THERMODYNAMICS

ME-330
August 2017

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

The word thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (force).
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics which deals with the energy and work of a system. It is
the study of the effects of work, heat, and energy on a system.

WHY STUDY THERMODYNAMICS?

- use principles drawn from thermodynamics, to analyze and design things intended to meet
human needs.

CHAPTER 1
 Thermodynamic system is a definite quantity of matter bounded by some closed
surface. Thermodynamic system is an identifiable collection of matter upon which
attention is focused for investigation.
All space outside the system is known as surroundings. A system is separated from
surrounding by the boundary which is may be real or imaginary.
TYPES OF SYSTEM

TYPES OF SYSTEM

EXAMPLES
TYPES OF SYSTEM

Since some of the thermodynamic relations that are applicable to closed and open
systems are different, it is extremely important that we recognize the type of system we
have before we start analyzing it.
Properties of a System

Any characteristic of a system in equilibrium is called a property. The property is

independent of the path used to arrive at the system condition. A property is a
macroscopic characteristic of a system such as mass, volume, energy, pressure,
and temperature to which a numerical value can be assigned
at a given time without knowledge of the previous behavior (history) of the system.

The word state refers to the condition of a system as described by its properties.
Since
there are normally relations among the properties of a system, the state often can
be specified by providing the values of a subset of the properties.

When any of the properties of a system change, the state changes and the system
is said
to have undergone a process. A process is a transformation from one state to
another. However, if a system exhibits the same values of its properties at two
different times, it is in the
same state at these times. A system is said to be at steady state if none of its
properties
changes with time.

A thermodynamic cycle is a series of thermodynamic processes which returns a

system to its initial state. Properties depend only on the thermodynamic state and
thus do not change over a cycle. Variables such as heat and work are not zero over
a cycle, but rather depend on the process.

A quantity is a property if its change in value between two states is independent of

the process.

Properties may be intensive or extensive.

Extensive properties are those that vary directly with size--or extent--of the system.

Some Extensive Properties

a. mass
b. volume
c. total energy/ internal energy
d. mass dependent property
Intensive properties are those that are independent of size.

Some Intensive Properties

a. temperature
b. pressure
c. age
d. color
e. any mass independent property

Extensive properties per unit mass are intensive properties. For example, the specific
volume v, defined as

Volume V m 3

v
mass m kg
The term phase refers to a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout in
both chemical composition and physical structure. Homogeneity in physical
structure means that the
matter is all solid, or all liquid, or all vapor (or equivalently all gas).

A pure substance is one that is uniform and invariable in chemical composition. A

pure
substance can exist in more than one phase, but its chemical composition must be
the same
in each phase.
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THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

In an isolated system when there is no change in the macroscopic property of the system
like entropy, internal energy etc, it is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium.

Conditions for Thermodynamic Equilibrium

The system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if the conditions for following three
equilibrium is satisfied:

1) Mechanical equilibrium - When there are no unbalanced forces within the system and
between the system and the surrounding, the system is said to be under mechanical
equilibrium.

2) Chemical equilibrium - The system is said to be in chemical equilibrium when there are
no chemical reactions going on within the system or there is no transfer of matter from one
part of the system to other

3) Thermal equilibrium - When the system is in mechanical and chemical equilibrium and
there is no spontaneous change in any of its properties, the system is said to be in thermal
equilibrium.

Measuring Mass, Length, Time, and Force

A unit is any specified amount of a quantity by comparison with which any other
quantity of the same kind is measured.
Determine the weight in Newtons of an object whose mass is 1000 kg at a place on the
earth's surface where the acceleration due to gravity equals a standard value defined as
9.80665 m/s2 .

Two Measurable Properties: Specific Volume and Pressure

The specific volume v is defined as the reciprocal of the density = 1/, It is the volume
per unit mass.
SI units for density and specific volume are kg/m3 and m3/kg, respectively.

In certain applications it is convenient to express properties such as a specific volume

on a molar basis rather than on a mass basis. The amount of a substance can be given on
a molar basis in terms of the kilomole (kmol) or the pound mole (lbmol), as appropriate. In
either case we use:

where: n = no. of kilomoles of a substance

m = mass of the substance in kg
M = molecular weight of the substance in kg/kmol

To signal that a property is on a molar basis, a bar is used over its symbol. Thus,

signifies the volume per kmol. (m3 / kmol)

where M is the molecular weight in kg/kmol or lb/lbmol, as appropriate

Pressure

PRESSURE UNITS

The SI unit of pressure and stress is the pascal.

1 pascal = 1 N/m2
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

where: = the density of the manometer liquid

g = acceleration of gravity
L = difference in the liquid levels

Bourdon tube gage

Piezoelectric effect
Measuring Temperature

Like force, a concept of temperature originates with our sense perceptions. It is

rooted in the notion of the hotness or coldness of a body.

Adiabatic process - When a system undergoes a process while enclosed by an

adiabatic wall, it experiences no thermal interaction with its surroundings.

