, poltico, economista,abogado y filsofo

[editar datos en Wikidata]

Ferdinand Lassalle (Breslau, Confederacin Germnica -actualmente en Polonia-; 11 de

abril de 1825 - Carouge, Suiza; 31 de agosto de 1864) fue
un abogado y poltico socialista alemn de origen judo.

ndice
[ocultar]

1Biografa

2Pensamiento

3Referencias

4Enlaces externos

Biografa[editar]
Nacido en el seno de una familia de comerciantes judos, curs estudios en Breslau y Berln.
En 1845 en Pars conoci el movimiento socialista francs y se afili a la Liga de los Justos.
[cita requerida]
Durante su participacin en la revolucin alemana de 1848-1849, por la que fue
encarcelado, entabl amistad con Karl Marx, con quien mantuvo una relacin epistolar cuando
ste se exili en Londres y a quien visit en 1862. A partir de 1860 colabor con el movimiento
obrero y los sindicatos y fue uno de los fundadores de la Asociacin General de Trabajadores
de Alemania (ADAV, en sus siglas en alemn) en 1863. Muri al ao siguiente como
consecuencia de las heridas recibidas durante un duelo con el pretendiente de una mujer que
amaba.
En 1875, durante el congreso de Gotha, la ADAV se uni con los marxistas agrupados en
el Partido Socialdemcrata Obrero de Alemania para formar el Partido Obrero Socialista de
Alemania, que luego pas a llamarse Partido Socialdemcrata de Alemania(SPD).

Pensamiento[editar]
Artculo principal: Asociacin General de Trabajadores de Alemania

Lassalle pensaba que la humanidad estaba regida por oportunidades fuera de control del
individuo, por lo que se haca necesario que el estado tomase a su cargo la produccin y
distribucin a favor del bienestar social y para lograr que los trabajadores se beneficiaran del
aumento de la productividad, no ms laissez-faire, es necesaria la intervencin del estado a fin
de proteger al dbil del fuerte, pregonaba. En el terreno de la accin inmediata, los esfuerzos
de Lassalle se concentraron en dos metas, la conquista del sufragio universal y la creacin de
asociaciones de produccin, subvencionadas por el estado; en poltica, apoy adems la idea
prusiana de unificacin "por arriba" de Alemania; defendiendo a su vez a Bismarck como el
artfice para esa unin. Esta toma de posicin, que relat en "La guerra italiana y la misin de
Prusia" (1859), lo enfrent directamente a Marx, que apoyaba a los trabajadores contra el
Estado prusiano.

Paris Commune
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the government of Paris in 1871. For the Paris Commune during the
French Revolution, see Paris Commune (French Revolution). For the City of Paris, see Paris.

Paris Commune

A barricade on Rue Voltaire, after its capture by the regular

army during the Bloody Week

 18 March 28 May 1871
Date
Location Paris, France
Result Revolt suppressed

Belligerents

Communards
French Republic
National Guards

French Armed

Forces

Commanders and leaders

Patrice de MacMahon, Louis Charles

Duke of Magenta Delescluze

Strength

170,000[1] On paper, 200,000; in reality,

probably between 25,000 and

50,000 actual combatants[2]

Casualties and losses

877 killed, 6,454 wounded, 6,667 confirmed killed and

and 183 missing [3]

buried.[4] Other estimates

between 10,000[5] and

20,000[6] killed

The Paris Commune[7] was a radical socialist and revolutionary government that ruled Paris
from 18 March to 28 May 1871. Following the defeat of Emperor Napoleon III in September
1870, the French Second Empire swiftly collapsed. In its stead rose a Third Republic at war
with Prussia, which laid siege to Paris for four months. A hotbed of working-class radicalism,
France's capital was primarily defended during this time by the often politicized and radical
troops of the National Guardrather than regular Army troops. In February 1871 Adolphe Thiers,
the new chief executive of the French national government, signed an armistice with Prussia
that disarmed the Army but not the National Guard.
Soldiers of the Commune's National Guard killed two French army generals; and the
Commune refused to accept the authority of the French government. The regular French Army
suppressed the Commune during "La semaine sanglante" ("The Bloody Week") beginning on
21 May 1871.[8] Debates over the policies and outcome of the Commune had significant
influence on the ideas of Karl Marx, who described it as an example of the "dictatorship of the
proletariat".[9]

pipe 2 verb
 1 SEND LIQUID/GAS [ transitive usually passive ] to send a liquid or
gas through a pipe to another place
pipe something into/from/out of etc something
Eighty per cent of sewage is piped directly into the sea.
pipe something in/out/up etc
A lot of oil is piped in from Alaska.
villages with no piped water
2 MAKE MUSIC [ intransitive and transitive ] to make a musical
sound, using a pipe
3 FOOD [ transitive ] to decorate food, especially a cake, with lines of
ICING or cream
4 SPEAK [ transitive ] literary to speak or sing something in a high
voice :
Morning! he piped with a cheery voice.
pipe down phrasal verb spoken
to stop talking or making a noise, and become calmer and less
excited :
Everybody pipe down. Theres no need to shout.
pipe something in ( also pipe something into something )
phrasal verb
to send radio signals or recorded music into a room or building :
tunes piped in over an acoustic system
pipe up phrasal verb informal
to suddenly say something, especially when you have been quiet
until then :
Mum suddenly piped up No!

coup / ku / noun [ countable ]

1 a sudden and sometimes violent attempt by citizens or the army
to take control of the government SYN coup d'tat :
Haitis first elected President was deposed in a violent military coup .
a coup attempt by junior officers
He evaded capture after the failed coup .
2 an achievement that is extremely impressive because it was very
difficult :
Beating Arsenal was a major coup for the club.
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES
a military/army coup He seized power in a military coup in 1977.
an attempted/abortive/failed coup (= one that did not succeed )
There was an attempted coup against Togos military dictator.
a successful/unsuccessful coup The armed forces are too weak to
mount a successful coup.
 a bloody/bloodless coup (= with or without killing and violence ) In
1974, the regime was overthrown in a bloodless coup.
a presidential coup (= in which power is taken from a president ) The
new leader returned the country to democratic rule following his
presidential coup.
VERBS
plan/plot a coup They were arrested and accused of plotting a coup
against the government.
stage/mount/launch a coup (= attempt one ) Later that year, the
rebels staged an unsuccessful coup.
foil/crush a coup (= stop it from being successful ) The government
foiled an armed coup by rebel soldiers.
be deposed/overthrown in a coup (= lose power in a coup ) The
Prime Minister was deposed in a coup by the armed forces.
COUP + NOUN
a coup attempt There have been repeated coup attempts against the
government.
the coup leader The coup leaders escaped when the rest of the men
were arrested.
a coup plot He was imprisoned for his part in a coup plot against the
regime.
THESAURUS
revolt/rebellion/uprising an attempt by a large group of people at
revolution : a popular uprising (= involving ordinary people, not the
army )
coup / ku / an occasion when a group of people, especially soldiers,
suddenly take control of a country : a military coup

aide / ed / noun [ countable ]

someone whose job is to help someone who has an important job,
especially a politician :
a presidential aide

fogey , fogy / fi $ fo- / noun ( plural fogeys or fogies )

[ countable ]
someone who has old-fashioned ideas and does not like change :
Youre turning into a real old fogey !

House of Hohenzollern
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Hohenzollern" redirects here. For other uses, see Hohenzollern (disambiguation).

House of Hohenzollern

Country Germany, Romania

Titles Count of Zollern

Margrave of Brandenburg

Duke of Prussia

Burgrave of Nuremberg

Margrave of Bayreuth

Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach

King of Prussia

German Emperor

Prince of Neuchtel

King of Romania

Prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen

Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen

Founded 11th century

Founder Burkhard I, Count of Zollern

Final ruler Germany and Prussia:

Emperor Wilhelm II (18881918)

 Romania:

King Michael I (19271930, 19401947)

Current head
Germany and Prussia:

HI&RH Prince Georg Friedrich(1994)

Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen:

HH Prince Karl Friedrich(2010)

Romania:

HM King Michael (1947)

Deposition Germany and Prussia:

1918: German Revolution

Romania:

1947: Stalinist take-over

Ethnicity German, Romanian

Cadet branches Romania

House of Prussia

The House of Hohenzollern is a dynasty of former princes, electors, kings, and emperors
of Hohenzollern, Brandenburg, Prussia, the German Empire, and Romania. The family arose in
the area around the town of Hechingen in Swabia during the 11th century and took their name
from Hohenzollern Castle.[1] The first ancestor of the Hohenzollerns was mentioned in 1061.
They derived from the Burchardinger dynasty.[citation needed]
The Hohenzollern family split into two branches, the Catholic Swabian branch and
the Protestant Franconian branch,[2] which later became the Brandenburg-Prussian branch. The
Swabian branch ruled the principalities of Hohenzollern-Hechingen andHohenzollern-
Sigmaringen until 1849, and also ruled Romania from 1866 to 1947. Members of the
Franconian branch becameMargrave of Brandenburg in 1415 and Duke of Prussia in 1525.
The Margraviate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia were ruled in personal union after
1618 and were called Brandenburg-Prussia. The Kingdom of Prussia was created in 1701,
eventually leading to the unification of Germany and the creation of the German Empire in
1871, with the Hohenzollerns as hereditary German Emperors and Kings of Prussia.
Germany's defeat in World War I in 1918 led to the German Revolution. The Hohenzollerns
were overthrown and the Weimar Republic was established, thus bringing an end to
the German monarchy. Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia is the current head of the royal
Prussian line, while Karl Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern is the head of the princely Swabian
line.[2]

hasten / hes n / verb formal

1 [ transitive ] to make something happen faster or sooner :
Their departure was hastened by an abnormally cold winter.
2 [ intransitive ] to do or say something quickly or without delay
SYN hurry
hasten to do something
I hastened to assure her that there was no danger.
3 I hasten to add used when you realize that what you have said
may not have been understood correctly :
an exhausting course, which, I hasten to add, was also great fun
4 [ intransitive always + adverb/preposition ] literary to go
somewhere quickly
THESAURUS
rush to move very quickly, especially because you need to be
somewhere soon : He was rushing out of his office in order to go to a
meeting. | Theres no need to rush - we have plenty of time.
hurry to do something or go somewhere more quickly than usual,
especially because there is not much time : People hurried into stores to
escape the rain. | You ll have to hurry or we 'll be late for breakfast | I
hurried through the rest of my workout and showered as quickly as I
could.
race to go somewhere as fast as you can : She raced downstairs to tell
her mother. | He raced back to his car and called for help.
tear to run very quickly and without really looking where you are going,
because you are in a hurry : I saw two boys tearing across the field
towards the tree. | He tore down the stairs and out of the house. | They
tore out of the building.
dash to run somewhere very fast, especially only a short distance : Bob
dashed across the road to his friends house. | Her heart was pumping
furiously as she dashed through the kitchen to the front door. | I dashed
outside to try to rescue the unfortunate creature.
hustle American English informal to hurry when you are doing
something or going somewhere : You better hustle or youre going to
miss the school bus.
hasten literary to hurry somewhere, especially because you need to do
something : Suddenly frightened, she hastened back to where her
friends were standing. | She took a deep breath and then hastened after
him.

chauvinism / vnz m, vnz m $ o- / noun

[ uncountable ]
1 a belief that your own sex is better or more important than the
other sex, especially if you are a man :
male chauvinism
 2 a strong belief that your country or race is better or more
important than any other :
national chauvinism

manifesto / mnfest, mnfest $ -to / noun ( plural

manifestos ) [ countable ]
a written statement by a political party, saying what they believe in
and what they intend to do :
the Labour Partys election manifesto
The Tories are due to publish their manifesto tomorrow.

nihilism / nalz m, nalz m / noun [ uncountable ]

1 the belief that nothing has any meaning or value
2 the idea that all social and political institutions should be
destroyed
nihilist noun [ countable ]
nihilistic / nalstk, nalstk / adjective

placate / plket $ pleket / verb [ transitive ] formal

to make someone stop feeling angry SYN appease OPP rile :
These changes did little to placate the unions.
placatory / plket ri, plkt ri $ plektri / adjective :
a placatory smile

Magyar / mj / noun
1 [ countable ] a member of the main group of people who live in
Hungary
2 [ uncountable ] the language of the Magyars
Magyar adjective

beset / bset / verb ( past tense and past participle beset , present
participle besetting ) [ transitive ] formal
1 [ usually passive ] to make someone experience serious problems
or dangers
beset somebody with/by something
The business has been beset with financial problems.
the injuries which have beset the team all season
 2 besetting sin a particular bad feature or habit often used
humorously

franchise 1 / frntaz / noun

1
a) [ uncountable and countable ] permission given by a company to
someone who wants to sell its goods or services :
a franchise holder
a franchise agreement
under (a) franchise
The beer is brewed under franchise.
b) [ countable ] a business, shop etc that is run under franchise
2 [ countable ] American English a professional sports team
3 [ uncountable ] formal the legal right to vote in your countrys
elections

artisan / tzn, tzn $ rtz n / noun [ countable ]

someone who does skilled work, making things with their hands SYN
craftsman
ballot 1 / blt / noun
1 [ uncountable and countable ] a system of voting, usually in
secret, or an occasion when you vote in this way :
The party leader is elected by secret ballot .
Workers at the plant held a ballot and rejected strike action.
2 [ countable ] a piece of paper on which you make a secret vote
SYN ballot paper :
Only 22% of voters cast their ballots .
3 the ballot the total number of votes in an election SYN the vote
:
He won 54% of the ballot.
THESAURUS
election an occasion when people choose a government or leader by
voting : the American presidential election | South Africa held its first
multi-racial elections in 1994.
ballot / blt / an occasion when the members of an organization vote
by marking what they want on a piece of paper, especially to make sure
that it is secret : The result of the ballot showed that nurses were not in
favour of a strike.
referendum / refrendm / an occasion when everyone in a country
votes on an important political subject : In the Danish referendum, the
people voted no to joining the European single currency.
 the polls the process of voting in a political election used especially in
news reports : 4,500,000 voters went to the polls in eight provinces to
elect six governors.
show of hands an act of voting informally for something by the people
in a group raising their hands : May I have a show of hands from all
those in favour of the proposal?

bargain 1 / bn, bn $ br- / noun [ countable ]

1 something you buy cheaply or for less than its usual price :
There are no bargains in the clothes shops at the moment.
Its an attractive little home, and I think its a bargain .
That second-hand table was a real bargain .
Good watches don't come at bargain prices .
Bargain hunters (= people looking for things to buy at low prices )
queued outside the store for hours.
2 an agreement, made between two people or groups to do
something in return for something else
make/strike a bargain
Management and unions have struck a bargain over wage increases.
Ive kept my side of the bargain and I expect you to keep yours.
drive a hard bargain at HARD 1 ( 18 )
3 into the bargain ( also in the bargain American English ) in
addition to everything else :
I am now tired, cold, and hungry, with a headache into the bargain.
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES
a real bargain In the market you can sometimes pick up a real
bargain.
an absolute bargain 59.99 is an absolute bargain.
a brilliant/amazing bargain The house they bought was an amazing
bargain.
VERBS
look for/search for a bargain She began looking for bargains at car
boot sales.
get a bargain Everyone likes to think they are getting a bargain.
find a bargain Investors may be able to find some bargains this year.
pick up/snap up a bargain (= find one ) You can often pick up a
bargain at an auction.
offer a bargain The Regency hotel is offering off-season bargains.
BARGAIN + NOUN
a bargain price In the sales you can get a fully fitted kitchen at a
bargain price.
a bargain buy This remains a bargain buy at 3.99.
a bargain hunter (= someone looking for a bargain ) Bargain hunters
queued for hours before the store opened.
bargain hunting They're off to do some bargain hunting at the January
sales.
a bargain basement (= part of a large shop below ground where the
price of goods is reduced ) Everything is reduced to clear in the bargain
basement!

guild / ld / noun [ countable ]

an organization of people who do the same job or have the same
interests :
the Womens Guild

journeyman / dnimn $ -r- / noun ( plural journeymen /

-mn / ) [ countable ] old-fashioned
1 a trained worker who works for someone else
2 an experienced worker whose work is acceptable but not excellent

commune 1 / kmjun $ k-, kmjun / noun [ countable ]

1 a group of people who live together and who share the work and
their possessions :
a hippie commune
2 the smallest unit of local government in countries such as France
and Belgium
3 a group of people in a Communist country who work as a team on
a farm, and give what they produce to the state

vested / vestd, vestd / adjective

1 vested interest a strong reason for wanting something to happen
because you will gain from it :
Since he owns the strip of land, Cook has a vested interest in the
project being approved.
2 vested interests the groups of people who will gain from a plan,
project, proposal etc :
The proposal faces tough opposition from powerful vested interests.
3 vested rights, powers, property etc belong to you and cannot be
removed :
Shareholders have a vested right to 10% per annum.
4 technical having full rights to own or have something
become/get vested (in something)
He only took the job to get vested in the pension fund.

