energies

Article
Linking the Power and Transport SectorsPart 1:
The Principle of Sector Coupling
Martin Robinius 1, * ID , Alexander Otto 1 , Philipp Heuser 1 , Lara Welder 1 ,
Konstantinos Syranidis 1 , David S. Ryberg 1 , Thomas Grube 1 , Peter Markewitz 1 , Ralf Peters 1
and Detlef Stolten 1,2
1 Institute of Electrochemical Process Engineering (IEK-3), Forschungszentrum Jlich GmbH,
Wilhelm-Johnen-Street, 52428 Jlich, Germany; alex_otto@gmx.net (A.O.); p.heuser@fz-juelich.de (P.H.);
l.welder@fz-juelich.de (L.W.); k.syranidis@fz-juelich.de (K.S.); s.ryberg@fz-juelich.de (D.S.R.);
th.grube@fz-juelich.de (T.G.); p.markewitz@fz-juelich.de (P.M.); ra.peters@fz-juelich.de (R.P.);
d.stolten@fz-juelich.de (D.S.)
2 Chair of Fuel Cells, RWTH Aachen University, c/o Institute of Electrochemical Process Engineering (IEK-3),
Forschungszentrum Jlich GmbH, Wilhelm-Johnen-Street, 52428 Jlich, Germany
* Correspondence: m.robinius@fz-juelich.de

Received: 29 March 2017; Accepted: 6 July 2017; Published: 21 July 2017

Abstract: The usage of renewable energy sources (RESs) to achieve greenhouse gas (GHG) emission
reduction goals requires a holistic transformation across all sectors. Due to the fluctuating nature of
RESs, it is necessary to install more wind and photovoltaics (PVs) generation in terms of nominal
power than would otherwise be required in order to ensure that the power demand can always
be met. In a near fully RES-based energy system, there will be times when there is an inadequate
conventional load to meet the overcapacity of RESs, which will lead to demand regularly being
exceeded and thereby a surplus. One approach to making productive use of this surplus, which
would lead to a holistic transformation of all sectors, is sector coupling (SC). This paper describes
the general principles behind this concept and develops a working definition intended to be of utility
to the international scientific community. Furthermore, a literature review provides an overview of
relevant scientific papers on the topic. Due to the challenge of distinguishing between papers with or
without SC, the approach adopted here takes the German context as a case study that can be applied
to future reviews with an international focus. Finally, to evaluate the potential of SC, an analysis
of the linking of the power and transport sectors on a worldwide, EU and German level has been
conducted and is outlined here.

Keywords: sector coupling (SC); linking the sectors; power-to-gas; power-to-fuel; power-to-heat;
transport sector

1. Introduction
The 2015 21th Conference of the Parties (COP21) conference that culminated in the Paris
Agreement to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is arguably one of the most significant recent
international political developments [1]. Schnellnhuber et al. [2] discuss the possible effects of the
Paris Accord on climate change, analyzing the targets it sets out in terms of necessity, feasibility and
simplicity, determining it to be an ambitious step towards limiting anthropogenic CO2 emissions, and
therefore towards more environmentally friendly energy supply systems. The agreement is significant
for various reasons. One of the most notable is the large number of participating countries, including
most of the largest CO2 polluters. In total, 187 countries agreed to commit, with 175 of them signing
the legally binding agreement on 22 April 2016, reaffirming the goal of limiting the global temperature
increase to less than 2 C and striving for a maximum of 1.5 C, thus setting a record for first-day

Energies 2017, 10, 956; doi:10.3390/en10070956 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 956 2 of 22

signatures to an international agreement [3]. Although arresting temperature increase might not
seem to be a scientifically concrete objective, it is generally accepted by the environmental science
community [2]. An unexpected result of COP21 was, moreover, the inclusion of adaptation directly
linked to the level of emissions mitigation while transparency rules were established, meaning that all
members will be required to report their status on a regular basis [3]. The agreement constitutes a clear
path towards achieving a zero-emission system in the fastest manner possible, especially if we consider
the fact that meeting the 2 C target requires that no new emitting infrastructure will be constructed
after 2017, unless either another equivalent emitter is discontinued or a carbon capture technology is
applied [4]. There are three major potential pathways for achieving the GHG reduction goals:

(1) Continuing the use of fossil fuels in conjunction with the capture and storage of carbon dioxide.
(2) The usage of nuclear power.
(3) The usage of renewable energy sources (RESs).

Adopting the third pathway of utilizing RESs to achieve the GHG emission goals would require a
complete transformation of all sectors. The first two pathways also carry advantages and disadvantages,
but are beyond the scope of this paper. Therefore, this paper will focus on one approach that could
lead to the transformation of all sectors, namely sector coupling (SC), or integrated energy.
The concept of SC has become popular in Germany, in the course of the ongoing Energiewende
(energy transition; see Section 5.3), but it is not always applied correctly in the literature and,
furthermore, the principal pathways are sometimes not clearly elaborated; thus, the use of SC in
models is often inaccurate. Whereas the approach of SC is likely to be more frequently used, the
principle has yet to be clearly defined, and its possible features are yet to be described.
The aim of this paper is therefore to clarify the concept of SC in a general sense (see Section 2) and
show in more detail the principal pathways by which the power and transport sectors may be linked
(see Section 3). Moreover, Section 4 comprises a literature review. To demonstrate the worldwide
potential of coupling these sectors, their respective status will be described in more detail (see Section 5)
and current developments will be discussed, along with the prospect for the modeling of SC.
With this contribution, the authors intend to provide basic knowledge for the research community
to conduct studies into SC in different countries and use the same terminology to generate comparable
results in the future.

