Analysis of Fabry-Perot Interferograms by Means of

Their Fourier Transforms

V. G. Cooper

It is shown that there are advantages in studying the functional behavior of the fourier transforms of
Fabry-Perot interferograms in preference to that of the interferograms themselves. Several experimen-
tal interferograms and their transforms are presented, and a number of contributions to the convoluted
spectra that are identifiable only in the time domain are pointed out. These include such purely instru-
mental broadening influences as mirror defects and the spread in the incident angle of the light, as well
as the lorentzian and gaussian shapes of the spectral lines under study.

1. Introduction convolute of S(v) and E(v). The scattered light is in

The Fabry-Perot (F.P.) interferometer has been ex-
periencing considerable use in the analysis of scattered
light spectra with narrow line profiles, where its high
resolving power is very valuable. Concurrently, digital
recording systems have become available that allow
ready computer analysis of large volumes of spectral
data. As a result, it has become possible to treat F.P.
interferograms by means of their fourier transforms,
and several excellent discussions of this subject are
available.1-4 However, so far the fourier transforms
have been used only for their mathematical conveni-
ence, and the value of examining the behavior of the
transforms themselves does not seem to have been
pointed out, even though the fourier transforms of
spectral lines are known from Michelson interferometry
to be highly sensitive in determining line shapes and
widths.5' 6 We therefore propose to show, often apply-
ing familiar insights of fourier spectroscopy, that the
behavior of the fourier transforms as functions of time is
usually more illuminating than that of the F.P. inter-
ferograms themselves. The reasons for this are as
follows. In a scattering experiment (the type of appli-
cation which will be considered here) one is interested in
measuring a frequency spectrum S(v). The spectrum is
excited by a source E(v), which has a finite spectral
width, so that the scattered light spectrum is in fact the
The author was with the Kamerlingh Onnes Laboratorium,
Leiden, The Netherlands, when this work was done; he is now
at the Department of Theoretical Chemistry, University of Cam-
bridge, Cambridge, CB2 lEW, England.
Received 6 July 1970.
turn scanned with a F.P. interferometer, whose trans-
mission profile as a function of frequency is given by
F(v). One therefore obtains an interferogram Y(v),
which is the convolute of S(v), E(v), and F(v). In con-
volution notation
Y(V) = S(V)*E(v)*F(v)- (1)
Aside from the conceptual difficulty of the convolution
operation, one finds in general that the distinctive char-
acteristics of S(v), E(v), and F(v) tend to be suppressed
in Y(v). The situation is quite the opposite with the
transforms of these functions. First, the relationship of
the respective transforms s(t), e(t), and f(t) to y(t) is
determined by a simple product
y(t) = s(t)-e(t)-f(t). (2)
More important, as we propose to show, the distinctive
characteristics of s (t), e (t), and f(t) are more clearly pre-
served in y(t) and are fairly readily identified.
In Sec. II we deal with the properties of the instru-
mental convolute I(v) = E(v)*F(v) and its transform
i(t) = e(t) .f(t), by first analyzing the factors that deter-
mine their form and then examining the functional be-
havior of i(t) for two experimentally determined profiles
of I(v). In Sec. III we turn our attention to several
scattered light interferograms Y(v) and their transforms
y(t). With the help of these specimen curves we shall
show how the spurious influence of i(t) can be removed
so that the functional behavior of s(t), and therefore of
the spectrum S(v), can be studied.
II. Instrumental Broadening Factors
We here consider the instrumental convolute I(v),
which includes the (laser) exciting source spectrum E(v)
and the F.P. function F(v). Mathematically it may
seem arbitrary to include E(v) with the instrumental