Robert Owen
Robert Owen

Informacin personal

Nacimiento 14 de mayo de 1771

Newtown,Montgomeryshire, Gales

Fallecimiento 17 de noviembre de 1858 (87 aos)

Newtown, Reino Unido

Nacionalidad Britnica

Familia

Cnyuge Caroline Dale

 Hijos Jackson Dale (1799)
Robert Dale (1801)
William (1802)
Anne Caroline (1805)
Jane Dale (1805)
David Dale (1807)
Richard Dale (1809)
Mary (1810)

Informacin profesional

Ocupacin Empresario, reformista social, poltico

[editar datos en Wikidata]

Robert Owen (14 de mayo de 1771 - 17 de noviembre de 1858) fue un empresario y

un socialista utpico britnico, que llev a la prctica sus ideas reformistas primero en su
fbrica de New Lanark (Escocia) y luego en las colonias de New Harmony, que fund en
1825 en Estados Unidos, y de Harmony Hall, fundada en 1840 en Gran Bretaa. A su vuelta
de Amrica en 1828, se convirti en el gran impulsor y lder del movimiento obrero britnico. 1
Su reformismo y su oposicin a la idea de la lucha de clases marc la historia del socialismo
ingls, como record Sidney Webben el Congreso del Partido Laborista de 1923: Debemos
recordar que el fundador del socialismo ingls no fue Karl Marx sino Robert Owen, y que
Robert Owen no predicaba la lucha de clases, sino la doctrina de la fraternidad humana.2 Por
otro lado Owen est considerado como el padre del cooperativismo.

Taff Vale case

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Taff Vale case, (190001), in Great Britain, the successful trial of a suit brought by
the Taff Vale Railway Company against the Amalgamated Society of Railway
Servants (ASRS) in which the courts held that a union could be sued
for damages caused by the actions of its officials in industrial disputes. Opposition
to the decision did much to spur the growth of the nascent British Labour Party.
In August 1900, members of the ASRS went on strike for higher wages and union
recognition but settled within a fortnight when the company employed
strikebreakers; the workers gained virtually nothing but the companys promise of
reemployment. During the strike the company began legal action against the union,
claiming that picketing was in violation of the Conspiracy and Protection of
Property Act of 1875. The ASRS held that because it was neither a corporation nor
an individual it could not be held liable. Justice Sir George Farwell decided against
the union, and in 1901 his decision was upheld in the House of Lords. The verdict,
in effect, eliminated the strike as a weapon of organized labour. Workers turned to
the Labour Party for redress; between 1900 and 1906 the number of Labour
members of Parliament rose from 2 to 29, and the Liberal governments Trade
Disputes Act of 1906 nullified the effect of the decision.

manifesto / mnfest, mnfest $ -to / noun ( plural

manifestos ) [ countable ]
a written statement by a political party, saying what they believe in
and what they intend to do :
the Labour Partys election manifesto
The Tories are due to publish their manifesto tomorrow.

Giuseppe Mazzini

Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872).

Giuseppe Mazzini (Gnova, 22 de junio de 1805 Pisa, 10 de marzo de 1872), apodado el

alma de Italia,1 fue un poltico, periodista yactivista italiano que breg por la unificacin de
Italia. Ayud al proceso de formacin y unificacin de la Italia independiente moderna 2 a partir
de los numerosos Estados, muchos dominados por potencias extranjeras, que existieron hasta
el siglo XIX. Tambin contribuy a definir el movimiento europeo en pro de
una democracia popular en un Estado republicano. Escribi los textos: Italia republicana y
unitaria (1831) y Una nacin libre (1851).
Mikhail Bakunin
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the Russian anarchist. For the television character, see Characters of Lost.

Mikhail Bakunin

Born Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin

30 May 1814

Pryamukhino, Tver Governorate(present-day Kuvshinovsky

District),Russian Empire

Died 1 July 1876 (aged 62)

Bern, Switzerland

Era 19th century philosophy

Regio
Russian philosophy
n

Western philosophy

School Anarchism (Collectivist anarchism)

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Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin (/bkunn/;[1] Russian:

; IPA: [mxil bkunn]; 30 May [O.S.18 May] 1814 1 July 1876) was a
Russian revolutionary anarchist, and founder of collectivist anarchism. He is considered among
the most influential figures of anarchism, and one of the principal founders of the "social
anarchist" tradition.[2] Bakunin's enormous prestige as an activist made him one of the most
famous ideologues in Europe, and he gained substantial influence among radicals throughout
Russia and Europe.
Bakunin grew up in Pryamukhino, a family estate in Tver Governorate, where he moved to
study philosophy and began to read the French encyclopdistes, leading to enthusiasm for the
philosophy of Fichte. From Fichte, Bakunin went on to immerse himself in the works of Hegel,
the most influential thinker among German intellectuals at the time. That led to his embrace
of Hegelianism, bedazzled by Hegel's famous maxim, "Everything that exists is rational." In
1840, Bakunin traveled to St. Petersburg and Berlin with the intention of preparing himself for a
professorship in philosophy or history at the University of Moscow. In 1842, Bakunin moved
from Berlin to Dresden. Eventually he arrived in Paris, where he met Pierre-Joseph
Proudhon and Karl Marx.
Bakunin's increasing radicalism including staunch opposition to imperialism in east and
central Europe by Russia and other powers changed his life, putting an end to hopes of a
professorial career. He was eventually deported from France for speaking against Russia's
oppression of Poland. In 1849, Bakunin was apprehended in Dresden for his participation in
the Czech rebellion of 1848, and turned over to Russia where he was imprisoned in the Peter-
Paul Fortress in Saint Petersburg. He remained there until 1857, when he was exiled to a work
camp in Siberia. Escaping to Japan, the US and finally ending up in London for a short time, he
worked with Herzen on the journal Kolokol (The Bell). In 1863, he left to join the insurrection in
Poland, but he failed to reach his destination and instead spent some time in Switzerland and
Italy.
In 1868, Bakunin joined the socialist International Working Men's Association, a federation of
trade unions and workers' organizations, which had sections in many European countries, as
well as in Latin America and (after 1872) in North Africa and the Middle East. The "Bakuninist"
or anarcho-socialist trend rapidly expanded in influence, especially in Spain, which constituted
the largest section of the International at the time. A showdown loomed with Marx, who was a
key figure in the General Council of the International. The 1872 Hague Congress was
dominated by a struggle between Marx and his followers, who argued for the use of the state
to bring about socialism, and the Bakunin/anarchist faction, which argued instead for the
replacement of the state by federations of self-governing workplaces and communes. Bakunin
could not attend the congress, as he could not reach the Netherlands. Bakunin's faction
present at the conference lost, and Bakunin was (in Marx's view) expelled for supposedly
maintaining a secret organisation within the international.
However, the anarchists insisted the congress was unrepresentative and exceeded its powers,
and held a rival conference of the International at Saint-Imier in Switzerland in 1872. This
repudiated the Hague meeting, including Bakunin's supposed expulsion. The great majority of
sections of the International affiliated to the St. Imier body, making Marx's victory rather more
illusory than pro-Marxist accounts suggest. The far larger Bakuninist international outlasted its
small Marxist rival, which was isolated in New York; it also greatly facilitated the global spread
of anarcho-socialism. In the International, as well as in his writings, Bakunin articulated the
basic ideas of syndicalism and of anarchism, and developed the basic anarchist analysis and
strategy. He had by this stage abandoned the anti-imperialist nationalism of his youth.
From 1870 to 1876, Bakunin wrote some of his longer works, such as Statism and
Anarchy and God and the State. Bakunin remained, however, a direct participant in struggles.
In 1870, he was involved in an insurrection in Lyon, France, which foreshadowed the Paris
Commune. The Paris Commune closely corresponded to many elements of Bakunin's
anarchist programme self-management, mandates delegates, a militia system with elected
officers, and decentralisation. Anarchists like lise Reclus, and those in the tradition of Pierre-
Joseph Proudhon who had greatly influenced Bakunin were key figures in the Commune.
Despite declining health, much a result of his years of imprisonment, Bakunin also sought to
take part in a communal insurrection involving anarchists in Bologna, Italy, but was forced to
return to Switzerland in disguise, where he settled in Lugano. He remained active in the
worker's and peasant's movements of Europe and was also a major influence on movements
in Egypt and Latin America.
 abhorrent / bhrnt $ -hr- / adjective
something that is abhorrent is completely unacceptable because it
seems morally wrong SYN repugnant
abhorrent to
The practice of killing animals for food is utterly abhorrent to me.

First International
LABOUR FEDERATION [1864]
WRITTEN BY:

First International, formally International Working Mens Association,

federation of workers groups that, despite ideological divisions within its
ranks, had a considerable influence as a unifying force for labour in
Europe during the latter part of the 19th century.

The First International was founded under the name of International

Working Mens Association at a mass meeting in London on Sept. 28,
1864. Its founders were among the most powerful British and French
trade-union leaders of the time. Though Karl Marx had no part in
organizing the meeting, he was elected one of the 32 members of the
provisional General Council and at once assumed its leadership. The
International came to assume the character of a highly centralized party,
based primarily on individual members, organized in local groups, which
were integrated in national federations, though some trade unions and
associations were affiliated to it collectively. Its supreme body was the
Congress, which met in a different city each year and formulated
principles and policies. A General Council elected by the Congress had its
seat in London and served as the executive committee, appointing
corresponding secretaries for each of the national federations; organizing
collections for the support of strikes in various countries; and, in general,
advancing the Internationals goals.

From its beginnings, the First International was riven by conflicting

schools of socialist thoughtMarxism, Proudhonism (after Pierre-Joseph
Proudhon, who advocated only the reform of capitalism), Blanquism (after
Auguste Blanqui, who advocated radical methods and a sweeping
revolution), and Mikhail Bakunins version of anarchism, which dominated
the Internationals Italian, Spanish, and French-Swiss federations. The
First International split at its Hague Congress in 1872 over the clash
between Marxs centralizedsocialism and Bakunins anarchism. In order
to prevent the Bakuninists from gaining control of the association, the
General Council, prompted by Marx, moved its headquarters to New York
City, where it lingered until it was formally disbanded at the Philadelphia
Conference in July 1876. The Bakuninists, assuming leadership of the
International, held annual congresses from 1873 to 1877. At the Ghent
Socialist World Congress in 1877, the Social Democrats broke away
because their motion to restore the unity of the First International was
rejected by the anarchist majority. The anarchists failed, however, to keep
the International alive. After the London anarchist Congress of 1881, it
ceased to represent an organized movement. The International was early
proscribed in such countries as Germany, Austria,France, and Spain.
French and German proposals that it be outlawed by concerted European
action failed, however, because of British reluctance to suppress the
General Council in London. It should be noted that the Internationals
renown at the time as a formidable power with millions of members and
almost unlimited resources was out of proportion with the associations
actual strength; the hard core of its individual members probably seldom
exceeded 20,000. Although so accused, it did not organize the wave of
strikes that swept France, Belgium, and Switzerland in 1868, but its
support and rumoured support of such strikes was very influential.

steady 1 W3 / stedi / adjective

1 CONTINUOUS continuing or developing gradually or without
stopping, and not likely to change :
Paul is making steady progress.
a steady rain
hold/remain steady
Employment is holding steady at 96%.
steady stream/flow/trickle etc
a steady stream of traffic
2 NOT MOVING firmly held in a particular position and not moving or
shaking stable
hold/keep something steady
Keep the camera steady while you take a picture.
It takes a steady hand to perform surgery.
3 steady job/work/income a job or work that will definitely
continue over a long period of time :
Its hard to find a steady, well-paying job.
 4 VOICE/LOOK if someones voice is steady, or they look at you in a
steady way, they seem calm and do not stop speaking or looking at
you :
There were tears in her eyes, but her voice was steady.
He could not meet Connors steady gaze.
5 PERSON someone who is steady is sensible and you can depend on
them :
a steady worker
6 steady boyfriend/girlfriend someone that you have been
having a romantic relationship with for a long time
7 steady relationship a serious and strong relationship that
continues for a long time
steadily adverb :
The companys exports have grown steadily .
Debt was increasing steadily .
steadiness noun [ uncountable ]
COLLOCATIONS
NOUNS
steady progress We're making steady progress in reducing the
unemployment rate.
steady growth During the 1960s most of the Western world enjoyed
steady economic growth.
a steady increase/rise The campus has benefited from a steady
increase in student numbers.
a steady decline The result has been a steady decline in membership.
a steady stream/flow/trickle All day long a steady stream of
customers came and went.
a steady supply They need a steady supply of educated workers.
a steady pace/rate He moved at a slow and steady pace through the
maze of corridors.
VERBS
hold/remain steady A recent poll showed his approval rating holding
steady at 53 percent.
PHRASES
slow but/and steady She is making a slow but steady recovery.
THESAURUS
PEOPLE
trustworthy especially written if someone is trustworthy, you can trust
them because they are honest : Many people do not see politicians as
trustworthy.
reliable someone who is reliable can be trusted to do what they say
they will do and not make any mistakes : a reliable employee | We need
someone who is 100% reliable.
responsible someone who is responsible can be trusted to behave in a
sensible way : Sams a good babysitter hes responsible and the kids
like him. | a responsible adult
dependable someone who is dependable can be trusted to do what you
need or expect : Britain is our most dependable ally.
steady someone who is steady is sensible and you can depend on
them : Hes only sixteen, but hes steady and reliable.
loyal someone who is loyal can be trusted to always give help or
support to their friends, their country, their political party etc : She is
fiercely loyal to her family. | He is one of the partys most loyal
supporters.
faithful someone who is faithful stays loyal to a person, belief, political
party etc, and continues to support them, even in difficult situations :
Daniel had been a faithful friend. | a faithful member of the Communist
Party
can rely/depend on somebody if you can rely or depend on
someone, you can be sure that they will do what you want or need them
to do : Dont worry about a thing you can depend on me. | Patients
rely on doctors to help them make the right decisions about their health
care.

fade / fed / verb

1 [ intransitive ] ( also fade away ) to gradually disappear :
Hopes of a peace settlement are beginning to fade.
Over the years her beauty had faded a little.
2 [ intransitive and transitive ] to lose colour and brightness, or to
make something do this :
the fading evening light
a pair of faded jeans
The sun had faded the curtains.
3 [ intransitive ] ( also fade away ) to become weaker physically,
especially so that you become very ill or die
4 [ intransitive ] if a team fades, it stops playing as well as it did
before
5 fade into insignificance to seem unimportant :
Our problems fade into insignificance when compared with those of the
people here.
fade in phrasal verb
to appear slowly or become louder, or to make a picture or sound do
this
fade something in
Additional background sound is faded in at the beginning of the shot.
fade-in noun [ countable ]
fade out phrasal verb
to disappear slowly or become quieter, or to make a picture
or sound do this
fade something out
He slid a control to fade out the music.
fade-out noun [ countable ]

sprout 1 / sprat / verb

1 [ intransitive and transitive ] if vegetables, seeds, or plants sprout,
they start to grow, producing SHOOT s , BUD s , or leaves :
Move the pots outside when the seeds begin to sprout.
Trees were starting to sprout new leaves.
2 [ intransitive ] ( also sprout up ) to appear suddenly in large
numbers :
Office blocks are sprouting up everywhere.
3 [ intransitive and transitive ] if something such as hair sprouts or
if you sprout it, it starts to grow :
Jim seemed to have sprouted a beard.

Jean Jaurs

Jean Jaurs.