2. The Principle of Sector Coupling

To clarify the concept of SC, the general principle behind it will be described. The concept
relies on a strong commitment to the afore-noted pathway 3 (increasing usage of RESs as a means
of diminishing GHG emissions). Germany, for example, emphasizes this pathway (see Section 5.3).
Due to the countrys limited potential for hydroelectric power, the main RESs deployed in Germany
are wind and photovoltaics (PVs). Given the fluctuating nature of wind and sunlight, it is necessary to
install more wind and PVs generation in terms of nominal power than would otherwise be required
for the current power demand (conventional demand) to be met. Despite this over-installation, there
will still be times (such as during the night and when there is no wind) when there will be a need
for consistent power production and distribution similar to that afforded by power plants or storage
systems. On the other hand, there will be times when there will not be enough conventional load,
and this will lead to the demand being exceeded, and thereby a surplus of power. The uses to which
this surplus is put constitute SC. There are different definitions used in Germany, such as that of the
German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy [5]for example, the German Technical and
Scientific Association for Gas and Water [6] or the German Association of Energy and Water Industries
(BDEW) [7]. Herein, the authors will use the definition of SC employed by the BDEW, which defines
it as the energy engineering and energy economy of the connection of electricity, heat, mobility
and industrial processes, as well as their infrastructures, with the aim of decarbonization, while
Energies 2017, 10, 956 3 of 22
Energies 2017, 10, 956 3 of 22

simultaneously increasing
commercial/trade, the flexibility
households of energy
and transport underusethe
in the sectorsof
premises of profitability,
industry and sustainability
commercial/trade,
and
households and transport
security of supply [7]. under the premises of profitability, sustainability and security of supply [7].
It should
It should also
also be
be noted
noted that
that the
the economic
economic discussion
discussion ofof whether
whether there
there will
will be
be aa surplus
surplus in
in future
future
energy systems, or if demand will always be consistent, is beyond the scope of this
energy systems, or if demand will always be consistent, is beyond the scope of this paper and paper and therefore
will not bewill
therefore further
not bediscussed. Figure 1 illustrates
further discussed. the principle
Figure 1 illustrates theofprinciple
SC and wasof SCdeveloped
and was on the basison
developed of
the basis
the description of the concept
of the description advanced
of the conceptbyadvanced
the German Federal
by the GermanMinistry
FederalforMinistry
Economic forAffairs and
Economic
Energy [5].
Affairs and Energy [5].

Figure
Figure 1.
1. The
The principle
principle of
of sector
sector coupling
coupling (SC).
(SC).

First of all, to correctly delineate a sector, inaccurate formulations in the literature must be
First of all, to correctly delineate a sector, inaccurate formulations in the literature must be clarified.
clarified. For instance, heat supply does not constitute a sector, but rather an application; illumination
For instance, heat supply does not constitute a sector, but rather an application; illumination in the
in the household sector would be another example. The authors thereby define sectors in the context
household sector would be another example. The authors thereby define sectors in the context of SC
of SC with respect to the definition of the BDEW as the following:
with respect to the definition of the BDEW as the following:
Industry, trade and commerce
Residential/household
Industry, trade and commerce
Transport
Residential/household
Transport
The agriculture sector has not yet been considered in the context of SC, but should also not be
ignored.
The agriculture sector has not yet been considered in the context of SC, but should also not
Furthermore,
be ignored. while SC has always been practiced, it has hitherto been in the context of fossil
fuels Furthermore,
such as kerosene,while methane,
SC has alwaysoil orbeen
coal,practiced,
rather than
it hasRESs. For been
hitherto example,
in thea context
combined heat fuels
of fossil and
power
such asplant that generates
kerosene, methane,electricity
oil or coal,would
rathersupply excess
than RESs. heat
For that would
example, otherwise
a combined beand
heat wasted
powerto
other industries or the household sector. Correspondingly, a natural gas infrastructure
plant that generates electricity would supply excess heat that would otherwise be wasted to other such as a
pipeline grid would allow the possibility of using natural gas in the power sector
industries or the household sector. Correspondingly, a natural gas infrastructure such as a pipeline (with natural gas
power stations),
grid would allowtransport sector of(natural
the possibility gas vehicles),
using natural gas in theindustry
power sector
sector (hydrogen,
(with natural methanol
gas power or
ammonia production) or household sector (heating). Nevertheless, to avoid
stations), transport sector (natural gas vehicles), industry sector (hydrogen, methanol or ammonia misconceptions, the
concept of SCorfor
production) our purposes
household sectorfundamentally relies on RESs
(heating). Nevertheless, and therefore
to avoid fits the principle
misconceptions, outlined
the concept of SC
in Figure 1.
for our purposes fundamentally relies on RESs and therefore fits the principle outlined in Figure 1.
Figure
Figure 22details
detailsa selection
a selection of potential
of potential SC pathways
SC pathways corresponding
corresponding to the power-to-X
to the power-to-X principle,
principle, where X stands for gas, fuels/chemicals or heat. The use of hydrogen to
where X stands for gas, fuels/chemicals or heat. The use of hydrogen to produce electricity or heat is produce electricity
or heat istoreferred
referred to as gas-to-power.
as gas-to-power.
Because a detailed description
Because a detailed description of possible
of all all possible power-to-X
power-to-X applications
applications is tangential
is tangential to the
to the purposes
purposes of this
of this paper, onlypaper, only thethat
the pathways pathways
make it that make
possible to it
linkpossible
the powerto link
andthe powersectors,
transport and transport
namely
sectors, namely the power-to-gas (P2G) and gas-to-fuel pathways, will
the power-to-gas (P2G) and gas-to-fuel pathways, will be analyzed in greater depth (see be analyzed in greater depth
Section 3).
(see Section 3). Furthermore, the direct use of the electricity surplus in applications such as battery
electric vehicles (BEVs) is another possible route.
Energies 2017, 10, 956 4 of 22

Furthermore, the direct use of the electricity surplus in applications such as battery electric vehicles
(BEVs) is another
Energies 2017, 10, 956 possible route. 4 of 22

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Power-to-X
Power-to-X applications.
applications.