March 1971 / Vol. 10, No. 3 / APPLIED OPTICS 525

broadening factors. In practice, however, one deter- TI
mines the convolute (v) by scanning the exciting line fA(t)= 1-T2 {a(t)+R[S(t
- ) +S(t+ )
with the interferometer. It is neither necessary nor + R 2 [(t-2r) + (t + 2r)] + . . .}
practical to separate the two functions when one's
object is to measure scattered light spectra. Their = R2 Z RINI (t - NT)
separation here for purposes of discussion is purely
formal. 2
1 -TR 2 R t/T 1Na(t - ).
The following factors in the F.P. function F(v) will be = (8)
considered: the Airy transmission function rFA(v)of
the interferometer mirrors, the mirror-defect function The transform fA(t) is nonzero only at discrete times
FD(V), and the scanning aperture or pinhole function t = Nr and may be described as a set of time harmonics.
Fp(v). We therefore write the instrumental function as These harmonics in fact correspond to the falling off in
amplitude of successive double-reflected beams in the
1(v) = E(v)*F(v) = E(v)*FA(v)*FD(v)*Fp(v)- (3) interferometer.
We shall ultimately be concerned with the fourier trans-
form of this expression, which can be expanded in the The Mirror Defect Function F(V)
form For purposes of illustration we shall only consider the
simplified case of spherical departures from flatness.
i(t) = e(t)-f(t) = e(t)-fA(t)-fD(t)-fp(t). (4) These departures are generally measured as a fraction of
Expressions will now be given for each of the functions the wavelength and expressed as X/m. For this
in Eq. (3) and for their respective fourier transforms in simplified case, the mirror defect function is a rec-
Eq. (4). In all the frequency expressions we shall be tangular function of full width 2p/m.A It is conven-
interested strictly in frequency displacements from the tional and convenient to define a flatness or defect
8
center of each function, and all frequencies v are to be limited finesse EYD= 12r, so that the full width of this
understood as such. rectangular function is expressed as Vfr/5D. The form
of FD(v) is then
Spectrum of the Exciting Source E(v) FD(V) = 1 for - Vfr/ 2 5D < v < Vfr/25D
= 0 for all other v. (9)
The multimodal laser source used in this work pro-
vided a natural-line-width limited (quasi-gaussian) The fourier transform of this rectangular function is
spectrum. Assuming for simplicity that the spectrum
fD(t) sin[lr(vfr/D)tl /[(Vfr/5D)tl. (10)
is indeed gaussian with half-width at half-intensity Av, =

and neglecting normalizing constants, we may write the The Scanning Aperture Function Fp(v)
exciting source spectrum as
The parallel light that is transmitted by the inter-
2
E(v) = exp(-v ln2/Avp2). (5) ferometer is in typical applications focused onto a pin-
hole which limits the angle of incidence of the light
Its fourier transform is that is collected. It is readily shown that, for collection
e(t) = exp(-r
2
AvP2 t2/ln2). (6) over an angle 0from the normal, a uniform distribution of
intensity over a full frequency range vo02 is collected,
with v0the true frequency of the light. For convenience
The Airy Function F(v) we define a pinhole finesse 5p, analogous with the defect
Following Steel7 we may write the Airy function for a finesse,so that 2'Vo0
2
= Vfr/P. The scanning aperture
F.P. interferometer used at normal incidence in the function then has the same form as the mirror defect
form function, i.e.,
FA(v) = [T 2 /( - R 2 )l(1 + 2R cos27rvr Fp(v)= 1 for -vfr/2p < v < Vfr/2 5P
= 0 for all other v. (11)
+ 2R cos47rvr + ***), (7)
The fourier transform of this function is
where T and R are the intensity transmittance and
reflectance of the interferometer mirrors, and is the fp(t) = sin[7r(vfr/5p)tl/[7r(vfr/5p)t. (12)
transit time for each double passage of light between the
mirrors, so that = 2dn/c, with d the distance between Experimental Instrument Profiles (v)
the mirrors, n the index of refraction of the medium Based on the foregoing we shall now analyze the
between the mirrors, and c the velocity of light. This fourier transforms of two measured instrumental profiles
time is in fact the inverse of the familiar spectral free I(V). These were obtained using an interferometer
range of the interferometer vf. The half-width of PU(v) with mirrors of about 95% reflectivity and of flatness
is vfr/2:,A, with the finesse 5 = rR1 /(l - R). The X/100. The output of a multimodal He-Ne laser with
form of the Airy function in Eq. (7), which is equivalent half-width at half-intensity of about 0.25 GHz was
to other more familiar expressions,8 allows us to write scanned, and the transmitted light was focused onto a
down its fourier transform virtually by inspection as screen with angle-limiting pinhole. The experimental