Jean Jaurs, cuyo nombre completo era Auguste Marie Joseph Jean Lon
Jaurs (Castres, Francia, 3 de septiembre de 1859-Pars, 31 de julio de 1914),1 fue
un poltico socialista francs. Fund L'Humanit en 1904. Fue asesinado tres das despus de
comenzada la Primera Guerra Mundial.2
 unyielding / njild / adjective
1 formal not willing to change your ideas or beliefs :
an unyielding resistance to change
2 literary very hard and not changing in shape or form :
a harsh unyielding landscape

Fabian Society
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Fabian Society

Fabian Society logo

Abbreviation Fabian Society

Formation January 4, 1884; 132 years ago

Legal status Unincorporated membership association

Purpose It aims to promote greater equality of power, wealth

and opportunity; the value of collective action and

public service; an accountable, tolerant and active

democracy; citizenship, liberty and human rights;

sustainable development; and multilateral

international cooperation

Headquarters London, United Kingdom

 Location
61 Petty France, London, SW1H 9EU

Membership 7,000

Official English
language

General Andrew Harrop

Secretary

Main organ Executive Committee

Subsidiaries Young Fabians, Fabian Women's Network, Scottish

Fabians, around 60 local Fabian Societies

Affiliations Labour Party, Foundation for European Progressive

Studies

Website fabians.org.uk

The Fabian Society is a British socialist organisation whose purpose is to advance the
principles of Communism via gradualist andreformist effort in democracies, rather than by
revolutionary overthrow.[1][2] As founders of the Labour Party in 1900, the Fabian Society has
influenced British policy to the present day, from the postwar creation of the modern welfare
state to the election of Tony Blair. Later members of the Fabian Society included Jawaharlal
Nehru and other leaders of new nations created out of the formerBritish Empire, who used
Fabian principles to create socialist democracies in India, Pakistan, Nigeria and elsewhere as
Britain decolonised after World War II.
The Fabian Society founded the London School of Economics and Political Science in 1895
"for the betterment of society," now one of the leading institutions in the world, an incubator of
influential politicians, economists, journalists, prime ministers and liberal billionaires. [improper synthesis?]
Today, the society functions primarily as a think tank and is one of 15 socialist
societies affiliated with the Labour Party. Similar societies exist in Australia (the Australian
Fabian Society), in Canada (the Douglas-Coldwell Foundation and the now disbandedLeague
for Social Reconstruction), in Sicily (Sicilian Fabian Society) and in New Zealand (The NZ
Fabian Society).

Shaw, George Bernard / dd bnd $ drd brnrd /

(18561950) an Irish writer famous especially for his clever plays
which criticize society and the moral values of the time. His best known
works include the historical plays Caesar and Cleopatra and St Joan ,
and the COMEDY Pygmalion , which was later turned into the popular
musical show MY FAIR LADY . He was a leading SOCIALIST and wrote books
about socialism. ANDROCLES AND THE LION , SHAVIAN
 tract / trkt / noun [ countable ]
1 the digestive/reproductive/urinary etc tract a system of
connected organs that have one main purpose in a part of your body
2 a large area of land :
vast tracts of woodland
3 formal a short piece of writing, especially about a moral or
religious subject :
a tract on the dangers of drink
THESAURUS
booklet a very short book with paper covers that usually contains
information on one particular subject : a free booklet on drug abuse |
Have you read the information booklet?
brochure a thin book with paper covers that gives information on
something you may want to buy or advertises something : glossy
holiday brochures | The hotel was nothing like it said it would be in the
brochure. | The brochure shows you all the different types of washing
machine.
leaflet a small book or piece of paper, often only one or two folded
pages, that advertises something or gives information on a particular
subject : a leaflet about library services | They were handing out leaflets
for the Socialist Party.
pamphlet a very thin book with paper covers, in which someone writes
about their opinions about something, or gives information about
something : a political pamphlet | Paine wrote a pamphlet about
slavery. | The pamphlet tells you all you need to know about growing
cactuses.
prospectus especially British English a thin paper book that advertises
and gives information about a school, college, new business etc : I
asked them to send me the college prospectus.
flyer a small sheet of paper advertising something : People were giving
out flyers advertising the fair.
tract a thin short book, especially about a moral or religious subject - a
rather formal use : Two women were handing out religious tracts.

orthodox / dks $ rdks / adjective

1 orthodox ideas, methods, or behaviour are accepted by most
people to be correct and right SYN conventional :
orthodox medical treatments
He challenged the orthodox views on education.
2 someone who is orthodox has the opinions and beliefs that are
generally accepted as being right, and does not have new or different
ideas :
 Orthodox economists believe that a recession is now inevitable.
an orthodox Marxist
3 believing in all the traditional beliefs, laws, and practices of a
religion :
an orthodox Jew
THESAURUS
BELIEVING IN A RELIGION
religious believing strongly in a religion and obeying its rules : My
father was a very religious man. | Are you religious?
devout having a very strong belief in a religion : a devout Catholic
orthodox believing in the traditional beliefs, laws, and practices of a
religion : orthodox Jews

arraign / ren / verb [ transitive ]

law to make someone come to court to hear what their crime is
arraign somebody on something
Thompson was arraigned on a charge of murder.
arraignment noun [ uncountable and countable ]

Bolshevik / blvk, blvk $ bol- / noun [ countable ]

1 someone who supported the COMMUNIST party at the time of the
Russian Revolution in 1917
2 old-fashioned an insulting way of talking about a Communist or
someone who has strong LEFT-WING opinions
bolshevik adjective

Bolshevik / blvk, blvk $ bol- / noun [ countable ]

1 someone who supported the COMMUNIST party at the time of the
Russian Revolution in 1917
2 old-fashioned an insulting way of talking about a Communist or
someone who has strong LEFT-WING opinions
bolshevik adjective

qualm / kwm $ kwm, kwlm / noun [ countable usually plural ]

a feeling of slight worry or doubt because you are not sure that what
you are doing is right :
Despite my qualms, I took the job.
The manager has no qualms about dropping players who do not
perform well.
 oracle / rk l $ -, - / noun [ countable ]
1 someone who the ancient Greeks believed could communicate with
the gods, who gave advice to people or told them what would happen
2 a message given by an oracle
3 a person or book that gives advice and information used
humorously

unfold / nfld $ -fold / verb

1 [ intransitive and transitive ] if a story unfolds, or if someone
unfolds it, it is told :
As the story unfolds, we learn more about Maxs childhood.
2 [ intransitive ] if a series of events unfold, they happen :
He had watched the drama unfold from a nearby ship.
3 [ intransitive and transitive ] if you unfold something that was
folded, or if it unfolds, it opens out :
He unfolded the map.

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich / he l, e

vlhelm fridrk, -x $ -r- /
(17701831) a German PHILOSOPHER who had great influence on
European and US philosophy with books such as The Phenomenology of
the Mind DIALECTIC

Enlightenment / nlatnmnt /
the Enlightenment a period in the eighteenth century when many
writers and scientists believed that science and knowledge, not religion,
could improve people's lives

marshal 2 verb ( past tense and past participle marshalled , present

participle marshalling British English , marshaled , marshaling
American English ) [ transitive ]
1 to organize your thoughts, ideas etc so that they are clear,
effective, or easy to understand
marshal your thoughts/arguments etc
He paused for a moment as if to marshal his thoughts.
 corollary / krlri $ krleri, k- / noun ( plural corollaries )
[ countable ] formal

something that is the direct result of something else

corollary of/to
Is social inequality the inevitable corollary of economic freedom?

2 to organize all the people or things that you need in order to be

ready for a battle, election etc :
The general marshalled his forces for a major offensive.
Senator Bryant attempted to marshal support for the measure.
3 to control or organize a large group :
Ginny marshalled her guests in a better position.

offspring / fspr $ f- / noun ( plural offspring ) [ countable ]

1 someones child or children often used humorously :
a young mother trying to control her offspring
2 an animals baby or babies SYN young :
a lion and its offspring

outburst / atbst $ -brst / noun [ countable ]

1 something you say suddenly that expresses a strong emotion,
especially anger :
He later apologized for his outburst.
emotional/violent/angry outburst
his fathers violent outbursts of temper
outburst of
an outburst of anger
2 a sudden short increase in an activity
outburst of
an outburst of creative energy
outbursts of violence

flux / flks / noun [ uncountable ]

a situation in which things are changing a lot and you cannot be sure
what will happen :
Everything is in flux at the moment.
The education system is still in a state of flux .
 perish / per / verb
1 [ intransitive ] formal or literary to die, especially in a terrible or
sudden way :
Hundreds perished when the ship went down.
2 [ intransitive and transitive ] especially British English if rubber or
leather perishes, it decays
3 perish the thought! spoken old-fashioned used to say that you
hope what someone has suggested will never happen :
If we lose, perish the thought, Watford will take first place.
THESAURUS
die to stop being alive, as a result of old age or illness : I want to see
Ireland again before I die. | No wonder your plants always die you
dont water them enough. | His son died of liver cancer three years ago.
pass away to die used when you want to avoid using the word die,
in order to show respect or to avoid upsetting someone : My wife had
just passed away, and I didnt want to be around people.
pass on to pass away use this especially when you believe that the
soul has a life after the death of the body : Im sorry, Emily, but your
mother has passed on.
lose your life to be killed in a terrible event : Hundreds of people lost
their lives when the ship overturned in a storm.
perish literary to die in a terrible event used especially in literature
and news reports : Five children perished before firefighters could put
out the blaze.
give your life/lay down your life formal to die in order to save
someone, or because of something that you believe in : We honor the
men and women who have given their lives in service of their country.
drop dead informal to suddenly die, when people do not expect you to :
One day, he came home from work and dropped dead of a heart attack.
kick the bucket/pop your clogs British English , buy the farm
American English informal to die used when you are not talking
seriously about death : Its not like Im going to kick the bucket
tomorrow.

Realpolitik
Para otros usos de este trmino, vase Realismo.
Realpolitik (poltica de la realidad en alemn) es la poltica o diplomacia basada en
intereses prcticos y acciones concretas, sin atender a la teora o la filosofa como elementos
"formadores de polticas".
La realpolitik aboga por el avance en los intereses de un pas de acuerdo con las
circunstancias actuales de su entorno, en lugar de seguir principios filosficos, tericos o
 morales. A este respecto, comparte su enfoque filosfico con el realismo filosfico y
el pragmatismo.

ndice
[ocultar]

1Origen

2Principales exponentes

3Vase tambin

4Referencias

Origen[editar]
Otto von Bismarck acu el trmino al cumplir la peticin del prncipe Klemens von
Metternich de encontrar un mtodo para equilibrar el poder entre los imperios europeos.
Elequilibrio de poderes significaba la paz, y los practicantes de la realpolitik intentaban evitar la
carrera armamentstica. Sin embargo, durante los primeros aos del siglo XX, larealpolitik fue
abandonada y en su lugar se practic la doctrina Weltpolitik, y la carrera armamentstica
recobr su bro y aboc, juntamente con otras circunstancias, a la Primera Guerra Mundial.

shiftless / ftls / adjective

lazy and having no interest in working hard or trying to succeed
shiftlessness noun [ uncountable ]
THESAURUS
lazy not liking work or physical activity, or not making any effort to do
anything : a lazy student | You make your own breakfast! Don't be so
lazy!
idle lazy and not doing enough work. Idle sounds rather formal and is
becoming old-fashioned. In everyday English, people usually use lazy :
The beggars were too idle to look for work. | Her son was bone idle (=
extremely lazy ) .
indolent formal lazy and living a comfortable life : He spent an indolent
first year at Oxford. | the indolent son of a wealthy landowner
shiftless lazy and having no ambition to succeed or do anything useful
with your life : her shiftless husband
work-shy British English lazy and trying to avoid any work : He was
work-shy, and no one could remember when hed last held a job.
slothful formal lazy and not liking physical activity : Her advice to
slothful Americans is: Get out there and walk!

Teutonic / tjutnk $ tut- / adjective

 1 having qualities that are thought to be typical of German people :
Teutonic efficiency
2 relating to the ancient German peoples of northwest Europe :
Teutonic mythology

deflate / diflet, d- / verb

1 [ intransitive and transitive ] if a tyre, BALLOON etc deflates, or if
you deflate it, it gets smaller because the gas inside it comes out OPP
inflate go down , let down
REGISTER
In everyday British English, people usually say an object goes down
rather than deflates :
It looks like the air bed has gone down .
2 [ transitive ] to make someone feel less important or less
confident :
She was deflated when Fen made no comment on her achievement.
3 [ transitive ] to show that a statement, argument etc is wrong :
Simkin hoped to find a way to deflate his opponents argument.
4 [ intransitive and transitive ] technical to change economic rules or
conditions in a country so that prices fall or stop rising

mores / mrez / noun [ plural ]

formal the customs, social behaviour, and moral values of a
particular group :
contemporary social and sexual mores

bough / ba / noun [ countable ] literary

a main branch on a tree

Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich / pvlv $ -lv//av n petrvt /

(18491936) a Russian scientist who won the Nobel Prize for
Medicine for his work on the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM . He is famous especially
for his work with dogs, which proved the existence of the CONDITIONED
REFLEX (=a physical reaction that you cannot control, caused by repeated
training or experiences). Each time he fed his dogs he rang a bell before
giving them their food. The dogs learned to connect the ringing of the
bell with the arrival of the food, and they got excited and began to
SALIVATE when they heard the bell, even if there was no food.
Pavlovian / pvlvin $ -lo- / adjective
 Freud, Sigmund / frd, smnd /
(18561939) an Austrian doctor who developed a new system for
understanding the way that people's minds work, and a new way of
treating mental illness called PSYCHOANALYSIS . He discovered the
UNCONSCIOUS (= the part of your mind where there are thoughts and
feelings that you do not realize you have ) . He believed that bad
experiences that people have as children can affect their mental health
as adults, and that by talking to a mentally ill person about their past
life and feelings, the hidden causes of their illness can be found. He
wrote The Interpretation of Dreams and The Ego and the Id . His ideas,
especially about the importance of sex, have had a very great influence
on the way that people think in the 20th century.

threshold / rehld, -ld $ -old / noun [ countable ]

1 the entrance to a room or building, or the area of floor or ground
at the entrance :
She opened the door and stepped across the threshold.
2 the level at which something starts to happen or have an effect :
Eighty percent of the vote was the threshold for approval of the plan.
a high/low pain/boredom etc threshold (= the ability or inability to
suffer a lot of pain or boredom before you react to it )
3 at the beginning of a new and important event or development
SYN brink
be on the threshold of something
The creature is on the threshold of extinction.
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + THRESHOLD
sbs pain threshold (= your ability or inability to deal with pain ) Will
it hurt? That all depends on your pain threshold.
sbs boredom threshold (= whether you do or do not get bored
easily ) She loves challenges and admits she has a low boredom
threshold.
a tax threshold The Conservatives promised to help the lower paid by
increasing the tax threshold.
a high threshold Professional football players have a pretty high pain
threshold.
a low threshold I know that young children have very low boredom
threshold.
VERBS
exceed a threshold The value of many family homes far exceeds the
inheritance tax threshold.
lower a threshold the demand to lower the retirement threshold to 60
raise a threshold They should raise the threshold to at least 245 a
week.
cross the threshold Such a person has sufficiently crossed the
threshold of criminality to justify punishment.

hilosophi naturalis principia mathematica

Philosophi naturalis principia mathematica

de Isaac Newton

Portadilla. Ntese que el imprimatur lo da el clebre diarista Samuel Pepys,

en ese entonces presidente de la Real Sociedad de Londres.