3. Potential Pathways for Sector Coupling in the Transport Sector

3. Potential Pathways for Sector Coupling in the Transport Sector
Achieving the promise of reduced GHG emissions across different economic sectors by means
Achieving the promise of reduced GHG emissions across different economic sectors by means
of electricity strongly relates to the GHG footprint of the particular quantities of electric energy
of electricity strongly relates to the GHG footprint of the particular quantities of electric energy
employed. The historical development of electricity sectors up to todays level was influenced by a
employed. The historical development of electricity sectors up to todays level was influenced by a
great variety of factors, such as feedstock availabilities, technological development, political
great variety of factors, such as feedstock availabilities, technological development, political preferences
preferences and market structure. Related to the further evolution of these, in contrast to energy-
and market structure. Related to the further evolution of these, in contrast to energy-strategic targets of
strategic targets of reducing electricity utilization, total electricity demand is likely to increase.
reducing electricity utilization, total electricity demand is likely to increase. Despite efficiency gains in
Despite efficiency gains in technologies relating to traditional electricity provision, the use of more
technologies relating to traditional electricity provision, the use of more applications of electricity arises
applications of electricity arises (rebound effect), such as those described in this paper. An overview
(rebound effect), such as those described in this paper. An overview of the pathways for cross-sectoral
of the pathways for cross-sectoral electricity utilization is given in Section 2.
electricity utilization is given in Section 2.
In light of the feed-in fluctuations of wind and solar power, large-scale storage options become
In light of the feed-in fluctuations of wind and solar power, large-scale storage options become
indispensable elements of energy provision [8]. While batteries would not be suitable in the long-
indispensable elements of energy provision [8]. While batteries would not be suitable in the long-term
term for storing large quantities of power in the range of tens of terawatt hours, they could serve as
for storing large quantities of power in the range of tens of terawatt hours, they could serve as
grid-stabilizing components with short response times. Moreover, in the transport sector, batteries
grid-stabilizing components with short response times. Moreover, in the transport sector, batteries
could enable the storage of tractive energy for BEVs and hybrid vehicles.
could enable the storage of tractive energy for BEVs and hybrid vehicles.
On the other hand, hydrogen may ultimately form the basis of industrial-scale power-to-X routes
On the other hand, hydrogen may ultimately form the basis of industrial-scale power-to-X routes
that efficiently supply the transport, industry and electricity sectors with energy or chemical
that efficiently supply the transport, industry and electricity sectors with energy or chemical feedstocks.
feedstocks. In order to supply hydrocarbons on the basis of power-to-X, reliable and GHG-neutral
In order to supply hydrocarbons on the basis of power-to-X, reliable and GHG-neutral CO2 must be
CO2 must be available (also in the long-term).
available (also in the long-term).
3.1. Electric
3.1. Electric Mobility
Mobility with
with Battery
Battery Electric
Electric Vehicles
Vehicles and
and Fuel
Fuel Cell
Cell Vehicles
Vehicles
BEVs and
BEVs andfuel
fuelcell
cell vehicles
vehicles (FCVs)
(FCVs) are are
seenseen by many
by many car manufacturers
car manufacturers as the
as the most mostoptions
viable viable
options for zero-emission and highly efficient mobility [9]. However, the infrastructural
for zero-emission and highly efficient mobility [9]. However, the infrastructural challenges and challenges
and cost-reduction
cost-reduction issues
issues of batteries
of batteries (for(for BEVs)
BEVs) andand
fuelfuel
cellcell systems
systems and
and HH 2 storage (for FCVs) must
2 storage (for FCVs) must
be resolved.
be resolved.
At present,
At present, aa variety
variety ofof BEVs
BEVs are
are commercially
commercially available.
available. Typical
Typical battery
battery capacities
capacities are
are between
between
14 and
14 and 30
30 kWh,
kWh, allowing
allowing forforoperational
operationalranges
rangesofofnonomore
more than 250
than kmkm
250 [1025]. Exceptions
[1025]. are are
Exceptions the
Tesla Models S and X, with operational ranges of 408 and 417 km at battery capacities of 60 and 75
kWh [24,25], respectively. Besides the Tesla Model S and X, the commercially available GM Bolt has
a 60 kWh battery. However, manufacturers have announced ranges of more than 500 km (e.g., the
Opel Ampera-e [26]) for the next generation of BEVs. Being the most energy-efficient option for
motorized transportation, BEVs still lack the operational ranges and fueling times to make them truly
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electric network infrastructures, including backup power provisions and distributed storage
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hydrogen infrastructures for FCVs [27].
Energies 2017, 10, 956 5 of 22
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series cars. Passenger cars from Toyota and Hyundai, for instance, are already commercially
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Furthermore, Honda began ranges of 408
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Energies 2017, 10, 956 6 of 22

3.3. Power-to-Gas
Related to stationary energy appliances, P2G process chains are currently under consideration.
This includes the direct use of hydrogen (P2G-H), for example in the steel production [30] and methane
(P2G-M) that is produced from hydrogen and CO2 . Due to the high cost of P2G-M, the major challenge
is to achieve cost-competitiveness with natural gas. Examples for economically viable applications
in the electricity market are presented by Grueger et al. [31]. Each of these routes leads to the SC of
the power and transport sectors and has the possibility of drastically reducing GHG emissions in
these sectors.
Whereas this section showed the potential pathways for SC in the transport and power sectors,
there remains a need to analyze the current state of the literature in terms of the modeling of SC.
Therefore, in Section 4, a review and overview of current literature is presented. Since a worldwide
analysis of all models would constitute a scientific paper in itself, the authors present an overview of
selected international scientific papers and a more in-depth literature review for the modeling of SC in
Germany. The approach adopted here can be applied to future reviews with an international focus.

4. Sector CouplingLiterature Review

The large-scale use of RESs to power parts of or even entire national economies has generated
increasing interest in the last decade. There exists a multitude of studies in which the effect of increasing
penetrations and potential contributions of RESs has been investigated for economic regions, spanning
from isolated islands to whole countries, or even in the global context. The approaches chosen to
realize SC are multifaceted and are presented in the following sections. Subsequently, studies that
imply SC options for Germany are discussed in more detail to provide a perspective for the modeling
of the concept.

4.1. Approaches to Sector Coupling

Studies suggesting SC for economic regions can be placed into certain categories, namely, the
investigated region, the coupled sectors, the applied methodology, the type and penetration of
renewable technologies in the energy system, and the approaches to handling the intermittent behavior
and spatial distribution of the renewables by means of energy transport and storage. The following
studies are presented according to the sectors they address, along with a short analysis of how the
integration of renewables within these studies is realized.
There are a number of studies in which all, or nearly all, power for the investigated economic
region is provided by RESs [3246]. Therefore, these studies couple all energy-demanding sectors with
renewable energy production. Some other studies focus on supplying specific sectors with power from
renewables in high penetrations. Case studies in which the power and heat sectors are coupled are
listed by Madlener et al. [47], Mason et al. [48], Henning and Palzer [49], Nastasi and Lo Basso [50]
and Palzer and Henning [51]. Examples for linking the power and transport sectors in such a way can
be found by Robinius [52], Samsatli et al. [53], Garmsiri et al. [54], Rogge et al. [55], Qadrdan et al. [56],
Teng et al. [57] and Kim and Moon [58].
In these studies, the intermittent behavior and spatial distribution of RESs is considered, to
varying degrees. Studies that analyze renewable potential by comparing the average produced
energy to its overall demand do not specifically consider temporal and spatial aspects [38,43,47,58].
Others take the intermittent behavior of renewables into account by including energy storage options,
but they do not explicitly consider changes in the energy transport infrastructure. These studies can
be subdivided into those that do not consider P2G options for storage [34,44,48,59] and those that
do [32,33,3537,39,42,45,46,49,51,60,61]. In a number of studies, energy transport is considered in
addition to energy storage, ranging from an additional markup for transportation costs [40,41,46,49,51]
to the detailed modeling of the required energy transport infrastructure [52,53] or, for example, detailed
hydrogen supply models [62].
Energies 2017, 10, 956 7 of 22