526 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 10, No. 3 / March 1971

 Table I. Parameters for the Two Instrumental Profiles
Mirror Spectral free Airy function Pinhole
separation range Vfr Airy function half-width Mirror defect angle 0 Pinhole
(cm) (GHz) finesse 5FA (GHz) finesse 5ED (10-s rad) finesse 57p
Case 1 1.0 15 60 0.12 50 1.5 26
Case 2 0.1 150 60 1.2 50 2.0 150

parameters for the two profiles are given in Table I.
The photoelectric signal from the light admitted by the
pinhole was sampled as a function of frequency over a
sufficient range to show two interference maxima. The
profiles for the two cases are shown in Fig. 1. The
center of one peak has been assigned as v = 0 to render
the profiles even functions of frequency. A typical
profile actually consists of the intensities sampled at
several hundred frequencies per spectral free range, but
in Fig. 1 smoothed curves through the data points have
been drawn. Integration over one spectral free range is
sufficient to determine the fourier transform of I(v),
which is therefore given by
i(t)= 2r f I(v) cos2irvt dv,
vmi.
where vin is an arbitrary lower limit of integration.
However, i(t) is nonzero only for t equal to integral
multiples of r because of this same property of fA(t)-cf.
Eq. (8)-so that we need only compute, by numerical
integration,
An examination of the transforms proves more reveal-
ing. The transform i(t) departs much more strongly
from fA(t) in Case 1 than in Case 2. Not only does the
narrower width of i(t) of Case 1 reflect the correspond-
ingly greater width of I(v), but it seems to show sig-
nificantly different functional behavior from fA(t) in this
case. The theoretical curves lead us to expect that in
Case 1 e(t) and f(t) are the dominant factors in this
effect. In Case 2 the theoretical transforms indicate
that only f(t) introduces significant departures from
the ideal behavior of fA(t). These assumptions can be
quantitatively checked. First, as regards the role of
mirror defects and pinhole angle, we note in Eqs. (10)
and (12) that f(t) and f(t) first go through zero at
respective values of time t = D/Vf = 9iDr and t =
5P/vfr = fpTr. Since the transforms have been plotted
with respect to time in units of a, the first intersection of
i(t) with the time axis gives directly the value of 5D or
Sfp, depending on whether FD(V) or Fp(v) is the more
dominant broadening influence. In Case 1 i(t) first
becomes negative at 2 4 r (not evident in the figure).

i(Nr) = 2r f VmJn+
Z'min
Vf I(v) cos2irVNT dv. (14)

In Fig. 1, alongside each experimental profile I(v) its

respective fourier transform i(r) has been plotted. I (V)- case 1
Also shown are the theoretical transforms fA(t), fD(t),
f,(t), and e(t), calculated for the parameters shown in
Table I. In the absence of any broadening influences t f (t)
other than the reflectivity of the mirrors, the profiles
I(v) of Cases 1 and 2 would be identical (ideal Airy i(t) '.. et
functions), and their fourier transforms i(t) would be 0 15 0 20 40
given byfA(t), which is identical in the two cases. This
allows us to assess the relative importance of the other
broadening influences. 0 \'- f ) f (t)
The information that can be obtained from an inspec- I (V)- case 2
tion of the profiles I(v) is minimal. The half-width of
the peaks relative to the spectral free range is clearly
much greater in Case 1 than in Case 2. This is to be fD(tt
expected because the half-width of FA(V), determined by
2
Vfr/ 53A, is much smaller in Case 1 (see Table I), so that
the 0.25-GHz half-width of E(v), the laser exciting 0 150 0 20 40
source, is of relatively greater importance in this case. frequency (GHz) time(t/i)
Beyond this, however, the importance of this and of the
other factors, FD(v) and F(v), can only be estimated Fig. 1. Left-hand curves: the experimental instrumental pro-
files I(v) for two spectral free ranges vfr. Right-hand curves:
qualitatively. As a consequence one cannot check
the fourier transforms i(t) of the instrumental profiles and the
whether an experimentally determined profile I(v) is theoretical transforms of four broadening influences: fA(t)-
commensurate with the theoretical estimates of FA(V), Airy function transform; fD(t)-mirror-defect function trans-
FD(V),and F,(V)-see Eq. (3)-so that any nonparal- form; fp(t)-pinhole function transform; e(t)-excitation spec-
lelism in the F.P. mirrors, for example, would go unde- trum transform. All functions are even in time and are shown
tected. only for t > 0. The unit of time is = l/fr.