Gnero Filosofa de la naturaleza ymecnica clsica

Tema(s) Matemticas y Fsica

Edicin original en latn

Ttulo original Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica

 Ciudad Londres

Pas Inglaterra

Fecha de 5 de julio de 1687 y Julio de1687

publicacin

[editar datos en Wikidata]

Philosophi naturalis principia mathematica (del latn: Principios matemticos de

la filosofa natural), tambin conocido simplemente como Principia,1 es una obra publicada
por Isaac Newton el 5 de julio de 16871 a instancias de su amigo Edmond Halley,
[cita requerida]
donde recoge sus descubrimientos en mecnica y clculo matemtico. Este trabajo
marc un punto de inflexin en la historia de la ciencia y es considerada, por muchos, como la
obra cientfica ms importante de la Historia.
Su publicacin se haba demorado enormemente dado el temor de Newton a que otros
intentaran apropiarse de sus descubrimientos. Sin embargo Edmond Halley presion a
Newton hasta que publicara, Newton se lo agradece en las primeras pginas del libro. Los tres
libros de esta obra contienen los fundamentos de la fsica y la astronoma escritos en el
lenguaje de lageometra pura. El Libro I contiene el mtodo de las "primeras y ltimas
razones" y, bajo la forma de notas o escolios, se encuentra como anexo del Libro III la teora
de las fluxiones. Aunque esta obra monumental le aport un gran renombre, resulta un trabajo
difcil de leer en la actualidad dado el lenguaje y tono utilizados. Es por ello, que por ejemplo
en el clculo diferencial, es la notacin de Leibniz la que se utiliza en la actualidad, ms
intuitiva y que facilita los clculos, y no la de Newton.
En el campo de la mecnica recopil en su obra los hallazgos de Galileo y enunci sus tres
famosas leyes del movimiento. De ellas pudo deducir la fuerza gravitatoria entre la Tierra y la
Luna y demostrar que sta es directamente proporcional al producto de las masas e
inversamente proporcional al cuadrado de la distancia, multiplicando este cociente por una
constante llamadaconstante de gravitacin universal. Tuvo adems la gran intuicin de
generalizar esta ley a todos los cuerpos del universo, con lo que esta ecuacin se convirti en
la ley de gravitacin universal.
El ejemplar de la primera edicin de los Principia que perteneci a Newton, conteniendo
anotaciones y correcciones manuscritas, se encuentra en la Biblioteca Wren del Trinity
College de Cambridge.2
Existi una polmica concerniente a quin haba sido el inventor del clculo, ttulo que se
disputaron Newton y Leibniz. Lo cierto es que si bien Leibniz public antes sus ideas, Newton
haba elaborado toda su teora mucho antes, pero se demor en publicarla.

propound / prpand / verb [ transitive ]

formal to suggest an idea, explanation etc for other people to
consider :
The theory of natural selection was first propounded by Charles Darwin.
 bundle 1 / bndl / noun [ countable ]
1 a group of things such as papers, clothes, or sticks that are
fastened or tied together
bundle of
bundles of newspapers
a small bundle containing mostly clothing
2 a number of things that belong or are dealt with together
bundle of
bundles of data
3 computer software, and sometimes other equipment or services
that are included with a new computer at no extra cost
4 a bundle informal a lot of money :
College evening classes cost a bundle.
A company can make a bundle by selling unwanted property.
5 be a bundle of nerves informal to be very nervous
6 be a bundle of laughs/fun British English informal an
expression meaning a person or situation that is fun or makes you
laugh, often used jokingly when they are not fun at all :
Being a teenager isnt a bundle of laughs.
7 not go a bundle on something/somebody British English
informal to not like something or someone very much :
Jim never drank, and certainly didnt go a bundle on gambling.
THESAURUS
OF THINGS
bunch a group of things held or tied together, especially flowers or keys
: He handed me a bunch of daffodils.
bundle several papers, clothes, or sticks held or tied together in an
untidy pile : Bundles of papers and files filled the shelves.
cluster a group of things of the same kind that are close together in a
place : a cluster of stars | Our road ended at a cluster of cottages.

tap 2 verb ( past tense and past participle tapped , present participle
tapping )
1 HIT LIGHTLY [ intransitive and transitive ] to hit your fingers lightly
on something, for example to get someones attention
tap somebody on the shoulder/arm/chest etc
He turned as someone tapped him on the shoulder.
tap on
I went up and tapped on the window.
tap something on/against/from etc something
Mark tapped his fingers on the tabletop impatiently.
She tapped ash from her cigarette.
2 MUSIC [ transitive ] to make a regular pattern of sounds with your
fingers or feet, especially when you are listening to music :
She tapped her feet in time to the music.
a toe-tapping tune
3 ENERGY/MONEY [ transitive ] ( also tap into ) to use or take what is
needed from something such as an energy supply or an amount of
money :
People are tapping into the power supply illegally.
We hope that additional sources of funding can be tapped.
4 IDEAS [ transitive ] ( also tap into ) to make as much use as
possible of the ideas, experience, knowledge etc that a group of people
has :
Your advisers experience is there to be tapped.
helping people tap into training opportunities
5 TELEPHONE [ transitive ] to listen secretly to someones telephone
by using a special piece of electronic equipment :
Murrays phone calls to Australia were tapped .
6 TREE [ transitive ] to get liquid from the TRUNK of a tree by making
a hole in it
7 PLAYER [ transitive ] ( also tap up ) British English informal if a
football club taps a player from another team, it illegally tries to
persuade that player to join its team
tap something in ( also tap something into something ) phrasal
verb British English
to put information, numbers etc into a computer, telephone etc by
pressing buttons or keys :
Tap in your password before you log on.
tap something out phrasal verb
1 to hit something lightly, especially with your fingers or foot, in
order to make a pattern of sounds :
He whistled the tune and tapped out the rhythm.
2 to write something with a computer :
Brian tapped out a name on his small electronic organizer.

agnostic / nstk, - $ -n- / noun [ countable ]

someone who believes that people cannot know whether God exists
or not atheist
agnostic adjective
agnosticism / -tsz m, -tsz m / noun [ uncountable ]
THESAURUS
SOMEONE WHO DOES NOT BELIEVE IN GOD
atheist noun , adjective someone who believes that God does not
exist : Im a confirmed atheist.
agnostic noun , adjective someone who believes that people cannot
know whether God exists or not : He was an agnostic rather than an
atheist.

Herbert Spencer
Herbert Spencer

Herbert Spencer

Informacin personal

Nacimiento 27 de abril de 1820

Derby, Inglaterra, Reino Unido

Fallecimiento 8 de diciembre de 1903

83 aos
Brighton, Inglaterra, Reino Unido

Lugar de
Cementerio de Highgate
sepultura
Nacionalidad Britnico

Lengua
Francesa
materna

Familia

Padre William George Spencer

Informacin profesional

Ocupacin Socilogo, filsofo, psiclogo,antroplogo, naturalist

a

Aos activo Filosofa del siglo XIX

Lengua de
produccin Inglesa
literaria

Movimientos Liberalismo, utilitarismo,evolucionismo, positivismo

Obras Darwinismo social

notables Supervivencia del ms apto

Firma

[editar datos en Wikidata]

Abreviatura en botnica Spencer

Firma de Herbert Spencer

 [editar datos en Wikidata]

Herbert Spencer (Derby, Inglaterra, 1820-Brighton, Inglaterra, 1903) fue

un naturalista, filsofo, psiclogo, antroplogo ysocilogo ingls.
Fue uno de los ms ilustres positivistas de su pas. Ingeniero civil y de formacin autodidacta,
se interes tanto por la ciencia como por las letras. Aunque se dice comnmente que
promovi el darwinismo social en Gran Bretaa, esta afirmacin ha sido historiogrficamente
cuestionada.1 Spencer consider til el modelo del organismo biolgico para explicar la
organizacin social, es decir, interpretndola como un sistema, el cual posee funciones que
van de lo simple a lo complejo, segn el grado de desarrollo alcanzado, experimentando
durante este proceso, diferencias estructurales especializadas producto de su evolucin
natural.2
Desde el punto de vista sociolgico cabe considerarle como el primer autor que utiliz de
forma sistemtica los conceptos deestructura y funcin. Por otra parte, concibi la sociologa
como un instrumento dinmico al servicio de la reforma social. Dedic su vida a elaborar su
sistema de filosofa evolucionista, en la que considera la evolucin natural como clave de toda
la realidad, a partir de cuya ley mecnico-materialista cabe explicar cualquier nivel progresivo:
la materia, lo biolgico, lo psquico, lo social, etctera.
Durante el periodo comprendido entre los aos 1852 a 1857, anticipndose a la aparicin de
los trabajos de Darwin y Wallace, acerca del papel de la seleccin natural en la evolucin de
los organismos vivos, Herbet Spencer public tres artculos fundamentales para la concepcin
evolucionista de las sociedades, se tratan de "A Theory of Population", "The Development
Hypothesis" y "Progress: its Law and Causa". En consecuencia, la definicin de la evolucin
en las sociedades segn Spencer, se remite al cambio de un estado homogneo, indefinido e
incoherente, hacia uno ms heterogneo, definido y coherente; en lo que respecta a la
organizacin poltica, religiosa, econmica y en todo producto de la actividad humana. 3
En sus lecturas conoci la teora de la evolucin expuesta en el siglo XIX por el
naturalista Charles Darwin, su teora fundacional para la biologa moderna sostena que los
organismos biolgicos evolucionan adquiriendo nuevos rasgos por adaptacin al medio
ambiente que se hacen hereditarios, tambin las teoras de Lamarck sobre la evolucin
influyeron profundamente en la obra de Spencer; por lo tanto, tras considerar stas ideas en el
campo del naturalismo, una posterior re-elaboracin le permiti crear el concepto de proceso
superorgnico para aplicarlo a los cambios evolutivos sociales, en concreto para referirse a
aquellas ideas que sobrepasan lo individual y posibilitan las acciones humanas coordinadas.
Si bien para Spencer la evolucin natural conllevara a la supervivencia del ms fuerte, era
preciso que los dems seres humanos ayudaran a los ms dbiles. As, el filsofo Roderick
Long explica que "aunque Spencer se opona a los programas sociales financiados con
impuestos, apoyaba fuertemente la caridad voluntaria y de hecho dedica diez captulos de sus
Principios de tica a una explicacin de la beneficencia positiva".4
Sin embargo, y a pesar de haber sido catalogado por algunos pensadores como "darwinista
social", Spencer no aceptaba la teora de Darwin, proponiendo una versin del lamarquismo,
de acuerdo a la cual los rganos se desarrollan por su uso (o degeneran dado la falta de
uso) y esos cambios se transmiten de una generacin a otra. Para Spencer, la sociedad es
tambin un organismo, evolucionando hacia formas ms complejas de acuerdo a la ley de la
vida, es decir, de acuerdo al principio de la supervivencia del ms fuerte, tanto a nivel
individual como de sociedades. Consecuentemente, Spencer se opona radicalmente a
todas las manifestaciones de socialismo, tales como la educacin pblica generalizada u
obligatoria, bibliotecas pblicas, leyes de seguridad industrial, y, en general, a toda legislacin
o proyecto social financiado coactivamente pues violaba el principio de "igual libertad" sobre el
cual rega su tica. Consecuentemente, fue un fuerte opositor del colonialismo arguyendo que
"adems, el gobierno colonial, llamado apropiadamente as, no puede llevarse a cabo sin
transgredir los derechos de los colonos. Pues si, como generalmente ocurre, los colonos estn
dirigidos por autoridades enviadas desde la metrpoli, entonces se vulnera la ley de igual
libertad en sus personas, tanto como en cualquier otro tipo de gobierno autocrtico". 5
Spencer aplic la teora de la evolucin a las manifestaciones del espritu y a los problemas
sociales, entre ellos el de laeducacin, con su obra Educacin: intelectual, moral, fsica. Su
doctrina qued principalmente expuesta en su Sistema de filosofa sinttica (11 vols.) De su
extensa bibliografa, cabe mencionar: La esttica social (1850), Principios de
psicologa (1855),Primeros principios (1862), Principios de biologa (1864), La clasificacin de
las ciencias (1864), La sociologa descriptiva (1873),Principios de sociologa (1877-1896) y El
individuo contra el Estado (1884). Polticamente, desde la dcada de 1880 ingres en laLiberty
and Property Defence League, la cual en buena parte estaba influenciada por sus ideas.
Desde el punto de vista sociolgico, Spencer la define como "la historia natural de las
sociedades", dicho de otro modo: un orden entre los cambios estructurales y funcionales que
experimentan las sociedades. La sociologa de Spencer se centra en los fenmenos
macrosociales (agregados sociales) as como en sus funciones.
Varios autores criticaron el a veces extremado realismo de Spencer (por sus semejanzas con
el mecanicismo); entre ellos destac el filsofo y psiclogo escocs Alexander Bain. A pesar
de que Spencer no logr crear escuela, su ambicioso intento de sistematizar todo el
conocimiento dentro del marco de la ciencia moderna y especialmente en trminos de la
evolucin, le ha hecho merecedor de figurar entre los principales pensadores de finales
del siglo XIX.

coddle / kdl $ kdl / verb [ transitive ]

to treat someone in a way that is too kind and gentle and that
protects them from pain or difficulty SYN mollycoddle :
Dont coddle the child hes fine!

laudable / ldb l $ ld- / adjective formal

deserving praise, even if not completely successful SYN
praiseworthy :
a laudable attempt
laudably adverb

Nietzsche, Friedrich / nit, fridrk, -x /

(18441900) a German PHILOSOPHER whose most famous books are
Thus Spake Zarathustra and The Antichrist . He wrote that God is dead,
meaning that people no longer had to accept the values of the Christian
religion. He believed that a new type of person would exist, the
bermensch or SUPERMAN , who would be free to follow his own moral
principles. The idea of the superman was later used incorrectly by the
Nazis to support their belief that German people were better than people
of other races.
 Nietzschean / nitin / adjective

dazzle / dz l / verb [ transitive ]

1 if a very bright light dazzles you, it stops you from seeing properly
for a short time :
a deer dazzled by the headlights
2 to make someone feel strong admiration :
As children, we were dazzled by my uncles good looks and charm.
dazzle noun [ uncountable ]

shrink 1 / rk / verb ( past tense shrank / rk / , past participle

shrunk / rk / )
1 [ intransitive and transitive ] to become smaller, or to make
something smaller, through the effects of heat or water :
Im worried about washing that shirt in case it shrinks.
PRE-SHRUNK , SHRUNKEN
2 [ intransitive and transitive ] to become or to make something
smaller in amount, size, or value OPP grow :
The city continued to shrink.
shrink to
The firms staff had shrunk to only four people.
Treatment can shrink a tumour.
We want to expand the business, not shrink it.
3 [ intransitive always + adverb/preposition ] to move back and
away from something, especially because you are frightened :
She listened, shrinking under the blankets, to their shouts.
Meredith was scared of him and shrank back.
His anger was enough to make the others shrink away from him.
shrink from something phrasal verb
to avoid doing something difficult or unpleasant :
The leadership too often shrinks from hard decisions.
shrink from doing something
We will not shrink from making the necessary changes in policy.

dawn 1 / dn $ dn / noun [ uncountable and countable ]

1 the time at the beginning of the day when light first appears SYN
daybreak dusk
at dawn
The boats set off at dawn.
When dawn broke (= the first light of the day appeared ) , we were
still 50 miles from Calcutta.
I was up at the crack of dawn (= very early in the morning ) to get
the plane.
We worked from dawn to dusk (= through the whole day while it is
light ) .
the cold light of dawn
2 the dawn of civilization/time etc the time when something
began or first appeared :
People have been falling in love since the dawn of time.
3 a false dawn something that seems positive or hopeful but really
is not :
There was talk of share prices recovering, but that was just a false
dawn.
THESAURUS
beginning the first part of something such as a story, event, or period
of time : The beginning of the movie is very violent. | Lets go back to
the beginning.
start the beginning of something, or the way something begins :
Tomorrow marks the start of the presidential election campaign. | It
was not a good start to the day. | The runners lined up for the start of
the race.
commencement formal the beginning of something used especially
in official contexts : the commencement of the academic year | the
commencement of the contract
origin the point from which something starts to exist : He wrote a book
about the origins of the universe. | The tradition has its origins in
medieval times.
the onset of something the time when something bad begins, such as
illness, old age, or cold weather : the onset of winter | An active
lifestyle can delay the onset of many diseases common to aging.
dawn literary the beginning of an important period of time in history :
People have worshipped gods since the dawn of civilization.
birth the beginning of something important that will change many
peoples lives : the birth of democracy in South Africa | the birth of the
environmental movement

usher 2 verb [ transitive always + adverb/preposition ]

to help someone to get from one place to another, especially by
showing them the way
usher somebody into/to something
He ushered her into the room.
usher somebody in
She stood back and ushered him in.
usher in something phrasal verb
to cause something new to start, or to be at the start of something
new :
The discovery of oil ushered in an era of employment and prosperity.

mile Zola
mile Zola

mile Zola.