Energies 2017, 10, 956 7 of 22

A detailed description of all worldwide SC studies or approaches is not possible within a single
paper; rather, the publications highlighted in this subsection should serve as a starting point for further
importance, not only due to the negligible CO2 reduction from 1990 to 2017 (1.2%) and still high
research topics in this field in different countries. Hereinafter, the authors confine their analysis in
CO2-reduction goals for the transport sector by the year 2030 (40% to 42%, compared to 1990), but
this paper and in Part 2 [63] to Germany, for numerous reasons. First of all, Germany, after China
also due to the importance of the reduction of local transport emissions [65].
(258 GW) and the United States (145 GW), has the third-highest installed-RES capacity, at almost
100 GW in 2016, which leads to a pressing need for SC [64]. Furthermore, in the National Climate
Table 2. CO2-reduction goals for each sector through 2030 [66]. tCO2eq: tons of carbon dioxide
Action Plan, Germany established concrete CO2 -recuction goals for 2030, which shows the importance
equivalent.
of SC (Table 2). In particular, linking the power and transport sectors has a high importance, not only
due to the negligible CO2 reduction from 1990 to 2017 (1.2%) and still high CO2 -reduction goals for
Goals:
1990 2014 2014 vs Goals: 2030 vs
Sectors
the transport sector by the year 2030 (40% to 42%, compared to 1990), 2030
but also due to the1990
importance
(tCO2eq) (tCO2eq) 1990
of the reduction of local transport emissions [65]. (tCO 2eq)

Energy industries 466 358 23.2% 175183 6261%

Table 2. CO2 -reduction goals for each sector through 2030 [66]. tCO2 eq: tons of carbon
Residential
dioxide equivalent. 209 119 43.1% 7072 6766%

Transport 162 160 1.2% 9598 4240%

1990 2014 Goals: 2030 Goals: 2030 vs.
Sectors 2014 vs. 1990
Industry and (tCO2 eq) (tCO2 eq) (tCO2 eq) 1990
283 181 36% 140143 5149%
commerce
Energy industries 466 358 23.2% 175183 6261%
Residential 209 119 43.1% 7072 6766%
Agriculture
Transport 16288 72
160 18.2%
1.2% 5861
9598 3431%
4240%
Industry Others
and commerce 28339 181
12 36%
69% 5140143 5149%
87%
Agriculture 88 72 18.2% 5861 3431%
Others
Sum 39
1248 12
902 69%
27.7% 5435625 87%
5655%
Sum 1248 902 27.7% 543562 5655%

Figure 3 shows the results of different studies of the electricity demand and installed capacity
Figure 3 shows
for Germany. It can the results
be seen of different
that studies
studies that wereofconducted
the electricity demand
before 2012 and installed (apart
in particular capacity for
from
Germany. It can be seen
Prognos) estimated that studies
a future that were
electricity conducted
demand before600
of around 2012TWh.
in particular
From 2014(aparton,
from
thePrognos)
studies
estimated a future electricity demand of around 600 TWh. From 2014 on, the studies estimated
estimated a much higher installed capacity of RESs, as well as a higher electricity demand, which a much
higher installed
amounted, in thecapacity
highest of RESs,
case, as well as
to roughly a higher
1300 electricity
TWh. This showsdemand,
that SC, which
which amounted, in the
leads to a higher
highest case,
electricity to roughly
demand, has 1300 TWh. This
a growing shows that
importance SC,literature
in the which leads to a higher
surveyed, and electricity
therefore itdemand,
will be
has a growing
analyzed importance
in greater detail.in the literature surveyed, and therefore it will be analyzed in greater detail.

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Electricity
Electricity demand
demand and
and installed
installed capacities
capacities in different energy
in different energy models
models for
for Germany
Germany by
by the
the
years 2040
years 2040 and
and 2050
2050 [67].
[67].

4.2. Studies on Germany

The expansion of renewable energy technologies and their potential to contribute to electricity
generation in Germany has been addressed in numerous German studies, and was summarized and
classified in the Fraunhofer IWES and Fraunhofer UMSICHT reports [68], or the report from the
Energies 2017, 10, 956 8 of 22

4.2. Studies on Germany

The expansion of renewable energy technologies and their potential to contribute to electricity
generation in Germany has been addressed in numerous German studies, and was summarized and
classified in the Fraunhofer IWES and Fraunhofer UMSICHT reports [68], or the report from the
Agentur fr Erneuerbare Energien e.V. [69]. For 2050, Table 3 shows the results of this classification,
with the additional inclusion of a study by Robinius [52,70,71]. Classification in the table is based on
the required grid expansion, which was assumed in each study, as well as the strategic development of
the power supply system.

Table 3. Classification of targeted German studies on future power supply systems, based on their
considered grid expansion (minor to strong) and the strategic development of the power supply
system (from Germany to Europe). The table is based on studies reported in the Fraunhofer IWES and
Fraunhofer UMSICHT [68].

