1.

i..74

ii.a

iii. c

iv.a

iv.d

v. d.

Q2.

3a. In crystallography, atomic packing factor (APF), packing efficiency or packing fraction is the
fraction of volume in a crystal structure that is occupied by constituent particles. It is a dimensionless
quantity and always less than unity. In atomic systems, by convention, the APF is determined by assuming
that atoms are rigid spheres. The radius of the spheres is taken to be the maximal value such that the atoms
do not overlap. For one-component crystals (those that contain only one type of particle), the packing
fraction is represented mathematically by

packing fraction =

where Nparticle is the number of particles in the unit cell, Vparticle is the volume of each particle, and Vunit cell is
the volume occupied by the unit cell. It can be proven mathematically that for one-component structures, the
most dense arrangement of atoms has an APF of about 0.74 (see Kepler conjecture), obtained by the close-
packed structures. For multiple-component structures, the APF can exceed 0.74.

packing fraction gives the idea about the how much spaced occupied by the atoms in the unit cell and how much
spaced is remains empty.

4b.

Edge dislocation means that one of the atoms in a unit cell is absent or replaced or added as an extra that
shouldn't be there. The location of the error is on one of the edges of the three dimensional structure that the
unit cell takes as a form (). The error is not in the face (in the middle of one of the sides) or the center of that
structure.Usually, an edge dislocation is a localized anomaly (error), and the structure is normal in all
directions away from that error, although likely twisted or bent at the point of error. The direction of the
structure turns slightly at the point of error. the faces on one side are not parallel with the equivalent faces
on the other side of the dislocation.
A screw dislocation occurs for similar reason (an error in atom placement), but instead of remaining
localized, the error causes the surrounding structures to remain distorted off in one direction, with the error
migrating down the structure in a spiral as the crystal tries to return to its normal pattern but cannot because
the error has distorted the immediate space around the error, and that continues the error.

Q5. a

Hardenability is the degree of hardness that can be imparted to metal by process of hardening. A metal capable of
being hardened throughout its structure is said to have high hardenability. The material is heated above a certain
temperature and then suddenly quenched in a cold oil or water bath.
d. Twin Boundaries
A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across which there is a specific mirror lattice symmetry; that is, atoms on one
side of the boundary are located in mirror-image positions of the atoms on the other side . The region of material between these
boundaries is appropriately termed a twin.Twins result from atomic displacements that are produced from applied mechanical
shear forces (mechanical twins), and also during annealing heat treatments following deformation (annealing twins).Twinning
occurs on a definite crystallographic plane and in a specific direction, both of which depend on the crystal structure. Annealing
twins are typically found in metals that have the FCC crystal structure, whereas mechanical twins are observed in BCC and HCP
metals.

c.

Eutectic System:

Eutectic system is a phase transformation that takes place when a single-phase liquid
transforms directly to a two-phase solid.

L ---> S1 + S2

Liquid ---> Solid 1 + Solid 2

(This is a reversible phase transformation)

 Figure 2. Eutectic phase transformation.

6a. lever rule is used to determine the percentage of each phase that is present at various
temperatures.
The length of line XY represents the sum of the two phases as 100 percent. The inverse lever
rule states that liquid phase can be calculated by taking the length of the line XZ and dividing
this by XY.
The solid phase can be calculated by taking the length of the line ZY and dividing it by XY. To
get the percentages, the values are multiplied by 100.

Figure 1. Phase diagram of a mixture with complete solubility in liquid

and solid states.

Sample Calculation :

Alloy with 40 % A and 60 %B at room temperature is heated to a temperature T 1 . Calculate the

liquid and solid phase and indicate the composition of each phase.

Liquid Phase =( XZ / XY) x 100 = [(40-10) / (70-10)] x100 = 50%

Solid Phase = ( ZY / XY) x 100 = [(70-40) / (70-10)] x100 = 50%

At temperature T1, the solid composition is found by the intersection (point X) of isothermal line
T1 and the solidus curve.
Solid composition: 10 % A and 90 % B

The liquid composition at temperature T1 is found by the intersection (point Y) of isothermal line T 1
and the liquidus curve.

Liquid composition: 70% A and 30 % B

b. different factors affecting solid solution are

1. crystal structure factors-the crystal structure of the elements shoud be same
2. relative size of factors
If two metal are exhibits extensive solid solubility in each other it is essential that their atomic diameter
shall be fairly similar
3. Chemical affinity