Informacin personal

Nombre de
mile douard Charles Antoine Zola
nacimiento

Nacimiento 2 de abril de 1840

Pars, Francia

Fallecimiento 29 de septiembre de 1902

(62 aos)
Pars, Francia
Causa de
Accidente
muerte

Lugar de
Panten de Pars y Cementerio de Montmartre
sepultura

Nacionalidad francs

Lengua
Francs
materna

Familia

Padres Francesco Zola

milie Aubert

Cnyuge
Alexandrine Zola

Jeanne Rozerot

Educacin

Alma mter
Lyce Saint-Louis

Informacin profesional

Ocupacin Escritor

Gnero narrativo: novela; ensaystico.

Movimientos realista, naturalista.

Obras
notables Les Rougon-Macquart

Thrse Raquin

Jaccuse!

Firma
 [editar datos en Wikidata]

mile douard Charles Antoine Zola, ms conocido como mile Zola (Pars, Francia, 2 de
abril de 1840-ibdem, 29 de septiembre de 1902), fue un escritor francs, considerado el padre
y el mayor representante del naturalismo.

Tuvo un papel muy relevante en la revisin del proceso de Alfred Dreyfus, que le cost el exilio
de su pas.

ndice
[ocultar]

1Trayectoria

2El caso Dreyfus

3ltimos libros

4Final

5Obras

6Referencias

7Bibliografa

8Enlaces externos

Trayectoria[editar]
mile Zola naci en Pars, hijo de Franois Zola, un ingeniero veneciano naturalizado, y de la
francesa milie Aubert. Su familia se traslad a Aix-en-Provence y tuvo graves problemas
econmicos tras la muerte temprana del padre. Tuvo como compaero de colegio a Paul
Czanne con quien mantendra una larga y fraternal amistad. Volvi a Pars en 1858. En 1859,
mile Zola suspendi dos veces el examen de bachillerato. Como no quiso seguir siendo una
carga para su madre, abandon los estudios con el fin de buscar trabajo.

En 1862 entr a trabajar en la librera Hachette como dependiente. Escribi su primer texto y
colabor en las columnas literarias de varios diarios. A partir de 1866, cultiv la amistad de
personalidades como douard Manet, Camille Pissarro y los hermanos Goncourt.

En 1868 concibi el proyecto de Les Rougon-Macquart, que empez en 1871 y concluy

en 1893. Su aspiracin era realizar una novela fisiolgica, a la que intentaba aplicar algunas
de las teoras de Taine sobre la influencia de la raza y el medio sobre el individuo y de Claude
Bernard sobre la herencia. "Quiero explicar cmo una familia, un pequeo grupo de seres
humanos, se comporta en una sociedad, desarrollndose para dar lugar al nacimiento a diez o
a veinte individuos que parecen, a primera vista, profundamente diferentes, pero que el
anlisis muestra ntimamente ligados los unos a los otros", dir Zola en el prefacio de la
primera novela de la saga, que sigue, aunque solo en parte, el modelo de Honor de
Balzac en la Comedia humana. El subttulo de la serie reza Historia natural y social de una
familia bajo el Segundo Imperio.

mile Zola retratado por Manet.

La obra consta de veinte novelas y se inicia con La fortuna de los Rougon en 1871: un retrato
social que, siguiendo el esquema del naturalismo, tiene altas dosis de violencia y dramatismo
y result a veces demasiado explcito en sus descripciones para el gusto de la poca. Las
novelas, sin embargo, fueron elaboradas con la imaginacin, pese a los datos que haba
previamente buscado.

mile Zola, ca. 1880.

Se cas en 1870 con Alexandrine Mlay. A partir de 1873, se relacion con Gustave
Flaubert y Alphonse Daudet. Conoci a Joris-Karl Huysmans, Paul Alexis, Lon
Henniquey Guy de Maupassant que llegaron a ser habituales de las veladas de Mdan, un
lugar cerca de Poissy donde Zola tena una casita de campo desde 1878. Se convirti en el
lder de los naturalistes. Un volumen colectivo nacido de esas Veladas apareci dos aos
despus.

En 1886, Zola y Czanne se distanciaron, cosa que se ha atribuido aunque con no mucho
fundamento a los paralelismos existentes entre Paul Czanne, el amigo y pintor, con el
personaje de Claude Lantier, el pintor fracasado de La obra. La diferencia fundamental radica
en que slo algunos rasgos de la personalidad por ejemplo, hbitos, valoraciones y forma
de trabajar del personaje, fueron inspirados sobre la base de las notas que tom Zola de la
vida de su amigo. Sin embargo, la obra plstica ficticia de Claude Lantier est inspirada en
una interpretacin del mismo Zola de un conjunto de pintores que conoca bien, incluyendo
Manet, Le Djeuner sur l'Herbe; como aficionado al arte contemporneo que era, plante un
anlisis convencional sobre dicha obra de Manet, atribuyndosela a un personaje con ideas
artsticas, un carcter, expectativas y costumbres completamente opuestos a los de Czanne,
adems de dotarlo de una historia trgica y dramtica. Contrariamente a lo que se crey en su
momento no correspondan con la vida de Paul, pero si bien todo el conjunto de circunstancias
descritas en la novela evocaban elementos muy diferentes a los que en realidad le
correspondan, stos eran en parte significativos para la vida y obra de Paul Czanne.

Critic habitualmente los criterios utilizados en las exposiciones de arte oficiales del siglo XIX,
en las que se rechazaba de forma continuada las nuevas obras impresionistas.

Por otro lado la publicacin de La tierra levant polmica: el Manifiesto de los cinco marc
la crtica de escritores naturalistas jvenes. Se hace amante de Jeanne Rozerot en 1888, con
la que tendr dos hijos. En 1890, se rechaz su entrada en la Academia francesa.

El caso Dreyfus[editar]
Artculo principal: Caso Dreyfus
Portada de L'Aurore de 13 de enero de 1898 con la carta Yo acuso de Zola.

Desde 1897, Zola se implic en el caso Dreyfus, militar francs, de origen judo, culpado
falsamente por espa.

El novelista interviene en el debate dada la campaa antisemita, y apoya la causa de los

judos franceses. Escribe varios artculos, donde figura la frase "la verdad est en camino y
nadie la detendr" (12-1897). Finalmente public en el diario L'Aurore su famoso Yo
acuso(Carta al Presidente de la Repblica), 1898, con trescientos mil ejemplares, lo que hizo
que el proceso de revisin tuviera un brusco giro. Pues el verdadero traidor (el que espi) fue
el comandante Walsin Esterhzy, que fue denunciado en un Consejo de Guerra el 10 de
enero de 1898, pero sin xito.

La versin ntegra en espaol del alegato en favor del capitn Alfred Dreyfus, dirigido por
mile Zola mediante esa carta abierta al presidente francs M. Felix Faure, y publicado por el
diario L'Aurore, el 13 de enero de 1898, en su primera plana, es la siguiente:

"Yo acuso al teniente coronel Paty de Clam como laborante quiero suponer inconsciente
del error judicial, y por haber defendido su obra nefasta tres aos despus con maquinaciones
descabelladas y culpables.

Acuso al general Mercier por haberse hecho cmplice, al menos por debilidad, de una de las
mayores iniquidades del siglo.

Acuso al general Billot de haber tenido en sus manos las pruebas de la inocencia de Dreyfus,
y no haberlas utilizado, hacindose por lo tanto culpable del crimen de lesa humanidad y de
lesa justicia con un fin poltico y para salvar al Estado Mayor comprometido.
Acuso al general Boisdeffre y al general Gonse por haberse hecho cmplices del mismo
crimen, el uno por fanatismo clerical, el otro por espritu de cuerpo, que hace de las oficinas de
Guerra un arca santa, inatacable.

Acuso al general Pellieux y al comandante Ravary por haber hecho una informacin infame,
una informacin parcialmente monstruosa, en la cual el segundo ha labrado el imperecedero
monumento de su torpe audacia.

Acuso a los tres peritos calgrafos, los seores Belhomme, Varinard y Couard por sus informes
engaadores y fraudulentos, a menos que un examen facultativo los declare vctimas de una
ceguera de los ojos y del juicio.

Acuso a las oficinas de Guerra por haber hecho en la prensa, particularmente en L'clair y
en L'Echo de Pars una campaa abominable para cubrir su falta, extraviando a la opinin
pblica.

Y por ltimo: acuso al primer Consejo de Guerra, por haber condenado a un acusado,
fundndose en un documento secreto, y al segundo Consejo de Guerra, por haber cubierto
esta ilegalidad, cometiendo el crimen jurdico de absolver conscientemente a un culpable.

No ignoro que, al formular estas acusaciones, arrojo sobre m los artculos 30 y 31 de la Ley
de Prensa del 29 de julio de 1881, que se refieren a los delitos de difamacin. Y
voluntariamente me pongo a disposicin de los Tribunales.

En cuanto a las personas a quienes acuso, debo decir que ni las conozco ni las he visto
nunca, ni siento particularmente por ellas rencor ni odio. Las considero como entidades, como
espritus de maleficencia social. Y el acto que realiz aqu, no es ms que un medio
revolucionario de activar la explosin de la verdad y de la justicia.

Slo un sentimiento me mueve, slo deseo que la luz se haga, y lo imploro en nombre de la
humanidad, que ha sufrido tanto y que tiene derecho a ser feliz. Mi ardiente protesta no es
ms que un grito de mi alma. Que se atrevan a llevarme a los Tribunales y que me juzguen
pblicamente.

As lo espero".

mile Zola, Pars, 13 de enero de 1898.

Era la primera sntesis del proceso, y se ley en todo el mundo. La reaccin del gobierno fue
inmediata. Un agitado proceso por difamacin (con gran violencia, centenares de testigos,
incoherencias y ocultaciones por parte de la acusacin) le conden a un ao de crcel y a una
multa de 7.500 francos (con los gastos), que pag su amigo y escritorOctave Mirbeau.

Agobiado por la agitacin que caus su proceso, Zola se exili en Londres, donde vivi en
secreto. A su regreso, public en La Vrit en marche sus artculos sobre el caso. Slo en
junio de 1899, con la prosecucin del proceso, puede regresar a su pas. Pero Alfred Dreyfus
es condenado, con atenuantes, y Zola le escribe nada ms llegar. Zola adquiere una gran
dimensin social y poltica, pero tiene grandes problemas econmicos (la justicia le embarga
bienes) y es puesto en la picota por medios muy influyentes.

strife / straf / noun [ uncountable ] formal

trouble between two or more people or groups SYN conflict
ethnic/religious/civil etc strife
a time of political strife

Gauguin, Paul / n $ n /
(18481903) a French painter who went to live in Tahiti, where he
painted brightly coloured scenes which showed the life of the people
there

Paul Gauguin
Paul Gauguin

Autorretrato, (1893)
Museo de Orsay, Pars
 Informacin personal

Nombre de
Eugne Henri Paul Gauguin
nacimiento

Nacimiento 7 de junio de 1848

Pars, Francia

Fallecimiento 8 de mayo de 1903 (54 aos)

Atuona, Polinesia Francesa

Causa de
Sfilis
muerte

Nacionalidad Francesa

Familia

Cnyuge Mette-Sophie Gad

Educacin

Alumno de
Camille Pissarro

Informacin profesional

rea pintura artstica

Movimientos Posimpresionismo, Escuela de Pont-

Aven, simbolismo,Sintetismo y Cloisonismo

Obras notables
El Cristo amarillo

El espritu de los muertos vela

Caf de noche en Arls

Cuando te casas?
 Firma

[editar datos en Wikidata]

Eugne Henri Paul Gauguin (Pars, 7 de junio de 1848-Atuona, Islas Marquesas, 8 de

mayo de 1903) fue un pintorposimpresionista reconocido despus de su fallecimiento. El uso
experimental del color y su estilo sintetista, fueron elementos claves para su distincin
respecto al impresionismo. Su trabajo fue gran influencia para los vanguardistas franceses y
muchos otros artistas modernos como Pablo Picasso y Henri Matisse. El arte de Gauguin se
volvi popular despus de su muerte, parcialmente debido a los esfuerzos del comerciante de
arte Ambroise Vollard, quien organiz exhibiciones de su obra casi al trmino de su carrera y
pstumas en Pars.1 2 Muchas de sus obras se encontraban en la posesin del coleccionista
ruso Sergei Shchukin3 as como en otras colecciones importantes.
Gauguin fue una figura importante del simbolismo, participando como pintor, escritor y escultor
de grabados y cermica. Su experimentacin audaz con el color fue lo que coloc los
cimientos para el estilo sintetista del arte moderno, mientras que su expresin del significado
inherente de los temas en sus pinturas, bajo la influencia del cloisonismo, fue lo que
paviment el camino al primitivismo y el regreso al estilo pastoral (captura de la naturaleza,
paisajes). Su trabajo tambin fue una gran influencia para el uso de tcnicas como el grabado
en madera y la xilografa en la realizacin de obras de arte.4 5 Su obra ayud a la evolucin de
la pintura, referente al expresionismo alemn y el fovismo (movimiento que se desarrolla entre
1898 y 1908).
Fue Jefe de filas de la Escuela de Pont-Aven e inspirador de los Nabis. Desarroll la parte
ms distintiva de su produccin en elCaribe (Martinica) y en Oceana (Polinesia Francesa),
volcndose mayormente en paisajes y desnudos muy audaces para la poca por su rusticidad
y colorido rotundo, opuestos a la pintura burguesa y esteticista predominante en su tiempo en
la cultura occidental. Su obra est considerada entre las ms importantes de los
pintores franceses del siglo XIX, contribuyendo decisivamente al arte moderno del siglo XX.
Van Gogh habl acerca de sus pinturas de Martinica, diciendo:
Formidables! No fueron pintadas con el pincel, sino con el falo. Cuadros que son, al mismo tiempo, arte
y pecado [...] Esta es pintura que sale de las entraas, de la sangre, como el esperma sale del sexo.

revel / rev l / verb ( past tense and past participle revelled , present
participle revelling British English , reveled , reveling American English
) [ intransitive ] old use
to spend time dancing, eating, drinking etc, especially at a party
revel noun [ countable usually plural ]
revel in something phrasal verb
to enjoy something very much :
He revelled in his new-found fame.

stark 1 / stk $ strk / adjective

1 very plain in appearance, with little or no colour or decoration :
In the cold dawn light, the castle looked stark and forbidding.
the stark beauty of New Mexico
2 unpleasantly clear and impossible to avoid SYN harsh :
The movie shows the stark realities of life in the ghetto.
The extreme poverty of the local people is in stark contrast to the
wealth of the tourists.
We are faced with a stark choice .
a stark reminder of life under Communist rule
starkly adverb
starkness noun [ uncountable ]
THESAURUS
plain without anything added, or without decoration : a plain shirt | The
fireplace was plain apart from a small design at the top.
simple not having a lot of decoration or unnecessary things, but
attractive : She was wearing a simple black dress. | The accommodation
is simple but clean.
austere very plain and with very little decoration, or very little in it
used about a room or place that does not make you feel welcome : He
dreaded having dinner in that austere dining room. | The building was
grey and a little austere. | the austere beauty and grandeur of mountain
scenery
spartan plain and without anything that would make life easier or more
comfortable used especially about rooms, conditions, or ways of
living : Her apartment is quite spartan. | They had a very spartan life.
stark very plain in a surprising way, with very little colour or decoration
used about rooms and places : Sam sat looking at the stark white
walls. | It is a landscape of stark beauty.
bare empty, or not covered by any decorations : Her office seemed
very bare now that her desk had gone. | He was tired of looking at the
bare walls of his prison cell.

fringe 1 / frnd / noun [ countable ]