Strong Grid Expansion Minor

ETG-Task-Force (2012) [72]
Fraunhofer ISE (2012) [73]
Fraunhofer UMSICHT & Robinius (2016) [52,70,71] Germany
Fraunhofer IOSB/AST (2013) [74]
SRU (2011) [75]
Umweltbundesamt (2010) [76]
Agora (2014) [77]
DLR et al. (2012) [78]
EWI & energynautics (2011) [79]
Frontier Economics & swissQuant EWI & energynautics (2011) [79] Strategic development of the power supply system
Group (2013) [80]
Jentsch et al. (2014) [81]
Prognos AG et al. (2010) [82]
ZSW (2014) [83]
Bussar et al. (2014) [84]
Czisch (2005) [85]
DENA & IAEW (2012) [86]
Droste-Franke (2012) [87]
EWI & energynautics (2011) [79] - Europe
Fraunhofer ISI (2011) [88]
Fraunhofer IWES et al. (2014) [89]
Plemann et al. (2014) [90]
Schabram et al. (2013) [91]
SRU (2011) [75]

However, the utilization of the excess electricity produced in P2G concepts and accompanying
SC options was investigated in some of these studies. On this point, Figure 4 provides further
insights, presenting the scenario results for a number of studies listed in Table 3, as well as results
from Fraunhofer IWES [92]. These results include electricity generation by renewables and their
corresponding excess electricity generation, as well as the amount of excess electricity used for P2G
in TWh for Germany in the year 2050. Thereby, electricity generation by renewables is broken down
into the contributions from PV and wind turbine installations. Where information was available, the
contribution from wind turbines was split into onshore and offshore components.
The studies presented in Figure 4 are subdivided into two categories: In the first, all scenarios in
which the electricity generation from renewables is less than 520 TWh are summarized. In the second,
this value is above 600 TWh. The subdivision underscores the nature of the scenario. While in the first
category, electricity generation only focuses on the power sector, the second also includes additional
sectors. Therefore, the scenarios in the second category approach the requirement for an integrated
energy system by actually stipulating an energy system transformation, not only the transformation
of the German or European power system. Thus, only the scenarios from the second category are of
relevance when reviewing existing SC concepts for Germany.
Energies 2017, 10, 956 9 of 22

The Fraunhofer ISE study [73], which is represented in Figure 4 in the second category with three
different scenarios, points out the possibility of realizing all of Germanys power and heat demand via
renewable energies. In the study, electricity storage is taken into account by including pumped hydro
storage and batteries, while thermal energy storage is considered through the inclusion of water9 as
Energies 2017, 10, 956
a
of 22
storage medium. The scenarios refer to different degrees of refurbishment for buildings (heat demands
of 64.9%,
(heat 50% and
demands of 40% in reference
64.9%, 50% andto40% the 2010 values for
in reference to REMax,
the 2010Medium
values and SanMax, Medium
for REMax, respectively).
and
A P2G path is integrated as follows: first, hydrogen that was produced by electrolysis
SanMax, respectively). A P2G path is integrated as follows: first, hydrogen that was produced by during periods
of excess electricity
electrolysis generation
during periods is transformed
of excess into methane;
electricity generation this methane
is transformed is methane;
into then stored inmethane
this already
existing cavernsinfor
is then stored natural
already gas; finally,
existing during
caverns times ofgas;
for natural positive residual
finally, load,
during theof
times methane
positiveisresidual
used to
produce electricity and heat. Not modeled are the transport sector and fuel-based
load, the methane is used to produce electricity and heat. Not modeled are the transport sector and industry processes.
However,
fuel-basedthe studyprocesses.
industry states thatHowever,
if transport thewas
study included (byifassuming
states that transport 50% BEVs and(by
was included 50% FCVs),
assuming
an additional yearly electricity demand of 290 TWh would be required.
50% BEVs and 50% FCVs), an additional yearly electricity demand of 290 TWh would be required.

Figure 4. Electricity generation by renewables; corresponding excess electricity generation and the
Figure 4. Electricity generation by renewables; corresponding excess electricity generation and the
amount of
amount of excess
excess electricity
electricity used
used for
for power-to-gas
power-to-gas (P2G)
(P2G) in TWh for
in TWh for Germany
Germany in in the year 2050,
the year 2050,
according to
according to the
the associated
associated study
study and
and scenario.
scenario.

In studies by Robinius [52,70], whose findings are portrayed in Figure 4 in the second category,
In studies by Robinius [52,70], whose findings are portrayed in Figure 4 in the second category,
again with three different scenarios, a power system design with a high penetration of renewables is
again with three different scenarios, a power system design with a high penetration of renewables
presented, which is also able to satisfy 75% of the domestic transport sector with hydrogen. The
is presented, which is also able to satisfy 75% of the domestic transport sector with hydrogen.
scenarios refer to the modeling of the electrical grid (grid: first scenario; or copper plate: second and
The scenarios refer to the modeling of the electrical grid (grid: first scenario; or copper plate: second
third scenarios) and the inclusion of large-scale storage (third scenario). A corresponding P2G path
and third scenarios) and the inclusion of large-scale storage (third scenario). A corresponding P2G
is integrated as follows: first, hydrogen is produced by electrolysis in times of excess electricity
path is integrated as follows: first, hydrogen is produced by electrolysis in times of excess electricity
generation; the hydrogen is then stored in salt caverns; finally, hydrogen transmission to designated
generation; the hydrogen is then stored in salt caverns; finally, hydrogen transmission to designated
fueling stations is realized via pipelines, where it is then distributed.
fueling stations is realized via pipelines, where it is then distributed.
The Frauenhofer IWES study [92], on which the second category in Figure 4 is based, with only
The Frauenhofer IWES study [92], on which the second category in Figure 4 is based, with only
one scenario, is not included in Table 3 due to its differing methodological approach. In the study,
one scenario, is not included in Table 3 due to its differing methodological approach. In the study, the
the primary energy demand for Germany in 2050 is first identified. Subsequently, an optimized
primary energy demand for Germany in 2050 is first identified. Subsequently, an optimized power
power plant fleet consisting of only RESs is determined. Thereby, it is assumed that BEVs make up
plant fleet consisting of only RESs is determined. Thereby, it is assumed that BEVs make up 100% of
100% of the domestic transport sector, and that trucks are powered by overhead power lines. P2G is
the domestic transport sector, and that trucks are powered by overhead power lines. P2G is employed
employed to satisfy a residual demand for chemical energy carriers, as well as the remaining positive
residual electricity load.
In summary, it can be noted that there already exist a number of studies for Germany that adopt
an integrated modeling approach for a future energy system via SC. In these studies, a high
penetration of renewables is assumed, consisting mainly of PV installations, as well as on- and off-
shore wind turbines. Thereby, the corresponding coupled sectors, as well as the underlying modeling
Energies 2017, 10, 956 10 of 22

to satisfy a residual demand for chemical energy carriers, as well as the remaining positive residual
electricity load.
In summary, it can be noted that there already exist a number of studies for Germany that adopt
an integrated modeling approach for a future energy system via SC. In these studies, a high penetration
of renewables is assumed, consisting mainly of PV installations, as well as on- and off-shore wind
turbines. Thereby, the corresponding coupled sectors, as well as the underlying modeling assumptions,
vary from study to study.
To obtain an overview of the GHG reduction potential of SC in the power and transport sectors,
the current status is described. To see the different potentials regarding different boundary levels, the
GHG emissions by sector, electricity production by fuels, and fuel consumption in the transport sector
on a worldwide-, European Union (EU)- and Germany-scale are analyzed.

