Biomass 20 (1989) 277-290

Utilization of Biogas

J. L. Walsh, C. C. Ross, M. S. Smith & S. R. H a r p e r

Georgia Tech Research Institute, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA

ABSTRACT

A comprehensive study of the systems and equipment required to convert

biogas into useful thermal and/or electrical energy was conducted, and
the results published in the Handbook on Biogas Utilization (Walsh et
al., Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 1988). The physical,
chemical and combustion characteristics of biogas, and the impact of
these characteristics on both new and modified combustion equipment,
were considered. The study also included consideration of auxiliary
equipment for biogas collection, clean-up, compression and storage.

Key words: biogas, anaerobic digestion, landfill, cogeneration,

combustion.

INTRODUCTION

Biogas is a product of a microbiological degradation process. Currently,

the primary sources of biogas in the USA are wastewater or sludge treat-
ment systems and solid waste landfills, which rely upon anaerobic micro-
organisms to convert waste materials to methane (CH4) and carbon
dioxide (CO2). For many years, biogas was considered a waste product of
sludge digesters and landfills, and was simply flared to prevent injury to
personnel as well as the surrounding community. However, in recent
years, it has been recognized that biogas is not simply a nuisance
byproduct of anaerobic treatment, but a valuable source of energy.
Selection of a system for converting biogas into thermal or electrical
energy is best performed with an iterative process. A potential user must
first have a knowledge of the technological options available for utiliza-
tion of the fuel on-site or for sale to an off-site user. Secondly, a
knowledge of the physical, chemical and combustion characteristics of
the fuel is needed to determine what changes to conventional equipment
are needed to efficiently burn the fuel. Finally, the utilization technology
277
Biomass 0144-4565/89/S03.50 - 1989 Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd, England.
Printed in Great Britain
278 J. L. Walsh, C. C. Ross, M. S. Smith, S. R. Harper

selected and the biogas fuel characteristics determine the systems

needed for transport, clean-up, compression and storage. Component
selection for a biogas utilization system is, therefore, an iterative process
balancing the energy requirements (total and instantaneous) against the
capital and operating costs of the biogas system.

BIOGAS CHARACTERISTICS

General

Pure methane at standard temperature and pressure has a lower heating

value of approximately 34 300 kJ m - 3 . j Biogas, however, is typically
only 40-80% C H 4 and, therefore, has a heating value of approximately
13 720-27 440 kJ m -3. Obviously, this and other physical and chemical
properties of biogas affect the choice of technology used for combustion
(and clean-up), and a knowledge of these properties is essential to system
design and operation. As described in the next section, a knowledge of
these properties is needed to determine the modifications required to
convert equipment designed for other fuels to the combustion of biogas.
Since more than 98% of the volume of biogas is typically composed of
CH4 and CO2, the physical characteristics of biogas may be adequately
modeled as a combination of these two constituents. Other components
( n i t r o g e n (N2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and trace organics) are usually
present in such small quantities as to have relatively negligible effects on
the design and operation of biogas combustion equipment. The principal
physical and chemical characteristics of biogas as a mixture of CH 4 and
CO2 are presented in Table 1.2

TABLE 1
Physical Constants of Methane and Carbon Dioxide 2

Physical constant Methane (CH4) a Carbon dioxide

(cos
Specific gravity, air = 1 h 0'554 1"52
Specific volume 1'51 m 3 kg- 1 0'55 m 3 kg- i
Heat capacity, Cp @ 101 kPa 2261Jkg-tk i 858 J k g - I k-I
Ratio Cp/ Cv 1"307 1"303
Limit of inflammability 5-15% by volume
Stoichiometry in air 0.0947 by volume
0.0581 in mass

"Properties of pure gases given at 25C and atmospheric pressure.

hair at 101 kPa, 15-6C.
 Utilization of biogas 279

TABLE 2
Comparison of Heating Values and Air-To-FuelRatios for Simple Fuels1

Fuel type Heating values: higher [lower] Air-to-fuel ratios

(k.l rn -'~) (kJ kg- I) Vol. air:fuel Wt air:fuel

Hydrogen sulfide,H2S 24 300 16 500 7.15 6.08

[22 400] [15 200]
Methane, CH4 38 100 55 500 9.41 17.20
[34 300] [50 000]
Propane, C3H 8 95 000 50 400 23"80 15"70
[87 400] [46 300]