1 British English if you have a fringe, your hair is cut so that it hangs
down over your forehead SYN bangs American English :
a tall girl with straight brown hair and a fringe
2 a decorative edge of hanging threads on a curtain, piece of
clothing etc
3 on the fringes (of something)
a) not completely belonging to or accepted by a group of people who
share the same job, activities etc :
a small group on the fringes of the art world
 b) ( also on the fringe ) at the part of something that is farthest from
the centre SYN on the edge of something :
Nina remained on the fringe of the crowd.
the lunatic fringe at LUNATIC ( 3 )

tenet / tent, tent / noun [ countable ]

a principle or belief, especially one that is part of a larger system of
beliefs
central/basic/fundamental etc tenet
one of the basic tenets of democracy
tenet of
the main tenet of his philosophy

scripture / skrpt $ -r / noun

1 Scripture [ uncountable ] ( also the (Holy) Scriptures [ plural ] )
the Bible :
the way God is portrayed in Scripture
2 [ uncountable and countable ] the holy books of a particular
religion :
Hindu scriptures

secular / sekjl, sekjl $ -r / adjective

1 not connected with or controlled by a church or other religious
authority :
secular education
our modern secular society
2 a secular priest lives among ordinary people, rather than with
other priests in a MONASTERY
THESAURUS
RELATING TO RELIGION
religious relating to religion : the country's religious leaders | the
importance of religious freedom
spiritual relating to matters of the human spirit, rather than the
physical world : The Dalai Lamai is the exiled spiritual leader of Tibet. |
We tend to ignore people's spriritual needs, and focus too much on
material things. | spiritual values
holy [ usually before noun ] connected with God and religion, and
therefore treated in a special way used especially in the following
phrases : the Holy Bible | the holy city of Mecca | a Hindu holy man |
They believe they are fighting a holy war. | The priest puts some holy
water on the child's head.
sacred connected with God and religion, and therefore treated in a
special way used especially in the following phrases : This place is
sacred to both Jews and Muslims. | In India, cows are considered
sacred . | the Hindu sacred texts | sacred music | a sacred ritual
theological relating to the study of religion or to religious beliefs : a
theological debate | theological training
secular not relating to religion or controlled by a religious authority :
secular education | secular matters | In the UK we live in a much more
secular society.

cast 1 W3 / kst $ kst / verb ( past tense and past participle cast )
1 cast light on/onto something to provide new information about
something, making it easier to understand :
research findings that cast new light on the origin of our universe
The numerous biographies of Baldwin cast little light on the subject.
2 cast doubt(s) on something to make people feel less certain
about something :
Her documentary casts serious doubt on Gilligans conviction.
3 LIGHT AND SHADE [ transitive ] literary to make light or a shadow
appear somewhere
cast something over/on/across something
The flames cast dancing shadows on the walls.
the shade cast by low-hanging branches
4 cast a shadow/cloud over something literary to make people
feel less happy or hopeful about something :
The allegations cast a cloud over the Mayors visit.
Her fathers illness cast a shadow over the wedding celebrations.
5 LOOK [ transitive ] literary to look quickly in a particular direction
cast a look/glance at somebody/something
She cast an anguished look at Guy.
cast somebody a glance/look
The young tramp cast him a wary glance.
She blushed, casting her eyes down .
6 cast an eye on/over something to examine or read something
quickly in order to judge whether it is correct, good etc :
Mellor cast an eye over the draft for inaccuracies.
cast a critical/expert etc eye
Tonight, Tim Goodman casts a cynical eye on TV ads.
7 cast a vote/ballot to vote in an election :
Barely one in three will bother to cast a ballot on February 26th.
To qualify, candidates must get at least 10% of the votes cast.
 CASTING VOTE
8 cast a spell on/over somebody
a) to attract someone very strongly and to keep their attention
completely :
Hong Kong casts a spell over the visitor almost as soon as the aircraft
touches down.
b) to use magic words or acts to change someone or something :
Shes a witch, and shell cast a spell on you if she catches you.
9 cast your mind back literary to try to remember something that
happened in the past
cast your mind back to
Cast your mind back to your first day at school.
cast your mind back over
He frowned, casting his mind back over the conversation.
10 cast aspersions on something/somebody formal to suggest
that someone is not as truthful, honest etc as they seem :
remarks that cast aspersions on the integrity of the jury
11 METAL [ transitive ] to make an object by pouring liquid metal,
plastic etc into a MOULD (= hollow container )
cast something in/from something
a statue of a horse cast in bronze
12 ACTING [ transitive ] to choose which people will act particular
parts in a play, film etc
cast somebody alongside/opposite somebody (= choose people for
the two main roles )
Pfeiffer was expected to be cast alongside Douglas in Basic Instinct.
cast somebody as something
Coppola cast him as Sodapop in The Outsiders.
cast somebody in a role/a part/the lead
The producer finally cast Finsh in the male lead.
13 DESCRIBE [ transitive ] to regard or describe someone as a
particular type of person
cast somebody as something
Clinton had cast himself as the candidate of new economic opportunity.
Clarkes trying to cast me in the role of villain here.
14 THROW [ transitive always + adverb/preposition ] literary to
throw something somewhere SYN toss :
Sparks leapt as he cast more wood on the fire.
15 FISHING [ intransitive and transitive ] to throw a fishing line or
net into the water :
Theres a trick to casting properly.
16 SEND AWAY [ transitive always + adverb/preposition ] literary to
force someone to go somewhere unpleasant
cast somebody into prison/Hell etc
Memet should, in her opinion, be cast into prison.
17 cast your net (far and) wide to consider or try as many things
as possible in order to find what you want :
We cast our net wide to get the right person for the job.
18 SKIN [ transitive ] when a snake casts its skin, the top layer of
skin falls off slowly SYN shed
19 cast a shoe if a horse casts a shoe, the shoe falls off by accident
20 cast a horoscope to prepare and write a HOROSCOPE for
someone
the die is cast at DIE 2 ( 3 ) , throw in/cast your lot with
somebody/something at LOT 2 ( 8 ) , cast pearls before swine at
PEARL ( 4 )
cast about/around for something phrasal verb
to try hard to think of the right thing to do or say :
She cast about frantically for an excuse.
Telecoms companies are casting around for ways of recouping huge
losses.
cast somebody/something aside phrasal verb literary
to remove or get rid of someone or something because you no
longer want or need them :
When Henry became King, he cast aside all his former friends.
cast aside your inhibitions/doubts etc
Cast aside your fears.
cast away phrasal verb [ usually passive ]
to be left alone on a lonely shore or island because your ship has
sunk :
If you were cast away on a desert island, what would you miss most?
cast off phrasal verb
1 to untie the rope that fastens your boat to the shore so that you
can sail away
2 cast somebody/something off literary to remove or get rid
of something or someone that you no longer want or need :
His family had cast him off without a penny.
3 to finish a piece of KNITTING by removing the stitches from the
needle to make an edge that will not come undone
cast something off
Cast off four stitches.
cast on phrasal verb
to start a piece of KNITTING by making the first stitches on the needle
cast something on
Cast on 132 stitches.
cast somebody/something out phrasal verb
literary to force someone or something to leave a place :
God has cast out the demons from your soul.
cast something up phrasal verb literary
if the sea casts something up, it carries it onto the shore :
A body had been cast up on the rocks.

gospel / sp l $ s- / noun
1 Gospel [ countable ] one of the four books in the Bible about
Christs life :
the Gospel according to St Luke
2 ( also Gospel ) [ singular ] the life of Christ and the ideas that he
taught
preach/spread the gospel (= tell people about it )
Missionaries were sent to preach the Gospel.
gospel stories
3 [ countable usually singular ] a set of ideas that someone believes
in very strongly and tries to persuade other people to accept
spread/preach the gospel
spreading the gospel of science
4 ( also gospel truth ) [ uncountable ] something that is completely
true :
Dont take everything she says as gospel (= dont believe everything
she says ) .
5 ( also gospel music ) [ uncountable ] a type of Christian music in
which religious songs are sung very loudly :
a gospel choir

align / lan / verb

1 [ transitive ] to publicly support a political group, country, or
person that you agree with
align yourself with somebody/something
Church leaders have aligned themselves with the opposition.
a country closely aligned with the West
2 [ intransitive and transitive ] to arrange things so that they form a
line or are parallel to each other, or to be in a position that forms a line
etc :
The desks were neatly aligned in rows.
Make sure that all the holes align.
3 [ transitive usually passive ] to organize or change something so
that it has the right relationship to something else
align with
This policy is closely aligned with the goals of the organization.
 dogma / dm $ dm, dm / noun [ uncountable and
countable ]
a set of firm beliefs held by a group of people who expect other
people to accept these beliefs without thinking about them
religious/political/ideological etc dogma
the rejection of political dogma

ecumenical / ikjmenk l, ikjmenk l $ ek- / adjective

supporting the idea of uniting the different branches of the Christian
religion
ecumenically / -kli / adverb

council S2 W2 / kans l / noun [ countable ]

1 a group of people that are chosen to make rules, laws, or
decisions, or to give advice :
the council for civil liberties
the UN Security Council
2 the organization that is responsible for local government in a
particular area in Britain :
local council elections
He sent a letter to the council to complain about the noise.
County/District/City etc Council
Northampton Borough Council
council leader/officer/worker etc
council chamber/offices
3 a group of people elected to the government of a city in the US :
the Los Angeles city council
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + COUNCIL
an advisory council (= for giving advice ) The report was issued by
the Advisory Council on Science and Technology.
a research council the Medical Research Council
a funding council (= for giving money to projects, organizations etc )
a further education funding council
the arts/sports council The exhibition has been funded by the Arts
Council.
the UN Security Council (= for protecting a country or group of
countries ) the Security Council's peace plan
VERBS
 establish/form/set up a council A National Radio and Television
Council was established to regulate the market.
head a council Brzezinski headed the National Security Council at that
time.
a council awards something (= gives someone something, especially
money ) The Scottish Arts Council has awarded grants totalling over
30,000.
COUNCIL + NOUN
a council meeting She had to attend a council meeting.
a council member School council members are elected by their fellow
students.
a council resolution (= decision ) Council resolutions need a two
thirds majority.
a council grant (= amount of money that a council gives to a person,
organization, project etc ) The community centre has had its council
grant cut by 50%.

Council of Trent
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Council of Trent

Date 154563

Accepted by Roman Catholicism

Previous council Fifth Council of the Lateran

Next council First Vatican Council

Convoked by Paul III

Paul III
President
Julius III

Pius IV

Attendance about 255 during the final sessions

Topics Protestantism
Counter-Reformation
 Documents and Seventeen dogmatic decrees covering then-
statements disputed aspects of Catholic religion

Chronological list of Ecumenical councils

The Council of Trent meeting in Santa Maria Maggiore church, Trento (Trent).
(Artist unknown; painted late 17th century.)

Part of a a series on

Ecumenical Councils
of the Catholic Church

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Constantinople I

Early Middle Ages (431870)

 Ephesus
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Constantinople II
Constantinople III
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Constantinople IV

High and Late Middle Ages (11221517)

Lateran I
Lateran II
Lateran III
Lateran IV
Lyon I
Lyon II
Vienne
Constance
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Lateran V

Early Modern and Contemporary (1545)

Trent
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Catholicism portal

v
t
e

The Council of Trent (Latin: Concilium Tridentinum), held between 1545 and 1563
in Trento (Trent) and Bologna, northern Italy, was one of the Roman Catholic Church's most
important ecumenical councils. Prompted by the Protestant Reformation, it has been described
as the embodiment of the Counter-Reformation.[1] Four hundred years later, when Pope John
XXIII initiated preparations for the Second Vatican Council (Vatican II), he affirmed the decrees
it had issued: "What was, still is."[2]
As well as decrees,[3] the Council issued condemnations of what it defined to
be heresies committed by Protestantism and, in response to them, key statements and
clarifications of the Church's doctrine and teachings. These addressed a wide range of
subjects, including scripture, the Biblical canon, sacred tradition, original
sin, justification, salvation, the sacraments, the Mass and the veneration of saints.[4] The
Council met for twenty-five sessions between 13 December 1545 and 4 December 1563, all in
Trento (then the capital of the Prince-Bishopric of Trent in the Holy Roman Empire), apart from
the ninth to eleventh sessions held in Bologna during 1547. [5] Pope Paul III, who convoked the
Council, presided over these and the first eight sessions (154547), while the twelfth to
sixteenth sessions (155152) were overseen by Pope Julius III and the seventeenth to twenty-
fifth sessions (156263) by Pope Pius IV.
The consequences of the Council were also significant as regards the Church's liturgy and
practices. During its deliberations, the Council made the Vulgate the official example of the
Biblical canon and commissioned the creation of a standard version, although this was not
achieved until the 1590s.[1] In 1565, however, a year or so after the Council finished its work,
Pius IV issued theTridentine Creed (after Tridentum, Trento's Latin name) and his
successor Pius V then issued the Roman Catechism and revisions of
the Breviary and Missal in, respectively, 1566, 1568 and 1570. These, in turn, led to the
codification of theTridentine Mass, which remained the Church's primary form of the Mass for
the next four hundred years.
More than three hundred and fifty years passed until the next ecumenical council, the First
Vatican Council was convened in 1869.

Ex cathedra

Cathedra Petri, obra de Bernini

La expresin ex cathedra, o ex cthedra o ex ctedra1 (literalmente, 'desde la ctedra',

del latn cathedra, 'silla') es una expresin latina que se usa para referirse al acto de expresar
algo con la autoridad que corresponde a un cargo (de juez, profesor, etc.), siendo la silla
octedra es decir el asiento o mueble metonimia de la funcin. Hablar ex
ctedra significa expresarse en tono magistral y muy solemne, decisivo, y se usa para
ponderar la autoridad (real o fingida) con la que alguien est afirmando algo. En espaol,
coloquialmente, su significado sera "con autoridad".
El uso ms habitual de la expresin es respecto al ejercicio de la autoridad papal, porque una
declaracin papal tiene que emitirse ex cathedra para tener infalibilidad papal. Cuando
el Papa habla desde su silla o cathedra de autoridad, como cabeza visible de la Iglesia
catlica, respecto a ciertas materias, sus enseanzas no dependen del consentimiento de
la Iglesia y son irreformables. El Concilio Vaticano I expres en 1870 as el dogma de la
infalibilidad papal:
El Romano Pontfice, cuando habla ex cathedra, esto es, cuando en el ejercicio de su oficio de pastor y
maestro de todos los cristianos, en virtud de su suprema autoridad apostlica, define una doctrina de fe
o costumbres como que debe ser sostenida por toda la Iglesia, posee, por la asistencia divina que le fue
prometida en el bienaventurado Pedro, aquella infalibilidad de la que el divino Redentor quiso que
gozara su Iglesia en la definicin de la doctrina de fe y costumbres. Por esto, dichas definiciones del
Romano Pontfice son en s mismas, y no por el consentimiento de la Iglesia, irreformables.
Constitucin dogmtica Pastor Aeternus, Cap 4.

Tres condiciones segn el Catecismo 891 deben reunirse para que una definicin
pontificia sea ex cathedra:

1. El papa debe hablar como Pastor y Maestro supremo de todos los fieles que confirma
en la fe a sus hermanos: si habla en calidad de persona privada, o si se dirige solo a
un grupo y no a la Iglesia universal, no goza de infalibilidad.

2. El papa proclama por un acto definitivo la doctrina: cuando el papa claramente

expresa que la doctrina es definitiva, no puede cambiar.

3. El papa habla en cuestiones de fe y moral.

Jansenism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jansenism: Cornelius Jansen(15851638), professor at the Old University of Louvain

Jansenism was a Catholic theological movement, primarily in France, that

emphasized original sin, human depravity, the necessity ofdivine grace, and predestination.
The movement originated from the posthumously published work of
the Dutch theologian Cornelius Jansen, who died in 1638. It was first popularized by Jansen's
friend Abbot Jean Duvergier de Hauranne, of Saint-Cyran-en-Brenne Abbey, and after
Duvergier's death in 1643, was led by Antoine Arnauld. Through the 17th and into the 18th
centuries, Jansenism was a distinct movement within the Catholic Church. The theological
centre of the movement was the convent of Port-Royal Abbey, Paris, which was a haven for
writers including Duvergier, Arnauld, Pierre Nicole, Blaise Pascal, and Jean Racine.
Jansenism was opposed by many in the Catholic hierarchy, especially the Jesuits. Although the
Jansenists identified themselves only as rigorous followers of Augustine of Hippo's teachings,
Jesuits coined the term "Jansenism" to identify them as having Calvinist affinities.
[1]
The apostolic constitution Cum occasione promulgated by Pope Innocent X in 1653,
condemned five cardinal doctrines of Jansenism asheresyespecially the relationship
between human free will and efficacious grace, wherein the teachings of Augustine, as
presented by the Jansenists, contradicted the teachings of the Jesuit School. [1] Jansenist
leaders endeavored to accommodate the pope's pronouncements while retaining their
uniqueness, and enjoyed a measure of peace in the late 17th century under Pope Clement IX.
However, further controversy led to the apostolic constitution Unigenitus Dei Filius,
promulgated by Pope Clement XI in 1713, which marked the end of Catholic toleration of
Jansenist doctrine. [citation needed]

Ultramontanism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An image of Pope Alexander I. Ultramontane Catholics emphasized the authority of the Pope over
temporal affairs of civil governments as well as the spiritual affairs of the Church.