5. Status of the Power and Transport Sectors

The development of power systems around the world has traditionally relied on fossil fuels as a
primary source of power. Large thermal stations, usually fueled by coal and occasionally nuclear fuels,
are used to cover the base load, while more flexible alternatives based on oil products, natural gas
or hydroelectric generation cover the load variations. Although this approach has been cost-efficient
and all involved technologies have reached a mature level, the high CO2 emissions entailed, currently
amounting to 42% of total GHGs [93], has driven governments around the world to develop policies
that promote more generation from RESs.

5.1. Worldwide
Overall, the energy sector was responsible for 65% of total GHG emissions in 2013 [93], of which
90% consisted of CO2 [93]. In particular, the electricity and heat sectors were responsible for about 42%,
and the transport sector some 23%, of global CO2 emissions [93]. Therefore, the majority of efforts to
limit GHG emissions have focused on the electricity generation sector. Various parameters, including
improvements in the energy efficiency of end consumers, have led primary energy consumption to
decline in some countries (e.g., Germany and the United States); however, the global trend is increasing.
Nevertheless, due to the massive increase in RES-installed capacities, growth in the electricity demand
has been decoupled from power sector-related CO2 emissions [1], which constitute a key factor in the
further decarbonization of the power sector.
In 2013, the global electricity production totaled about 79,656 PJ. With regard to the contributing
fuels, hard coal and lignite accounted for the biggest share, at 39%, followed by natural gas, at 22%.
The contribution of RESs, such as hydro power, wind energy and PVs, amounted to 20%, and 22% if
biomass was included [94]. Taking into consideration the expansion of RESs, 2015 was remarkable
not only because of the COP21 agreement, but also because a new record of RES growth in installed
capacities was hit, despite many countervailing factors. Overall, global non-hydro capacities totaled
785 GW, which amounted to 7.6% of the total electricity production in 2015. If hydro power was
included, this number grew to 23.7% [95]. These numbers are expected to grow rapidly, especially as
the technology for integrating RESs into the system further develops. Currently, the world adds more
renewable power capacity than net capacity from all the fossil fuels combined, i.e., 134 GW in RESs
excluding large hydro, 22 GW in large hydro, 15 GW in coal-fired plants, and 40 GW in gas-fired plants.
Overall, USD $286 billion were invested in RESs, in contrast to $130 billion for fossil fuel generation
technologies [96].
Despite the advances in the power sector, other sectors did not follow with a similar pace, and
many advances are needed in order to achieve the environmental targets. In 2015, modern RESs
contributed 8% to the total heating and cooling demands (primarily biomass), while only 4% did so in
the transportation sector, in which liquid biofuels constitute the vast majority [95]. Moreover, future
reference case projections [97] show that transportation will remain heavily dependent on liquid fossil
fuels, despite the foreseen rapid growth in the share of natural gas, which will merely compensate
Energies 2017, 10, 956 11 of 22

for the growth in demand in non-OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development)
countries. However, the number of transport users is still growing in developing countries, although
the correlation between gross domestic product (GDP) growth and transport has shown signs of
decoupling in the OECD countries [98].
In 2013, petroleum derivatives such as gasoline, diesel and kerosene accounted for over 92% of the
total fuel consumption in the global transport sector. Around 65% of the sectors energy consumption
is made
Energies up 10,
2017, by956
passenger transport; the rest comes from freight transport. With regard to the vehicle 11 of 22
type, the vast majority of energy consumption in the transport sector is attributed to cars and light
cars
trucksand light
[97]. trucks light-duty
Therefore, [97]. Therefore,
vehicleslight-duty vehicles
will play the will play the
most significant role most significant
if a transition role if
towards low a
transition
CO2 emissions towards low
in the CO2 emissions
transportation in the
sector is transportation
to be achieved.sector is to be achieved.
The transportation sector is key to the the mitigation
mitigation of of GHG
GHG emissions;
emissions; thus,
thus, the
the Intergovernmental
Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) suggests a set of developments that would help reduce the sectors
CO22 footprint
footprint [99].
[99]. The
The major
major paths
paths are
are avoidance,
avoidance, modal
modal choice,
choice, energy
energy intensity
intensity and
and fuel carbon
intensity. Figure 5 shows the global GHG emissions by sector in 2013. With With avoidance, a reduction in
transport activity is sought by cutting
cutting or
or shortening
shortening journeys,
journeys, for
for example,
example, through
through internet
internet shopping
shopping
and the mixed-zoning
mixed-zoning of cities. Modal choice refers to traveler behavior,
Modal choice refers to traveler behavior, where a shift from private
to public transportation
transportation and cycling is encouraged by corresponding measures in urban planning
and the required
required infrastructure. Enhancing the performance efficiency of vehicles constitutes a means
of reducing the fuel consumption and therefore, primary energy requirements and CO22 emissions. emissions.
Furthermore, reducingthe
Furthermore, reducing thecarbon
carbonintensity
intensityofofthetheenergy
energy carriers
carriers used
used will
will positively
positively contribute
contribute to
to the
the independence between energy consumption and GHG emissions. Sustainable
independence between energy consumption and GHG emissions. Sustainable technologies such as technologies such
as biofuels,
biofuels, electricity
electricity and
and hydrogenare
hydrogen aresome
someofofthe
theoptions
optionsRESs
RESscancanproduce;
produce; however,
however, they require
additional investments in infrastructure.

Figure 5. Global GHG emissions by sector in 2013 [93].

Figure 5. Global GHG emissions by sector in 2013 [93].

Figure 6 shows the global fuel consumption in the transport sector in 2013. The dominance of
fossilFigure 6 shows
fuels, such the global
as gasoline, fueland
diesel consumption inapparent,
kerosene, is the transport
withsector in 2013.
their huge The
share of dominance of
92%, whereas
fossil fuels,for
electricity, such as gasoline,
example, diesel and
contributed onlykerosene,
about 1%istoapparent,
transportwith theirconsumption.
energy huge share of 92%, whereas
electricity, for example, contributed only about 1% to transport energy consumption.
 Figure 5. Global GHG emissions by sector in 2013 [93].