Heating value

The heating values of simple fuels are used to determine the energy
available from different gases. The heating values (on volumetric and
mass bases) of simple fuels and a 60% C H 4 biogas are compared in Table
2. Determination of the heating value of a fuel mixture must take into
account not only the amount of methane or other combustibles present,
but also all non-combustible gases. The C H 4 c o n t e n t (and associated
CO2 content) of biogases typically vary from 40% for biogas from a
'young' landfill to 6 0 - 7 0 % from older landfills and most controlled
anaerobic digestion systems, but as high as 90% C H 4 can be obtained
from some industrial systems, depending on the type of waste treated. 3
While not as prevalent a diluent as CO 2, water vapor can also have an
impact on biogas combustion characteristics. Water vapor has a small
but noticeable effect on biogas flame temperature, flammability limits,
lower heating value and combustion fuel-to-air ratio. These effects, plus
the potential for equipment corrosion, accentuate the need for removal
of water vapor from biogas. Depending on temperature, biogas samples
taken from a digester may contain as much as 50 mg liter- ~water vapor,
near the saturation level. A water content of 50 mg liter- J of water vapor
equates to a volumetric content of 6.6%.
The variation in lower heating value as a function of CH 4 and water
vapor concentrations is presented in Fig. 1. As shown in the figure, a
decrease in CH4 content and/or an increase in the water vapor content
results in a decrease in the heating value of biogas.

Air-to-fuel ratio

The optimum concentration of air to fuel, often referred to as the

stoichiometfic mixture (i.e. the concentration at which complete
280 J. L. Walsh, C. C. Ross, M. S. Smith, S. R. Harper

900
'-1

v 700
0 mg/,itePH20 ~ ..............

~ 5 0 0 50 rag/liter H20
t-
I_

:300
O
.J

100 , , ,
40 50 60 70 80 90 1O0
Methane content (% by volume)
Fig. 1. Variation in lower heating value as a function of carbon dioxide and water
vapor concentration.

combustion occurs without unused air or fuel) is 9.4% by volume of CH4

in air. The air-to-fuel ratios for other simple fuels are also presented in
Table 2. For biogas, the stoichiometric ratio will obviously vary with the
amount of non-combustible gases mixed with CH 4. A rule-of-thumb
often used by combustion engineers during preliminary design is to use
0'028 m 3 of air to produce 100 kJ of heat.

Flame velocity

The flame velocity is important in the design or modification of a burner

because the velocity or rate at which the fuel and air are fed to the burner
must match the flame velocity to prevent blowing out the flame. In an
internal combustion engine, the flame velocity determines the position of
the piston at which the spark plug is ignited (spark advance). The flame
velocity of biogas decreases as the concentration of CH 4 in the biogas
decreases. Therefore, the flow rates of fuel and air fed to a burner must
be decreased in proportion to the decrease in CH 4 content in order to
prevent flame blow-out. The flame velocity also varies with the con-
centration of CH 4 in air. The maximum flame velocity occurs at the
stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio (9.4% by volume CH 4 in air))

Theoretical flame temperature

The flame temperature created by a combustible mixture is also an

important parameter with respect to the performance of all types of
 Utilization of biogas 2 81

combustion systems. This parameter is important in the design of the

heat recovery system, since the rate of heat transfer is directly propor-
tional to the flame temperature. The flame temperature is also important
for some applications (such as curing) that require a minimum flame tem-
perature for proper process operation. The theoretical flame tempera-
ture available from biogas decreases as the concentration of
non-combustibles (CO2 and water vapor) increases. 3

OPTIONS FOR UTILIZATION

The primary options for biogas utilization are presented in Fig. 2. 3 These
options consist of combustion in an internal combustion engine for
production of mechanical or electrical power, direct combustion in a
burner for heat production, or sale of the biogas to a pipeline. In
addition, there are secondary considerations such as whether electricity
from engine cogeneration should be sold to a utility or used internally.