March 1971 / Vol. 10, No. 3 / APPLIED OPTICS 527

 0 as was anticipated. When a more quantitative treat-
. case 2
I2
case 1 -
C
-4
-6 L I 1
0 10 20
time (t/r)
Fig. 2. The logarithm of i(t) as a function of time.
This corresponds closely with the calculated value of
5p of 26, confirming that Flp(v) is indeed the more im-
portant broadening factor. In Case 2 i(t) becomes
negative at 4 5 r. This corresponds very nearly with the
expected value for ED of 50. Assuming that the mirrors
conform to the manufacturer's stated flatness of X/100,
this finesse of 45 suggests that imperfect parallelism of
the mirrors has in effect rendered FD(v) somewhat
broader than anticipated.
Still greater sensitivity in identifying the broadening
factors in i(t) is provided by considering the logarithms
of i(t).6 From Eq. (4) we write
lni(t) = lne(t) + nfA(t) + lnfD(t) + nfp(t).
Proceeding term by term we find first, from Eq. (6),
that
2 2 2
Ine(t) = -7r Avr t /In2,
a quadratic function of time. Considering only the
locus RI/T of f,(t) in Eq. (8) we ave
lnR/T = -t ln(1/R)/r,
a straight line of negative slope. The logarithms of
fD(t) and fp(t) can only be considered in the range where
they are positive. The appropriate series expansions for
the sine in Eqs. (10) and (12) and for the logarithm
yield, in the limit where t is small,
lnfD(t) = -t 2 (7Pvf,/5D)2 /6,
and
lnfp(t)= -t 2 (7rf,'/0p)2 /6,
and this simple quadratic approximation is accurate to
within a few percent for values of t up to about half that
for which fD(t) or fp(t) first vanish. From Eq. (15)
then, we expect ni(t) to be a sum of linear and quad-
ratic terms, the former associated with the ideal Airy
function and the latter associated with the other
broadening influences. In Fig. 2 the logarithm of i(t) is
shown as a function of time for the two cases. Indeed
both functions show apparently quadratic departures
from linearity, and these are much more severe in Case 1
528 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 10, No. 3 / March 1971
ment is desired, the linear and quadratic coefficients can
be determined, for which even a simple graphical solu-
tion provides good accuracy. However, without
pursuing these details, it is clear that i(t) and its
logarithm are quite sensitive for diagnosing the im-
portance of the various instrumental broadening
factors, and that, as was stated in the beginning, each of
these factors does indeed impart a distinct and recog-
nizable character to the resultant transform. As a
final check on our assumptions we note that the product
of the four theoretical transforms gives good agreement
with i(t) in both cases.
We have assumed throughout that the profile 1(v) is
an even function of frequency and have shown only the
cosine transform. The fourier sine transform of I(v),
which in fact is never truly zero in real situations,
provides yet another diagnostic tool; its magnitude
measures the asymmetry in I(v) that may result, for
instance, from the misalignment of optics.
I1. Analysis of Spectral Shapes
We now extend the analysis to the determination of
the spectral shapes S(v) of single line spectra scanned
with a F.P. interferometer. For simplicity we shall
initially be concerned with spectra that can be treated
as convolutes of lorentzian and gaussian components.
That is,
S(v) = L(v)*G(v). (20)
The relationship of the respective transforms is of course
(15)
S(t = (t)-g(t). (21)
The function s(t) will be recognized as the autocorrela-
tion function of the spectrum S(v). If the lorentzian
(16)
L(v) has a half-width at half-intensity of AvL, then its
fourier transform is
1(t) = exp(-2rAvLt) (22)
(17)
The transform of the gaussian G(v) with half-width
AVa is
g(t) = exp(-7r2 Av 2 t2/ln2). (23)
Considerable simplification is provided by again con-
sidering the logarithms of these transforms:
(18) lns(t) = lnl(t) + lng(t). (24)
For lnl(t) we have a linear function of time with slope of
-2rAVL, and for lng(t) a quadratic function of time, so
(19)
that lns(t) is the sum of linear and quadratic terms.