Ultramontanism is a clerical political conception within the Catholic Church that places strong
emphasis on the prerogatives and powers of the Pope.

Gallic / lk / adjective
relating to or typical of France or French people :
Gallic charm

Aquinas, St Thomas / kwans /

 (122574) an Italian THEOLOGIAN (= someone who studies religion
and religious beliefs ) and PHILOSOPHER whose ideas had an important
influence on the Roman Catholic religion

scorn 1 / skn $ skrn / noun [ uncountable ]

1 the feeling that someone or something is stupid or does not
deserve respect SYN contempt
scorn for
He felt scorn for his working-class parents.
with scorn
Rachel looked at me with scorn.
2 pour scorn on somebody/something ( also heap scorn on
somebody/something American English ) to strongly criticize
someone or something because you think they do not deserve respect :
Labour poured scorn on the Tory claim to be the party of law and order.

Rothschild
a family of Jewish bankers in Europe who had a lot of influence over
two hundred years.

hue / hju / noun [ countable ] literary

1 a colour or type of colour tint , shade :
a golden hue
2 a type of opinion, belief etc
of every hue/of all hues (= of many kinds )
political opinions of every hue
THESAURUS
colour red, blue, yellow etc : Blue is my favourite colour. | Matisse was
famous for his use of colour.
shade a particular type of a colour : The dress is a light shade of pink. |
He uses different shades of green.
hue / hju / literary or technical a particular colour or shade of a colour :
Her face had lost its golden hue.
tint a small amount of a colour in something that is mostly another
colour : He wears sunglasses that have a pinky-orange tint.
tone one of the many different shades of a colour, each slightly darker,
lighter, brighter etc than the next : Carpets in neutral tones give a
feeling of space.

pogrom / prm $ prm / noun [ countable ]

 a planned killing of large numbers of people, usually done for
reasons of race or religion

Zionism / zanz m / noun [ uncountable ]

support for the establishment and development of a state for the
Jews in Israel
Zionist noun [ countable ] , adjective

Enlightenment / nlatnmnt /
the Enlightenment a period in the eighteenth century when many
writers and scientists believed that science and knowledge, not religion,
could improve people's lives

twofold / tufld $ -fold / adjective

1 two times as much or as many of something :
a twofold increase in cases of TB
2 having two important parts :
The benefits of the scheme are twofold.
twofold adverb :
Student numbers have expanded twofold in ten years.

heyday / hede / noun [ countable usually singular ]

the time when someone or something was most popular, successful,
or powerful
in sbs heyday
Greta Garbo in her heyday

Locke, John / lk $ lk /
(16321704) an English PHILOSOPHER who developed the idea of
EMPIRICISM in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding . In his Two
Treatises on Civil Government he wrote that a king or government
received the right to rule from the people and not from God, and that
the people should be able to change their government if they were not
satisfied with it. These ideas influenced the DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
in the US.
 empiricism AC / mprsz m, mprsz m / noun
[ uncountable ]
the belief in basing your ideas on practical experience
empiricist noun [ countable ]

Mill, John Stuart

(180673) a British PHILOSOPHER and economist who influenced
modern ideas about politics and economics. He helped to develop the
idea of UTILITARIANISM (= the principle that actions are good if they
generally bring happiness, and bad if they do not ) , and in his book On
Liberty , he said that people should be free to do what they want so long
as they did not harm other people.

Gladstone, William Ewart / ldstn $ -stn, wljm jut

$ -rt /
(180998) a British politician in the Liberal Party, who was Prime
Minister four times (186874, 188085, 1886, 189294). He established
a system of primary education for all children, and also introduced
secret voting rights for most males. He supported the idea of limited
independence for Ireland, but did not succeed in persuading Parliament
to accept this policy.

Gladstone, William Ewart / ldstn $ -stn, wljm jut

$ -rt /
(180998) a British politician in the Liberal Party, who was Prime
Minister four times (186874, 188085, 1886, 189294). He established
a system of primary education for all children, and also introduced
secret voting rights for most males. He supported the idea of limited
independence for Ireland, but did not succeed in persuading Parliament
to accept this policy.

laissez-faire , laisser-faire / lese fe, le- $ -fer / noun

[ uncountable ]
1 the principle that the government should allow the ECONOMY or
private businesses to develop without any state control or influence :
the policy of laissez-faire
laissez-faire economics/capitalism
 2 laissez-faire attitude/approach etc when you do not become
involved in other peoples personal affairs

hardship / hdp $ hrd- / noun [ uncountable and countable ]

something that makes your life difficult or unpleasant, especially a
lack of money, or the condition of having a difficult life :
an economic policy that caused great hardship for many people
Many students are suffering severe financial hardship .
hardship of
the hardships of war
COLLOCATIONS
VERBS
cause/create hardship The severe winter caused great hardship in
remote villages.
experience/suffer hardship ( also endure hardship formal ) Many
pensioners experienced hardship paying the tax.
face hardship (= will be affected by a difficult or painful situation ) One
in four families in Britain is facing financial hardship.
inflict hardship on somebody (= make someone be in a difficult or
painful situation, used for emphasis ) Civil war has inflicted hardship
and suffering on thousands of people.
alleviate hardship formal (= make it less severe ) The program aims
to alleviate hardship among the poorest sections of society.
ADJECTIVES
great/immense/deep hardship (= a lot of hardship ) In the early
years, the settlers faced great hardship.
severe/serious/extreme hardship (= very bad ) The 1930s brought
severe hardship to the Midwest, especially for Oklahoma.
economic/financial hardship The closure of the steelworks caused
economic hardship for the town.
considerable/substantial hardship It is a region of considerable
hardship and poverty.
real/genuine hardship Prolonged illness can cause real hardship for
many families.
unnecessary hardship The ban is causing unnecessary hardship for
fishermen.
undue hardship law (= more than is reasonable ) His deportation
would pose undue hardship on family members left in the United States.
physical hardship (= when you lack the things that your body needs )
The people of the war-torn region face severe physical hardship.
personal hardship (= hardship that affects you rather than other
people or people in general ) The personal hardship experienced by my
client includes the loss of his home, his job and his family.
 material hardship (= a serious lack of money or of things that you
need in order to live ) Emergency government aid helped to relieve the
flood victims' material hardship.
PHRASES
in times of hardship In times of hardship, your family may be the only
people you can go to for help.

toss 1 / ts $ ts / verb
1 [ transitive ] to throw something, especially something light, with
a quick gentle movement of your hand
toss something into/onto etc something
She crumpled the letter and tossed it into the fire.
toss something aside/over etc
Toss that book over, will you?
toss something to somebody
Catch! said Sandra, tossing her bag to him.
toss somebody something
Frank tossed her the newspaper.
2 [ intransitive and transitive ] to move about continuously in a
violent or uncontrolled way, or to make something do this
toss something around/about
The small boat was tossed about like a cork.
3 toss and turn to keep changing your position in bed because you
cannot sleep :
Ive been tossing and turning all night.
4 [ intransitive and transitive ] ( also toss up ) especially British
English to throw a coin in the air, so that a decision will be made
according to the side that faces upwards when it comes down SYN flip
American English :
They tossed a coin to decide who would go first.
toss (somebody) for it
We couldnt make up our minds, so we decided to toss for it.
5 [ transitive ] to throw something up into the air and let it fall to
the ground :
The crowd cheered, banging pots and tossing confetti into the air.
6 toss a pancake British English to throw a PANCAKE upwards so
that it turns over in the air and lands on the side that you want to cook
SYN flip American English
7 [ transitive ] to move pieces of food about in a small amount of
liquid so that they become covered with the liquid :
Toss the carrots in some butter before serving.
8 toss your head/hair written to move your head or hair back
suddenly, often with a shaking movement showing anger :
He tossed his head angrily and left the room.
toss off phrasal verb
1 toss something off to produce something quickly and without
much effort :
one of those painters who can toss off a couple of pictures before
breakfast
2 toss something off written to drink something quickly :
He tossed off a few whiskies.
3 toss (somebody) off British English informal not polite to
MASTURBATE
toss something/somebody out phrasal verb American English
informal
1 to get rid of something that you do not want SYN throw out :
I tossed most of that stuff out when we moved.
2 to make someone leave a place, especially because of bad
behaviour SYN throw out
toss something/somebody out of
Kurt was tossed out of the club for trying to start a fight.
THESAURUS
throw to make something such as a ball or stone move quickly through
the air using your hand : I threw the ball back to him. | Protestors
began throwing stones at the police. | I just threw the letter in the bin.
toss ( also chuck ) informal to throw something, especially in a careless
way without using much effort : She tossed her coat onto the bed. | Can
you chuck me the remote control?
hurl to throw something with a lot of force : Someone hurled a brick
through his window.
fling to angrily throw something somewhere with a lot of force, or to
carelessly throw something somewhere because you have very little
time : He flung her keys into the river. | I flung a few things into a
suitcase.
heave / hiv / to throw something heavy using a lot of effort : They
heaved the log into the river.
lob to throw something high into the air over someone or something :
The police lobbed tear gas canisters over the heads of the
demonstrators.

clamour 2 British English , clamor American English verb

[ intransitive ]
1 [ always + adverb/preposition ] to demand something loudly
clamour for
The audience cheered, clamoring for more.
clamour to do something
All his friends were clamouring to know where hed been.
2 to talk or shout loudly :
Children clamored excitedly.

Junker
Para la compaa aeronutica alemana, vase Junkers.
Se denomina Junker a los miembros de la antigua nobleza terrateniente de Prusia que
domin Alemania a lo largo del siglo XIX y principios del siglo XX. Los Junkers posean
grandes propiedades rurales donde tambin vivan y trabajaban campesinos con muy pocos
derechos y/o recursos econmicos.1 Originalmente constituan un importante sector poltico,
social y econmico en Prusia y, despus de 1871, tambin en el liderazgo poltico, militar y
diplomtico del Imperio Alemn. Uno de los Junkers ms famosos fue el canciller Otto von
Bismarck.

steppe / step / noun [ uncountable and countable ] ( also the

steppes [ plural ] )
a large area of land without trees, especially in Russia, Asia, and
eastern Europe

Rhine, the / ran /

an important river in western Europe, which goes from Switzerland
up to the Netherlands and into the North Sea, and is used for carrying
goods by boat. The Middle Rhine area, in Germany, is known for its
castles and wine-making industry.

tariff / trf, trf / noun [ countable ]

1 a tax on goods coming into a country or going out of a country
tariff on
The government may impose tariffs on imports.
2 British English a list of fixed prices charged by a hotel or
restaurant, for example for the cost of meals or rooms
3 British English a list or system of prices which MOBILE PHONE
companies charge for the services they provide
THESAURUS
tax money that you must pay to the government, especially from the
money you earn, or as an additional payment when you buy
something : How much income tax do you pay each month? | The
Republicans promised to reduce taxes before the last election. |
Consumers are angry that the tax on petrol has gone up yet again.
duty a tax you pay on something you buy : The budget also sharply
raised the duty on alcohol and tobacco. | customs duty (= tax you pay
on goods you buy and bring into the country )
tariff a tax on goods coming into a country or going out of a country,
especially to protect a countrys industry from cheap goods from other
countries : the import tariffs on hi-tech equipment | The governments
tariff and trade policies came under fierce attack.
levy an extra amount of money that you have to pay the government,
usually as a tax, often in order to encourage people not to use or do
something : A new levy on fuel inefficient vehicles has been proposed.
surcharge an amount of money that you have to pay in addition to the
agreed or stated price of something : British Airways will increase its
fuel surcharge on all airline tickets from June 3. | When you get cash at
some machines, you have to pay an ATM surcharge.

Georg Friedrich List (August 6, 1789 November 30, 1846) was a leading 19th-century
German-American[2] economist who developed the "National System" or what some[3] would call
today the National System of Innovation. He was a forefather of the German historical school
of economics,[4] and considered the original European unity theorist[5] whose ideas were the
basis for theEuropean Economic Community.[6]

mercantile / mkntal $ mrkntil, -tal / adjective [ only before

noun ]
formal concerned with trade SYN commercial :
mercantile law

Mercantilismo
Cuadro de Le Lorrain que representa un puerto de mar francs de 1638, en el momento cumbre del
mercantilismo.

Se denomina mercantilismo a un conjunto de ideas polticas o ideas econmicas de

gran pragmatismo que se desarrollaron durante los siglos XVI, XVII y la primera mitad del
siglo XVIII en Europa. Se caracteriz por una fuerte intervencin del Estado en la economa,
coincidente con el desarrollo del absolutismo monrquico.
Consisti en una serie de medidas que se centraron en tres mbitos: las relaciones entre el
poder poltico y la actividad econmica; la intervencin del Estado en esta ltima; y el control
de la moneda. As, tendieron a la regulacin estatal de la economa, la unificacin del mercado
interno, el crecimiento de poblacin, el aumento de la produccin propia controlando
recursos naturales y mercados exteriores e interiores, protegiendo la produccin local de la
competencia extranjera, subsidiando empresas privadas y creando monopolios privilegiados
, la imposicin de aranceles a los productos extranjeros y el incremento de la oferta
monetaria mediante la prohibicin de exportar metales preciosos y la acuacin inflacionaria
, siempre con vistas a la multiplicacin de los ingresos fiscales. Estas actuaciones tuvieron
como finalidad ltima la formacin de Estados-nacin lo ms fuertes posible.
El mercantilismo entr en crisis a finales del siglo XVIII y prcticamente desapareci para
mediados del XIX, ante la aparicin de las nuevas teoras fisicratas y liberales, las cuales
ayudaron a Europa a recuperarse de la profunda crisis del siglo XVII y las
catastrficas Guerras Revolucionarias Francesas.
Se denomina neomercantilismo a la peridica resurreccin de estas prcticas e ideas.

merge / md $ mrd / verb

1 [ intransitive and transitive ] to combine, or to join things together
to form one thing
merge with
The bank announced that it was to merge with another of the high
street banks.
The company plans to merge its subsidiaries in the US.
merge something into something
proposals to merge the three existing health authorities into one
merge together
The villages have grown and merged together over the years.
2 [ intransitive ] if two things merge, or if one thing merges into
another, you cannot clearly see them, hear them etc as separate things
merge into
She avoided reporters at the airport by merging into the crowds.
merge with
Memories seemed to merge with reality.

trust 1 S1 W2 / trst / noun

1 BELIEF [ uncountable ] a strong belief in the honesty, goodness etc
of someone or something :
At first there was a lack of trust between them.
an agreement made on the basis of mutual trust (= when people trust
each other )
put/place your trust in somebody/something
You shouldnt put your trust in a man like that.
You betrayed your fathers trust (= did something bad even though he
trusted you ) .
breach of trust at BREACH 1 ( 3 )
2 ORGANIZATION [ countable usually singular ] an organization or
group that has control over money that will be used to help someone
else :
a charitable trust
3 FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENT [ uncountable and countable ] an
arrangement by which someone has legal control of your money or
property, either until you are old enough to use it or to INVEST it for
you :
The money your father left you will be held in trust until you are 21.
TRUST FUND , UNIT TRUST
4 take something on trust to believe that something is true
without having any proof :
I just had to take it on trust that he would deliver the money.
5 position of trust a job or position in which you have been given
the responsibility of making important decisions
6 COMPANIES [ countable ] especially American English a group of
companies that illegally work together to reduce competition and control
prices :
anti-trust laws

cartel / ktel $ kr- / noun [ countable ]

 a group of people or companies who agree to sell something at a
particular price in order to prevent competition and increase profits
monopoly :
an illegal drug cartel

Lloyd George, David

(18631945) a Liberal politician whose parents were Welsh and who
was British Prime Minister from 1916 to 1922. He was against increasing
the British Empire and in favour of political change. He introduced
PENSION s and NATIONAL INSURANCE . There is an old popular song called
Lloyd George knew my father and most people know this phrase.

allege / led / verb [ transitive often passive ] formal

to say that something is true or that someone has done something
wrong, although it has not been proved
it is alleged (that)
It was alleged that the policeman had accepted bribes.
allege that
The prosecution alleged that the man had been responsible for an act of
terrorism.
be alleged to be/do something
The water is alleged to be polluted with mercury.