Direct combustion

Direct combustion is the simplest method of biogas utilization. Conver-

sion of combustion systems to biogas combustion is basically a matter of
fuel burner modification, i.e. orifice enlargement and intake air restric-
tion, with attendant modification of the fuel delivery and control system.
When implementing these modifications with either new or retrofitted
systems, a number of variables should be considered, including the heat
input rate, fluid handling capabilities, flame stability and furnace
atmosphere.
Conversion of natural gas or propane burners to biogas principally
involves maintaining an appropriate exit velocity and corresponding
biogas pressure drop for proper fuel and air mixing. The pressure drop
across a burner orifice will increase with a decrease in the heating value
and the specific gravity of the biogas relative to natural gas and propane.
To compensate for this increase in pressure drop, the orifice diameter
must be increased (46% for 60% CH4 biogas). To maintain dual-fuel
capability, gas blending or dual-fuel burners can be implemented. Biogas
pilots have been used successfully; however, some installations have
experienced problems with pilot extinguishing, which led to the installa-
tion of a separate propane pilot. 4 Burners converted to fire biogas can be
installed in heaters for production of hot water and hot air, in dryers for
various materials, and in boilers for production of steam for process heat
or power generation.
Another biogas conversion method which has relatively limited
application to date is absorption heating and cooling. Utilizing biogas in
 ENGINES
4-l

COMPRESSORS

Fig. 2. Biogas utilization options.

 Utilization of biogas 28 3

a gas burner, a double-effect absorption chiller-heater can be used to

provide chilled water for refrigeration and space cooling and hot water
for industrial processes and space heating?
There is also only limited information on the fueling of gas turbines
with biogas. These machines and their peripheral equipment require fuel
gases with very low concentrations of particulates and moisture. Many
manufacturers recommend gas qualities similar to those required by
utilities for pipeline quality natural gas.

Internal combustion engines

Internal combustion engines have been fueled by biogas from municipal

digester systems for many years. In recent years, this application has
been extended to agricultural and industrial waste treatment systems to
provide for a variety of power requirements. Stationary internal combus-
tion engines can supply shaft or electric power for many loads, including
pumps, fans and blowers, elevators and conveyors, heat pumps, and air
conditioners. Considerations affecting system selection include load
factor, costs of installation, operation and maintenance, and the degree
of interference with current operations.
Since biogas has a lower volumetric energy content than either natural
gas or diesel fuel, an engine may be derated. For natural gas engines, this
derating may be as much as 20% of the natural gas rating. In addition to
the low energy content of the biogas, engine manufacturers also have
concerns with the hydrogen sulfide and moisture contents of the fuel
with most recommending hydrogen sulfide limits of 10 ppm and
maintaining exhaust temperatures of 88C to prevent condensation. 6,7
Spark ignition (SI) engines are the easiest engines to convert to biogas
due to the wide availability of natural-gas-fired units and the relative
similarity of biogas to natural gas. Some of the design considerations,
such as optimum air-to-fuel ratios and lubricant quality for biogas fueled
SI engines are illustrated in Table 3.
Fueling of diesel engines with biogas requires supplementation with up
to 20% diesel fuel for ignition, due to the lack of an ignition spark and
the low cetane rating of biogas. This requires some engine modification,
including a carburetor for mixing biogas with intake air, a means for
maintaining the desired diesel fuel setting on the injection pump, and a
means for advancing the ignition timing.
It is also possible to utilize biogas for vehicular engines (cars, trucks,
tractors, loaders, etc.), with the major components of a system consisting
of gas clean-up, compression and filling stations, as well as vehicular
modifications for storage and carburation. The critical factors which
284 J. L. Walsh, C. C. Ross, M. S. Smith, S. R. Harper

TABLE 3
Typical Design Characteristics of Spark Ignition Biogas Engines

Characteristic Operational guidelines

Engine sizing Operate at no less than 60% of max. power13

Engine derating Typically 5-20% 14
Operating temperature Operate at greater than 88C to prevent condensation 15
Air-to-fuel ratio 7"7 to 11.8 (mass/mass)16
Equivalence ratio 0"8 to 0"9 for maximum power13
Compression ratio 11:1 to 16:1 (optimum)16
Spark advance 33 to 45 BTDC (due to lower flame speed) 13
Biogas quality < 10 ppm H2S (manufacturers requirement) 6
> 35% C H 4 content w' 18
Lubricant quality Maintain oil Total Base Number > 4.0~5
50 to 600 hour change interval4,~9

need to be evaluated for the utilization of biogas as a vehicular fuel

include: the type of vehicle use, the quality of the biogas and the
efficiency of the engine? A standard 10.5 m 3, 20 106 Pa cylinder of
pure CH4, which can fit easily into most vehicles, has an energy
equivalency of 14 liters of gasoline.