The interferograms Y(v) which we shall be studying
are convolutes of S(v) and I(v). In the time domain,
then, we have
lny(t) = ns(t) + ni(t). (25)
We have already found that, to a good approximation,
the factors of ni(t) are amenable to this simple treat-
ment as linear and quadratic functions of time, so that
lny(t) can also be so considered.
The interferograms which we shall treat are shown in
Fig. 3 (left-hand curves). These interferograms are
taken from a study of depolarized rayleigh scattering in
020 but they might equally wellbe any isolated spectral
line. They were recorded essentially as were the in-
strumental profiles treated above and are shown for the
scattering gas at three pressures. The instrumental pro-
file I(v) that is appropriate to these interferograms is
that of Case 1, which has been considered previously
(see Figs. 1 and 2). To indicate the statistical noise level
of the interferograms, which were recorded by photon
counting, the result of every third counting period has
been shown, rather than the smoothed curves. Oppo-
site each interferogram ny(t) is plotted up to the
twentieth harmonic (solid points). The inherent
noisiness of the interferograms is still in evidence, but
only in the higher harmonics. In the interferogram at
0.25 atm the harmonics smaller than e- 4 are indis-
tinguishable from spurious noise harmonics. At 2.5
atm the noise level in y(t) is about e-6 because of higher
intensity in Y(v). Missing harmonics are either
smaller than the limits of the graphs (e-8) or negative.
Ignoring the contribution of i(t) to the transforms for
the moment, we first note the lorentzian character of the
scattered light spectra, indicated by the approximately
linear dependence of the logarithms of y(t). Some
systematic departures from linearity are also apparent.
Our interest lies not with y(t), however, but with the
spectral autocorrelation function s(t). It can in prin-
ciple be determined from y(t) and i(t). Rewriting Eq.
(25),
lns(t) = ny(t) - ni(t). (26)
The values of lns(t) thus found are also shown in Fig. 3
(open circles) up to about the tenth harmonic, which is
the limit set by noise. The slopes of lns(t) are more
negative for higher pressures, indicating that S(v)
broadens with increasing pressure. The locus of lns(t)
at 0.25 atm still shows a quadratic contribution, even
after the subtraction of lni(t) with its quadratic term.
At 1.1 atm, lns(t) is almost perfectly linear. At 2.5
atm, however, an upturning of lns(t) is to be seen. The
spectra S(v) associated with the functions s(t), which we
have determined here, are quite typical of the phe-
nomenon whereby a spectral line changes with increas-
ing pressure from a gaussian shape to a lorentzian shape
and where the lorentzian width itself increases with the
pressure.'"-' 3 The spectrum at 0.25 atm is in fact in
the transition region of this phenomenon and, to the
accuracy of s(t), can indeed be treated as the convolute
of lorentzian and gaussian parts, as we have confirmed.
Clearly at 1.1 atm the gaussian character has effectively
disappeared. The upturning in lns(t) at 2.5 atm is
evidence of a weak spectral component of narrow width
superimposedupon (but not convoluted with) the broad
lorentzian spectrum. This was identified as unbroad-
ened stray light whose presence became more noticeable
at higher pressure, as the genuine scattered spectrum
became broader.
We could surely not have drawn the above conclu-
sions from an inspection of Y(v) and I(v). Comments
on the lorentzian or gaussian shapes would have been
quite out of the question, and even subtraction of the
width of I(v) from Y(v) would be impossible because
each has a hybrid shape. The component of stray
light is also unobservable in the interferogram at 2.5
atm.
One further advantage of transformation lies in the
analysis of broad spectra such as that which occurs at
2.5 atm. Experience shows that significant contribu-
tions to the intensity arise from the overlapping wings
of peaks several spectral free ranges removed. Even