Figure 6 shows the global fuel consumption in the transport sector in 2013. The dominance of
fossil2017,
Energies fuels, such as gasoline, diesel and kerosene, is apparent, with their huge share of 92%, 12
10, 956 whereas
of 22
electricity, for example, contributed only about 1% to transport energy consumption.

Figure 6. Global fuel consumption in the transport sector in 2013 [100].

5.2. European Union

The EU, a coalition with origins based on common energy strategies, did not have any significant
common policy regarding electricity generation from RESs or GHG emissions until the early 2000s
and the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. The most significant step it took towards a common
and greener energy policy was made in 2005 in London, where the development of corresponding
legislation was approved by the European Council. This decision was realized two years later
with the Action Plan and Treaty of Lisbon, in which the famous 20/20/20 targets for 2020 were
set out [101]. These targets constituted the minimum goals to be achieved by 2020 across the entire
union, and comprised a 20% share of renewables in energy consumption, a 20% reduction of total
energy consumption in comparison to the projections for that year, a 20% reduction in GHG emissions
in comparison to 1990 levels, and a 10% share of renewables in the transport sector. Moreover, the
main pillars driving the European energy vision were determined in this plan to be sustainability,
security of supply, and competitiveness [102].
Besides the 2020 targets, the EU has recently adopted new commitments for climate and energy
for the year 2030 [103], as well as setting long-term targets for 2050. The 2030 goals follow from those
for the year 2020, and set domestic GHG emissions to a minimum reduction of 40%, the share of
the gross final renewable energy consumption to a minimum of 27%, and an indicative minimum
improvement in energy efficiency of 27% [104]. These legislative frameworks move in the direction
set by the EU energy roadmap for 2050 [105], where the long-term vision for environmental policy is
defined at a minimum 60% emissions reduction, in comparison to the 1990 level, by 2040 and 80% by
2050. The key findings of the various scenarios that were tested in this roadmap show that there is no
energy technology that will dominate the future system that will require, in all cases, a minimum 55%
share of renewables in electricity generation, almost double the share of electricity in total consumption
and the broad use of electricity storage and carbon capture technologies [102].
Despite the legal validity of the agreements, the major diversity of the EU necessitates different
approaches to implementing the environmental strategies; therefore, every nation is accountable
for developing its individual pathways and regulations (National Renewable Energy Action Plans).
Overall, the electricity strategies are the most diverse, whereas the transport sectors, for example,
are mainly supported by quota obligations, investment grants and fiscal measures (e.g., tax
incentives) [106]. In conjunction with the actions of individual members, however, enhancing
interconnections amongst the EUs regions and different sectors, thus creating a single European
energy market, constitutes one of the top priorities towards achieving the 2050 goals.
Energies 2017, 10, 956 13 of 22

The targets may be criticized for their environmental effectiveness; nevertheless, the EU is
constantly progressing in order to meet the aims on time. In 2013, the overall share of renewables and
hydro power in the energy consumption mix for electricity production in the EU was 24%, including
biomass. Figure 7 shows the electricity generation mix for the EU in 2013, with a total electricity
production of 956
Energies 2017, 10, about 11,774 PJ that year. 13 of 22

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Electricity
Electricity production
production in
in the
the European
European Union
Union (EU)
(EU) in
in 2013
2013 by
by fuels
fuels used
used [107].
[107].

When it comes to total GHG emissions in the EU, the respective national energy industries and
When it comes to total GHG emissions in the EU, the respective national energy industries
fugitive emissions from fuels were responsible for around 29% of emissions, whereas the transport
and fugitive emissions from fuels were responsible for around 29% of emissions, whereas the
sector contributed 19% to the total, equivalent to some 4600 million tons of CO2. Within the transport
transport sector contributed 19% to the total, equivalent to some 4600 million tons of CO2 . Within the
sector, about 82% of energy is used by road vehicles, accounting for three-quarters of GHG emissions
transport sector, about 82% of energy is used by road vehicles, accounting for three-quarters of GHG
[108,109].
emissions [108,109].
The most significant step towards promoting emission reductions was the white paper on
The most significant step towards promoting emission reductions was the white paper on
transport published by the European Commission [105], in which emission targets were set for all
transport published by the European Commission [105], in which emission targets were set for
modes thereof, including aviation, shipping and road, to a 20% reduction by 2030 on 2008 levels and
all modes thereof, including aviation, shipping and road, to a 20% reduction by 2030 on 2008 levels
a 60% reduction against 1990 levels. Moreover, the white paper promoted a shift from road (both
and a 60% reduction against 1990 levels. Moreover, the white paper promoted a shift from road
passenger and freight) mobility to rail, as well as CO2-free city mobility, by 2030. Following on from
(both passenger and freight) mobility to rail, as well as CO2 -free city mobility, by 2030. Following on
these directives, corresponding legislation to reduce the emission levels was put in place by the EU
from these directives, corresponding legislation to reduce the emission levels was put in place by the
[105].
EU [105].
Despite the significant improvements in motor efficiencies, however, the emission targets for
Despite the significant improvements in motor efficiencies, however, the emission targets for 2050
2050 will be difficult to achieve unless emission-free fuels are introduced as soon as possible. As
will be difficult to achieve unless emission-free fuels are introduced as soon as possible. As Figure 8
Figure 8 shows, in 2013, 91% of mobility fuels were oil-dependent, with the major types being diesel,
shows, in 2013, 91% of mobility fuels were oil-dependent, with the major types being diesel, gasoline
gasoline and jet fuel. Electricity, a form of energy on which high hopes are pinned for the future, only
and jet fuel. Electricity, a form of energy on which high hopes are pinned for the future, only constituted
constituted about 1% of the converted energy in the EU transport sector. The rest was contributed by
about 1% of the converted energy in the EU transport sector. The rest was contributed by natural
natural gaswhich, on the one hand, shows a better hydrogen/carbon ratio than oil derivatives, but
gaswhich, on the one hand, shows a better hydrogen/carbon ratio than oil derivatives, but still
still belongs to the fossil fuel categoryand renewables, especially biofuels made from energy crops
belongs to the fossil fuel categoryand renewables, especially biofuels made from energy crops [110].
[110].
Figure 8 shows, in 2013, 91% of mobility fuels were oil-dependent, with the major types being diesel,
gasoline and jet fuel. Electricity, a form of energy on which high hopes are pinned for the future, only
constituted about 1% of the converted energy in the EU transport sector. The rest was contributed by
natural gaswhich, on the one hand, shows a better hydrogen/carbon ratio than oil derivatives, but
still belongs
Energies to956
2017, 10, the fossil fuel categoryand renewables, especially biofuels made from energy14crops
of 22
[110].