Pipeline sales

Biogas can be sold to utilities or private pipeline gas suppliers, but must
have low HzS and water levels (2.7 p p m and 0.1 mg liter-~, respectively) 8
and low CO2 and N 2 levels in o r d e r to provide an energy content of
greater than 36 300 kJ m-3.8 Biogas, particularly landfill gases, may also
contain trace organic elements that are not acceptable to the local
natural gas utility for purchase, and must be evaluated on a case-by-case
basis. 9

COLLECTION AND HANDLING

T h e systems and equipment required for the collection of biogas and its
transport to clean-up, storage or combustion equipment are quite similar
for anaerobic treatment systems and landfills. T h e s e systems consist
primarily of piping and valves which are fabricated to prevent corrosion
and with special designs for the removal of c o n d e n s e d water.
T h e operating pressure of most biogas handling systems will generally
be less than 1.08 x 106 Pa (76.2 cm water column). However, if the
 Utilization of biogas 2 85

biogas is to be compressed, some piping in the system could have an

operating pressure as high as 3.55 x 106 Pa and must be designed to meet
this requirement.~
The operating temperature of a biogas system will be approximately
the same as the temperature of the source from which the gas is
produced, i.e. the digester or landfill. Accordingly, the maximum operat-
ing temperature of biogas is expected to be in the range of 50-60C since
the highest temperature biogas generators known are thermophilic
digesters which operate at 55C. However, most biogases will be in the
range of 10-35C.
A number of different materials can be used for piping and valvesJ 112
High-pressure systems will require steel or iron pipe, but plastic piping
may be preferred for low-pressure systems due to ease of installation.
Other considerations which should be accounted for in the design of a
piping system include the potential for accidental breakage, vibration
isolation and thermal expansion. All metallic piping should be painted to
prevent rust or corrosion. Provisions must be made to drain condensed
water vapor from the piping. A flame arrester should be located in the gas
line just downstream of the gas source to prevent a flame from running
back down the pipe ('flash-back') and causing an explosion.

BIOGAS CLEAN-UP

The equipment selected for the clean-up of biogas will depend upon the
intended use of the gas. Product gases may be withdrawn from treatment
systems and landfills and simply flared to prevent migration and environ-
mental impact, or sold to a consumer directly, used on-site with or
without prior treatment, or treated and sold to a consumer as pipeline
gas. The type and extent of treatment needed also depends on the com-
position of the gas. Raw biogas typically has a relatively low heating
value due to dilution of CHa with CO2 and N2, as well as water and H2S,
which can also be corrosive.
Therefore, the primary objectives of gas treatment are either the
removal of corrosive constituents (H2S and water), or those which dilute
CH 4 and affect the volumetric heating value (CO 2 and N2), or both.
Accordingly, there is a number of treatment processes available for
removing water, H2S, CO 2 and N 2, either singularly or in combination. A
summary of the most common methods available for removal of H2S,
CO 2 and water vapor is presented in Table 4. The type of treatment
process most commonly employed for each target contaminant, together
with alternative processes for removal, are listed in the table.
286 J. L. Walsh, C. C. Ross, M. S. Smith, S. R. Harper

TABLE 4
Summary of Gas Treatment Methods Available for the Removal of Water, Hydro-
carbons, Carbon Dioxide and Hydrogen Sulfide 3

Target Process Process alternatives

compound type available

Water Adsorption (1) Silica gel

(2) Molecular sieves, and
(3) Alumina
Absorption (1) Ethylene glycol (at low
temperature: - 20C) ~
(2) Selexol
Refrigeration (1) Chilling to 2C
Hydrocarbons Adsorption ( 1 ) Activated carbon
Absorption ( 1 ) Lean oil absorption,
(2) Ethylene glycol, and
(3) Selexol, all at low temperatures
( - 29oc)
Combination ( 1 ) Refrigeration with ethylene
glycol plus activated carbon
adsorption a
CO 2 and H2S Absorption (1) Organic solvents
Selexol
Fluor
Reetisol
(2) Alkaline salt solutions
Hot potassium and inhibited
hot potassium
(Benfield and Catacarb
processes)
(3) Alkanolamines
Mono,-di-tri-ethanol amines
Diglycolamines
UCARSOL-CR (proprietary
chemical) a
Adsorption ( 1 ) Molecular sieves
(2) Activated carbon
Membrane (1) Hollow fiber membrane
separation

"Designates most commonly used process.