bourgeois / bw $ brw / adjective

1 belonging to the MIDDLE CLASS :
She came from a bourgeois family.
bourgeois morality
2 too interested in having a lot of possessions and a high position in
society :
the backlash against bourgeois materialism
3 belonging to or typical of the part of society that is rich, educated,
owns land etc, according to Marxism
proletarian
bourgeois noun [ countable ]
PETTY BOURGEOIS

insidious / nsdis / adjective formal

an insidious change or problem spreads gradually without being
noticed, and causes serious harm :
an insidious trend towards censorship of the press
insidiously adverb
insidiousness noun [ uncountable ]

embrace 1 / mbres / verb

1 [ intransitive and transitive ] to put your arms around someone
and hold them in a friendly or loving way SYN hug :
Jack warmly embraced his son.
Maggie and Laura embraced.
2 [ transitive ] formal to eagerly accept a new idea, opinion, religion
etc :
We hope these regions will embrace democratic reforms.
Most West European countries have embraced the concept of high-
speed rail networks with enthusiasm.
3 [ transitive ] formal to include something as part of a subject,
discussion etc :
This course embraces several different aspects of psychology.
THESAURUS
hug ( also give somebody a hug ) to put your arms around someone
and hold them tightly to show love or friendship : Mother hugged him
and tucked him into bed. | Come here and give me a big hug.
embrace to put your arms around someone and hold him or her in a
caring way. Embrace is more formal than hug : Jason warmly
embraced his son. | The two leaders embraced each other.
cuddle to put your arms around someone or something as a sign of
love, especially a child or a small animal : She sat on a chair, cuddling
her daughter. | He cuddled the puppy.
put your arms around somebody to hold someone closely to your
body, especially to comfort them or show that you love them : The
woman put her arms around the sobbing boy.
cradle written to hold someone very gently in your arms, like you would
hold a baby : She held the baby in her arms. | She cradled his head in
her hands and kissed him on the forehead

Georges Sorel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Georges Eugne Sorel

 Georges Sorel

Born November 2, 1847

Cherbourg, France

Died August 29, 1922 (aged 74)

Boulogne-sur-Seine, France

Era 20th-century philosophy

Region Western Philosophy

School
Continental philosophy

Marxism

Socialism

Anarchist schools of thought

Main interests
Philosophy of science

Political philosophy
 Syndicalism

Activism

Influences[show]

Influenced[show]

Syndicalism

Precursors[show]

Variants[show]

Economics[show]

Organisations[show]

Leaders[hide]

Daniel De Leon

Victor Griffuelhes

Hubert Lagardelle

Juan Garca Oliver

Rudolf Rocker

Georges Sorel

Fernand Pelloutier
 James Thompson Bain

Mary Fitzgerald

Related subjects[show]

Syndicalism

Labour economics

v
t
e

Georges Eugne Sorel (2 November 1847 29 August 1922) was a French philosopher[1] and
theorist of revolutionary syndicalism.[2][3] His notion of the power of myth in people's lives
inspired anarchists, Marxists and Fascists.[4] It is, together with his defense of violence, the
contribution for which he is most often remembered. [5]

debacle , dbcle / debk l, d- / noun [ countable ]

an event or situation that is a complete failure :
the debacle of the 1994 elections

fascism / fz m / noun [ uncountable ]

a RIGHT-WING political system in which peoples lives are completely
controlled by the state and no political opposition is allowed

Joseph Chamberlain
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other people named Joseph Chamberlain, see Joseph Chamberlain (disambiguation).

The Right Honourable

Joseph Chamberlain
 Joseph Chamberlain in 1909.

Leader of the Opposition in the Commons

In office

8 February 1906 27 February 1906

Monarch Edward VII

Prime Minister Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman

Preceded by Arthur Balfour

Succeeded by Arthur Balfour

Secretary of State for the Colonies

In office

29 June 1895 16 September 1903

Prime Minister The Marquess of Salisbury

Arthur Balfour
Preceded by The Marquess of Ripon

Succeeded by Alfred Lyttelton

President of the Local Government Board

In office

1 February 1886 3 April 1886

Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone

Preceded by Arthur Balfour

Succeeded by James Stansfeld

President of the Board of Trade

In office

3 May 1880 9 June 1885

Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone

Preceded by Viscount Sandon

Succeeded by The Duke of Richmond

Personal details

Born 8 July 1836

Camberwell, London, England

Died 2 July 1914 (aged 77)

Birmingham, England

Resting place Key Hill Cemetery,Birmingham

 Political party Liberal (18661886)

Liberal Unionist (18861906)

Spouse(s) Harriet Kenrick (m. 186163)

Florence Kenrick (m. 186875)

Mary Endicott (m. 18881914)

Children Beatrice

Austen

Neville

Ida

Hilda

Ethel

Education University College School

Profession Businessman

Religion British Unitarian

Signature

Nickname(s) "Our Joe"

Joseph Chamberlain (8 July 1836 2 July 1914) was a British politician and statesman, who
was first a radical Liberal then, after opposing Home Rule for Ireland, a Liberal Unionist,
eventually serving as a leading imperialist in coalition with the Conservatives.
Chamberlain made his career in Birmingham, first as a manufacturer of screws and then as a
notable Mayor of the city. He was a radical Liberal Party member and an opponent of
the Education Act of 1870. As a self-made businessman, he had never attended university and
had contempt for the aristocracy. He entered the House of Commons at thirty-nine years of
age, relatively late in life compared to politicians from more privileged backgrounds. Rising to
power through his influence with the Liberal grassroots organisation, he served as President of
the Board of Trade in Gladstone's Second Government (188085). At the time, Chamberlain
was notable for his attacks on the Conservative leader Lord Salisbury, and in the 1885 general
election he proposed the "Unauthorised Programme", which was not enacted, of benefits for
newly enfranchised agricultural labourers, including the slogan promising "three acres and a
cow." Chamberlain resigned from Gladstone's Third Government in 1886 in opposition to Irish
Home Rule. He helped to engineer a Liberal Party split and became a Liberal Unionist, a party
which included a bloc of MPs based in and around Birmingham.
From the 1895 general election the Liberal Unionists were in coalition with the Conservative
Party, under Chamberlain's former opponent Lord Salisbury. In that government Chamberlain
promoted the Workmen's Compensation Act of 1897.[1][2] He served asSecretary of State for the
Colonies, promoting a variety of schemes to build up the Empire in Asia, Africa, and the West
Indies. He had some responsibility for causing and directing the Second Boer War (1899-1902)
and was a dominant figure in the Unionist Government's re-election at the "Khaki Election" in
1900. In 1903, he resigned from the Cabinet to campaign for tariff reform (i.e. taxes included in
the prices of imports instead of free trade). He obtained the support of most Unionist MPs for
this stance, but the Party's split led to its landslide defeat at the 1906 general election. Some
months later, shortly after public celebrations of his seventieth birthday in Birmingham, he was
disabled by a stroke, ending his public career.
Despite never becoming Prime Minister, he was one of the most important British politicians of
the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as well as a renowned orator and divisive politician.
[3]
Winston Churchill later wrote of him that he was the man "who made the weather".
Chamberlain was the father, by different marriages, of Sir Austen Chamberlain and Prime
Minister Neville Chamberlain.

home rule noun [ uncountable ]

the right of a country or area to have its own government and laws

strain 1 W3 / stren / noun

1 WORRY [ uncountable and countable ] worry that is caused by
having to deal with a problem or work too hard over a long period of
time stress :
I couldnt look after him any more; the strain was too much for me.
Did you find the job a strain ?
the stresses and strains of police life
strain for
The trial has been a terrible strain for both of us.
strain on
Its quite a strain on me when hes drinking heavily.
put/place a strain on somebody
The long working hours put a severe strain on employees.
under (a) strain
I know youve been under a lot of strain lately.
crack/collapse/buckle etc under the strain (= become unable to
deal with a problem or work )
I could see that she was beginning to crack under the strain.
2 DIFFICULTY [ uncountable and countable ] a difficulty or problem
that is caused when a person, relationship, organization, or system has
too much to do or too many problems to deal with
strain on
The dry summer has further increased the strain on water resources.
put/place (a) strain on something
 The flu epidemic has put a huge strain on the health service.
strain in
The attack has led to strains in the relationship between the two
countries.
under (a) strain
His marriage was under strain.
break/crack/collapse etc under the strain
The party split under the strain.
3 FORCE [ uncountable ] a situation in which something is being
pulled or pushed, or is holding weight, and so might break or become
damaged
strain on
The strain on the cables supporting the bridge is enormous.
put/place (a) strain on something
Some of these exercises put too much strain on the back muscles.
These four posts take the strain of the whole structure.
break/snap/collapse etc under the strain
The rope snapped under the strain.
4 INJURY [ uncountable and countable ] an injury to a muscle or part
of your body that is caused by using it too much :
Long hours working at a computer can cause eye strain.
The goalkeeper is still out of action with a knee strain.
5 PLANT/ANIMAL [ countable ] a type of animal, plant, or disease
strain of
different strains of wheat
a new strain of the flu virus
6 QUALITY [ singular ] a particular quality which people have,
especially one that is passed from parents to children
strain of
Theres a strain of madness in his family.
7 WAY OF SAYING SOMETHING [ singular ] formal an amount of a
feeling that you can see in the way someone speaks, writes, paints etc :
a strain of bitterness in Youngs later work
8 strains of something literary the sound of music being played :
We sipped wine to the strains of Beethoven.
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES
great/considerable/severe strain The countrys health system is
under great strain.
a terrible strain Its been a terrible strain.
an intolerable strain (= too great to bear ) The cost of these wars put
an intolerable strain on the economy.
undue strain (= too much strain ) How much can you invest without
putting any undue strain on your finances?
 emotional strain She has been suffering from considerable emotional
strain.
financial strain This welfare program has eased the financial strain of
raising children alone.
VERBS
put/place (a) strain on somebody/something Living with my
parents put quite a strain on our marriage.
crack/collapse/buckle etc under the strain (= become unable to
continue normally because of the strain ) They are worried that the
court system might collapse under the strain.
ease the strain (= make it less ) You can do much to ease the strain of
the situation for her.
PHRASES
be under (a) strain Claudia could see that he was under considerable
strain.
stresses and strains Holidays help people to cope with the stresses
and strains of life.
THESAURUS
injury damage to part of your body caused by an accident or an
attack : The passengers were taken to hospital with minor injuries.
wound an injury, especially a deep cut in your skin made by a knife,
bullet, or bomb : He died of a gunshot wound to the head.
cut a small injury made when a sharp object cuts your skin : Blood was
running from a cut on his chin.
bruise a dark mark on your skin that you get when you fall or get hit :
Jack often comes home from playing rugby covered in bruises.
graze/scrape a small injury that marks your skin or breaks the surface
slightly : She fell off her bike and got a few grazes on her legs and
knees.
gash a long deep cut : He had a deep gash across his forehead.
bump an area of skin that is swollen because you have hit it against
something : How did you get that bump on your head?
sprain an injury to your ANKLE , WRIST , knee etc, caused by suddenly
twisting it : Its a slight sprain you should rest your ankle for a week.
strain an injury to a muscle caused by stretching it or using it too much
: a muscle strain in his neck
fracture a crack or broken part in a bone : a hip fracture

strain 1 W3 / stren / noun

 1 WORRY [ uncountable and countable ] worry that is caused by
having to deal with a problem or work too hard over a long period of
time stress :
I couldnt look after him any more; the strain was too much for me.
Did you find the job a strain ?
the stresses and strains of police life
strain for
The trial has been a terrible strain for both of us.
strain on
Its quite a strain on me when hes drinking heavily.
put/place a strain on somebody
The long working hours put a severe strain on employees.
under (a) strain
I know youve been under a lot of strain lately.
crack/collapse/buckle etc under the strain (= become unable to
deal with a problem or work )
I could see that she was beginning to crack under the strain.
2 DIFFICULTY [ uncountable and countable ] a difficulty or problem
that is caused when a person, relationship, organization, or system has
too much to do or too many problems to deal with
strain on
The dry summer has further increased the strain on water resources.
put/place (a) strain on something
The flu epidemic has put a huge strain on the health service.
strain in
The attack has led to strains in the relationship between the two
countries.
under (a) strain
His marriage was under strain.
break/crack/collapse etc under the strain
The party split under the strain.
3 FORCE [ uncountable ] a situation in which something is being
pulled or pushed, or is holding weight, and so might break or become
damaged
strain on
The strain on the cables supporting the bridge is enormous.
put/place (a) strain on something
Some of these exercises put too much strain on the back muscles.
These four posts take the strain of the whole structure.
break/snap/collapse etc under the strain
The rope snapped under the strain.
4 INJURY [ uncountable and countable ] an injury to a muscle or part
of your body that is caused by using it too much :
Long hours working at a computer can cause eye strain.
 The goalkeeper is still out of action with a knee strain.
5 PLANT/ANIMAL [ countable ] a type of animal, plant, or disease
strain of
different strains of wheat
a new strain of the flu virus
6 QUALITY [ singular ] a particular quality which people have,
especially one that is passed from parents to children
strain of
Theres a strain of madness in his family.
7 WAY OF SAYING SOMETHING [ singular ] formal an amount of a
feeling that you can see in the way someone speaks, writes, paints etc :
a strain of bitterness in Youngs later work
8 strains of something literary the sound of music being played :
We sipped wine to the strains of Beethoven.
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES
great/considerable/severe strain The countrys health system is
under great strain.
a terrible strain Its been a terrible strain.
an intolerable strain (= too great to bear ) The cost of these wars put
an intolerable strain on the economy.
undue strain (= too much strain ) How much can you invest without
putting any undue strain on your finances?
emotional strain She has been suffering from considerable emotional
strain.
financial strain This welfare program has eased the financial strain of
raising children alone.
VERBS
put/place (a) strain on somebody/something Living with my
parents put quite a strain on our marriage.
crack/collapse/buckle etc under the strain (= become unable to
continue normally because of the strain ) They are worried that the
court system might collapse under the strain.
ease the strain (= make it less ) You can do much to ease the strain of
the situation for her.
PHRASES
be under (a) strain Claudia could see that he was under considerable
strain.
stresses and strains Holidays help people to cope with the stresses
and strains of life.
THESAURUS
injury damage to part of your body caused by an accident or an
attack : The passengers were taken to hospital with minor injuries.
wound an injury, especially a deep cut in your skin made by a knife,
bullet, or bomb : He died of a gunshot wound to the head.
cut a small injury made when a sharp object cuts your skin : Blood was
running from a cut on his chin.
bruise a dark mark on your skin that you get when you fall or get hit :
Jack often comes home from playing rugby covered in bruises.
graze/scrape a small injury that marks your skin or breaks the surface
slightly : She fell off her bike and got a few grazes on her legs and
knees.
gash a long deep cut : He had a deep gash across his forehead.
bump an area of skin that is swollen because you have hit it against
something : How did you get that bump on your head?
sprain an injury to your ANKLE , WRIST , knee etc, caused by suddenly
twisting it : Its a slight sprain you should rest your ankle for a week.
strain an injury to a muscle caused by stretching it or using it too much
: a muscle strain in his neck
fracture a crack or broken part in a bone : a hip fracture

exalt / zlt $ -zlt / verb [ transitive ] formal

1 to put someone or something into a high rank or position
2 to praise someone, especially God :
Exalt ye the Lord.

grim / rm / adjective
1 making you feel worried or unhappy SYN harsh :
the grim reality of rebuilding the shattered town
When he lost his job, his future looked grim.
Millions of Britons face the grim prospect (= something bad that will
probably happen ) of dearer home loans.
We received the grim news in silence.
2 looking or sounding very serious :
Ill survive, he said with a grim smile.
The child hung on to her arm with grim determination .
The police officers were silent and grim-faced.
3 British English informal very bad, ugly, or unpleasant :
The weather forecast is pretty grim.
They painted a grim picture of what life used to be like there.
a grim industrial town
4 [ not before noun ] informal ill :
Juliet felt grim through the early months of her pregnancy.
5 hold/hang on for/like grim death British English informal to
hold something very tightly because you are afraid
 grimly adverb :
Arnold smiled grimly.
grimness noun [ uncountable ]

demography / dmrfi $ -m- / noun [ uncountable ]

the study of human populations and the ways in which they change,
for example the study of how many births, marriages and deaths
happen in a particular place at a particular time
demographer noun [ countable ]