the determination of half-widths from Y(v) then be-
comesinaccurate. In the transforms, however, the peri-
odicity of Y(v) appears only in the discrete nature of
y(t) and has no effect on the measured slope of lns(t)
from which AvL is determined.
Up to this point we have assumed, for the sake of
simplicity, that lni(t) and lns(t) consisted strictly of
linear and quadratic terms. We know that this is only
an approximation for i(t). In general s(t) will also not
be of such simple form, and even in the present example
it may not be so described with full rigor. The subtrac-
tion of lni(t) from lny(t) is of course still correct when we
drop the simplifying assumption. It is only the inter-
pretation of (t) that becomes more complicated. One
may, in this situation, see the fitting of linear and
quadratic terms (and perhaps higher terms when ac-
curacy permits) as a merely formal device for monitor-
ing the width and shape of the spectrum S(v). We may
also recall that s(t) is the autocorrelation function of
S(v); because many theoretical models readily provide
the autocorrelation function of a spectrum, one can test
the model with greater sensitivity by comparing s(t) to
the calculated autocorrelation function than by com-
paring Y(v) to a theoretical spectrum.
U.I
Lny~)Ln s(t)
Y (V)-0.25 atm
~~~~~. . . .1
. .
0
Ln s(t)
Y(V)-l.l atm
Ln y(t)'.
. . *~~~~~.
. l
-. . I
* (V) 5 atm .-
s(t)
.. *-. -~~~~~~
4 n y(t) ..
......... e- - _
, . ,
0 15 0 10 20
frequency (GHz) time (t/c)
Fig. 3. Left-hand curves: the interferograms Y(v) of light scat-
tered from a gas, obtained at three pressures. Right-hand curves:
the logarithms of their fourier transforms y(t) and of the net
spectral transforms s(t).
March 1971 / Vol. 10, No. 3 / APPLIED OPTICS 529
 It should be noted that not enough harmonics are
preserved in s(t) above the noise to permit a retrans-
formation and hence a reconstruction of S(v). The
information in the higher harmonics, if not in fact
already provided by the first few harmonics, may be
expected to determine that part of the character of S(v)
which is neither lorentzian nor gaussian. We cannot
expect to retrieve these minutiae of information, how-
ever, after they have been obscured by noise.
The fitting of ns(t) to a sum of linear and quadratic
terms is in essence equivalent to a least-squares decon-
volution technique of Larson and Andrew4 for treating
interferograms of an arbitrary number of spectral
components. We emphasize, however, that for those
cases where single lines are studied (increasingly com-
mon with the availability of good narrow-band inter-
ference filters), our experience shows that the display of
the transforms as functions of time provides the ex-
perimenter with an invaluable command of the data, an
appreciation of its quality and reliability and a unique
grasp of the subtle influences that govern the spectral
shapes.
The F.P. interferograms used as examples for trans-
formation were measured in a number of light scattering
experiments carried out by R. A. J. Keijser and F. Baas
of the Kamerlingh Onnes Laboratory. The author is
indebted to them for their fine work. Further thanks
are owed to Mr. Keijser for very ably analyzing the
fourier transforms of very many interferograms. The
author is indebted to H. F. P. Knaap for his many helpful
FIn;
\ ..
Besancon Holography Symposium participants include, in the
front row from the left A. Piekara Warsaw, ICO General
Secretary J. Vi6not Besangon, and R. Mercier Lausanne.
530 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 10, No. 3 / March 1971
suggestions during the writing of this paper. Special
thanks are due the Centraal Rekeninstituut of the
University of Leiden and its staff for the computing
services provided.
This work was undertaken while the author held a
fellowship from the Scientific Affairs Division of the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (Brussels) and the
Minna-James-Heineman Foundation (Hannover).
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A