 Utilization of biogas 287

BIOGAS COMPRESSION AND STORAGE

Compressing biogas reduces storage requirements, concentrates energy

content and increases pressure to the level needed to overcome resis-
tance to gas flow. Biogas systems that fuel cars or trucks use compressors
to achieve the high energy density required by the application.
Compressing biogas requires a flammable gas compressor. Compres-
sion also requires a 'clean' gas that has had the H2S, CO2 and water
vapor removed, since condensation can form in the compressor's gas
outlet line leading to the formation of corrosive sulfuric acid. Problems
have also been reported with freezing in piping downstream of the
compressor due to excess moisture in the biogas.
Biogas is not always produced at the same time or in the quantity
needed to satisfy the load that it serves. When this occurs, storage
systems are employed to smooth out variations in gas production, quality
and consumption. Biogas can be stored between the liquid level of the
digester and the digester cap; in flexible bags manufactured from
impermeable materials such as rubber, plastic or fiber-reinforced plastic;
or in steel tanks. A summary of the most common storage systems
(categorized by storage pressure) is presented in Table 5.

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

There are three major safety considerations that must be addressed with
biogas systems: toxicological dangers due to poisonous and asphyxiating
gases, fire and explosion dangers due to combustible gases, and physical
dangers due to operation of the system at both positive and negative

TABLE 5
Most Commonly Used Storage Options 3

Pressure Storage device Material

Low ( 13'8-41"4 kPa) Water-sealed gas holder Steel

Low Gas bag Rubber, plastic, vinyl
Low Weighted gas bag Rubber, plastic, vinyl
Low Floating roof Plastic, reinforced plastic
Medium (105-197 kPa) Propane or butane tanks Steel
High (20 106 kPa) Commercial gas cylinders Alloy steel
288 J. L. Watsh, C. C. Ross, M. S. Smith, S. R. Harper

TABLE 6
Toxicity Characteristics of Biogas Constituents2

Gas Color Odor MIO ~ TL V TL V Physiological

(ppm) TWA b STEL ' effects
(ppm) (ppm)

Methane None None -- (4) (4) Asphyxiant

Hydrogen None Rotten 0"7 10 15 Poison
sulfide egg
Methyl None Strong 0"5 0"5 a Poison
mercaptan garlic
Carbon None None -- 5 000 30 000 Asphyxiant
dioxide

"MIO, Minimum identifiable odor.

bTLV-TWA, Toxic limit value-total weighted average.
'TLV-STEL, Toxic limit value-single total exposure limit.
aNot established.

pressures. T h e major toxicological dangers are presented in Table 6. As

indicated in the table, all of the c o m p o n e n t s of biogas present health
hazards if present in sufficient concentrations.

SUMMARY

Biogas is a renewable energy resource which can be a source of electrical

or thermal energy at waste processing facilities using anaerobic treat-
ment systems. A variety of off-the-shelf equipment is currently available
to cost-effectively convert this resource into usable energy. As outlined
in this paper, systems designed for conventional gaseous fuels, such as
natural gas and propane, can be readily modified for operation with
biogas, with special considerations for biogas quality, collection and
handling and safety. For m o r e detailed information on the technical
requirements of each of these considerations, the reader can consult the
original H a n d b o o k o n Biogas Utilization?

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Funding for the development of the H a n d b o o k o n Biogas Utilization, 3

during which the data in this paper were developed, was provided by the
US D e p a r t m e n t of Energy's Southeastern Regional Biomass Energy
 Utilization of biogas 289

Program, administered by the Tennessee Valley Authority and the

Legislature of the State of Georgia in cooperation with the Georgia
Poultry Federation. The authors would like to thank Phil Badger,
Edward Waddell, Abit Massey and Allen Wilkins for their assistance.

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