Isothermal process - A process that occurs at constant temperature.

Thermometers

Any body with at least one measurable property that changes as its temperature
changes can
be used as a thermometer. Such a property is called a thermometric property.

A familiar device for temperature measurement is the liquid-in-glass thermometer

pictured in Fig. which consists of a glass capillary tube connected to a bulb filled
with a liquid such as alcohol and sealed at the other end.

OTHER TEMPERATURE SENSORS

Sensors known as thermocouples are based on the principle that when two dissimilar
metals are joined, an electromotive force (emf) that is primarily a function of temperature
will exist in a circuit. In certain thermo.
THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE

In view of the limitations of empirical means for measuring

temperature, it is desirable to have a procedure for assigning
temperature values that does not depend on the properties of any
particular substance or class of substances. Such a scale is called
a thermodynamic temperature scale.

KELVIN SCALE

The Kelvin scale is an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale

that provides a continuous definition of temperature, valid over all
ranges of temperature.Empiric al measures of temperature, with
different thermometers, can be related to the Kelvin scale. The
kelvin is the SI base unit for temperature

CELSIUS SCALE

ich assigns 100 Celsius degrees to it. The kelvin is the SI base unit
for temperature. The Celsius temperature scale (formerly called the
centigrade scale) uses the unit degree Celsius (C), which has the
same magnitude as the kelvin. Thus, temperature differences are
identical on both scales. However, the zero point on the Celsius
scale is shifted to 273.15 K, as shown by the following relationship
between the Celsius temperature and the Kelvin temperature. From
this it can be seen that on the Celsius scale the triple point of water
is 0.01C and that 0 K corresponds to -273.15C.
 Comparison of temperature scales.

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

SECOND LAW OF THERMODY NAMICS

THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

The equilibrim principle.

 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Law of Conservation of Energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed

in an isolated system.

The energy principle.

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The entropy of any isolated system always increases over time

The entropy principle.

THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature

approaches absolute zero.

the entropy of a perfect crystal approaches zero, as its temperature approaches

absolute zero.

The temperature principle.

Methodology for Solving Thermodynamics Problems

E X A M P L E 1 . 1 Identifying System Interactions

A wind turbineelectric generator is mounted atop a tower. As wind blows steadily across
the turbine blades, electricity is
generated. The electrical output of the generator is fed to a storage battery.
(a) Considering only the wind turbineelectric generator as the system, identify locations
on the system boundary where the
system interacts with the surroundings. Describe changes occurring within the system
with time.
(b) Repeat for a system that includes only the storage battery.
SOLUTION

Known: A wind turbineelectric generator provides electricity to a storage battery.

Find: For a system consisting of (a) the wind turbineelectric generator, (b) the storage
battery, identify locations where the
system interacts with its surroundings, and describe changes occurring within the system
with time.

Assumptions:
1. In part (a), the system is the control volume shown by the dashed line on the figure.
2. In part (b), the system is the closed system shown by the dashed line on the figure.
3. The wind is steady.

Analysis:
(a) In this case, there is air flowing across the boundary of the control volume. Another
principal interaction between the system and surroundings is the electric current passing
through the wires. From the macroscopic perspective, such an interaction is not
considered a mass transfer, however. With a steady wind, the turbinegenerator is likely
to reach steady-state operation, where the rotational speed of the blades is constant and
a steady electric current is generated.
(b) The principal interaction between the system and its surroundings is the electric
current passing into the battery throughthe wires. As noted in part (a), this interaction is
not considered a mass transfer. The system is a closed system. As the battery is charged
and chemical reactions occur within it, the temperature of the battery surface may become
somewhat elevated and a thermal interaction might occur between the battery and its
surroundings. This interaction is likely to be of secondary importance.
Schematic and Given Data
Applications

Instrumentation engineering which is a subfield of Electronics Engineering - deals

with the design of devices to measure physical quantities such as pressure, flow
and temperature.

Thermocouples are suitable for measuring over a large temperature range, from
270 up to 3000 C (for a short time, in inert atmosphere).[17] Applications include
temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, other
industrial processes and fog machines. They are less suitable for applications
where smaller temperature differences need to be measured with high accuracy, for
example the range 0100 C with 0.1 C accuracy. For such applications thermistors,
silicon bandgap temperature sensors and resistance thermometers are more
suitable.
Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it
produces an electric potential related to temperature. As per Thomas Seebeck
(1821), when two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and
one of the ends is heated, then there is a continuous current which flows in the
thermoelectric circuit. Figure 2.5.5 shows the schematic of thermocouple circuit.
The net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a function of junction
temperature and composition of two metals. It is given by,
VAB = T
Where , the Seebeck coefficient, is the constant ofproportionality.

Generally, Chromel(90% nickel and 10% chromium)Alumel(95% nickel, 2%

manganese, 2% aluminium and 1% silicon) are used in the manufacture of a
thermocouple. Table 2.5.1 shows the various other materials, their combinations
and application temperature ranges.