Energies 2017, 10, 956 14 of 22

Figure
Figure 8.
8. Fuel
Fuel consumption
consumption in
in the
the transport
transport sector
sector of
of the
the EU
EU in
in 2013
2013 [110].
[110].
5.3. Germany
5.3. Germany
Germany set voluntary goals within the scope of the Energiewende. This roughly translates as
Germany
energy set voluntary
transition goalsthe
and describes within the scope
systemic of the
embrace Energiewende.
of renewable energyThis roughly translates
technologies and energyas
energy transition and describes the systemic embrace of renewable energy technologies
efficiency, which the German Federal Government has actively promoted. After the catastrophe of and energy
efficiency,
Fukushima, which the German
the term Federal also
Energiewende Government
came to has actively the
encompass promoted. Afterof
substitution thenuclear
catastrophe of
energy,
Fukushima, the term Energiewende also came to encompass the substitution of nuclear
which could be formally adduced to the attainment of the 2 C target. All in all, the Energiewende energy, which
could be formally
takes into adduced
consideration thetofollowing
the attainment
four mainof the 2 C target.
objectives: the All in all,out
phasing theofEnergiewende
nuclear energy takes
by
into
2022,consideration
the continualthe followingoffour
expansion main
RESs, an objectives:
increase inthe phasing
energy out of nuclear
efficiency, energy
and climate by 2022,
protection
the continual
through expansion of
the reduction of RESs,
GHG an increase in
emissions. Asenergy
shownefficiency,
in Figureand9, climate
the GHG protection
emission through
goals the
are
reduction
quantifiedofup GHG emissions. As shown in Figure 9, the GHG emission goals are quantified up to 2050.
to 2050.
Whereas
Whereas thethesectors
sectorsofofindustry
industryandandhouseholds
households could
couldrespectively affect
respectively a GHG
affect reduction
a GHG of 34%
reduction of
and 21% from 1990 to 2013, the sectors of power generation and mobility could
34% and 21% from 1990 to 2013, the sectors of power generation and mobility could only contributeonly contribute 15%
and
15% 3%,
andrespectively, in practice
3%, respectively, (compare
in practice Figure
(compare 10). 10).
Figure

Figure
Figure 9.
9. GHG
GHG emissions
emissions and
and reductions per sector
reductions per sector (19902013)
(19902013) and
and the
the goals
goals in
in Germany
Germany [111].
[111].
Energies 2017, 10, 956 15 of 22
Figure 9. GHG emissions and reductions per sector (19902013) and the goals in Germany [111].

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Electricity
Electricity production
production in
in Germany
Germany by
by fuel
fuel in
in 2013
2013 [107].
[107].

In 2013, electricity production in Germany amounted to about 2300 PJ [107]. The allocation of
In 2013, electricity production in Germany amounted to about 2300 PJ [107]. The allocation of
Energies 2017,
energy 10, 956
sources used to produce electricity is shown in Figure 10. Amounting to 45% in total, almost 15 of 22
energy sources used to produce electricity is shown in Figure 10. Amounting to 45% in total, almost half
of theofelectricity
half was produced
the electricity using coalusing
was produced products.
coal Despite
products. the Despite
fact that the
Germany has announced
fact that Germany has the
phasing
announced outtheof nuclear
phasingenergy,
out of 15% of its
nuclear electricity
energy, 15% was
of itsproduced
electricitybywas nuclear powerbyplants.
produced Together
nuclear power
with biomass and hydro power, renewable energies make up a share of
plants. Together with biomass and hydro power, renewable energies make up a share of 23%. The23%. The remaining electricity
is producedelectricity
remaining with natural gas, oil derivatives
is produced with naturaland other
gas, sources. and other sources.
oil derivatives
The large share of coal-fired plants contributes
The large share of coal-fired plants contributes to to 40%
40% of of the
the GHG
GHG emissions
emissions in in Germany,
Germany,
emanating from the energy industry and fugitive emissions from fuels (Figure
emanating from the energy industry and fugitive emissions from fuels (Figure 11) [112]. Roughly 17% 11) [112]. Roughly 17%
of
of the
the 2013
2013 GHGGHG emissions
emissions originated
originated inin the
the transport
transport sector.
sector. Approximately
Approximately the the same
same amount
amount waswas
contributed by industrial processes and
contributed by industrial processes and product use.product use.
With
With regard
regardtotothe thetransport
transportsector, fuel
sector, consumption
fuel consumption is, at
is, 94%, dominated
at 94%, by oil
dominated byderivatives. The
oil derivatives.
remaining
The remaining 6% of6% power used in
of power the transport
used sector comes
in the transport sector from
comes renewable sources such
from renewable as biomass,
sources such as
electricity and renewable gases [113].
biomass, electricity and renewable gases [113].
Analysis
Analysis of of the
the worldwide,
worldwide, EU EU and
and German
German cases
cases reveals
reveals the the potential
potential of
of SC,
SC, especially
especially in
in the
the
power and transport
power and transport sectors. sectors.

Figure 11. GHG emissions in Germany by sector in 2013 [112].

Figure 11. GHG emissions in Germany by sector in 2013 [112].

6. Summary and Conclusion

To illuminate the concept of SC, a delineation of sectors and a definition of SC was outlined, in
recognition of the fact that the term is often inaccurately used in the literature. Furthermore, a scheme
of potential pathways that consist of power-to-X approaches for SC was shown and described (see
Section 2).
Energies 2017, 10, 956 16 of 22

6. Summary and Conclusions

To illuminate the concept of SC, a delineation of sectors and a definition of SC was outlined,
in recognition of the fact that the term is often inaccurately used in the literature. Furthermore,
a scheme of potential pathways that consist of power-to-X approaches for SC was shown and described
(see Section 2).
To address the potential pathways of SC in the power and transport sectors, a detailed analysis
of the electric mobility pathways with BEVs and FCVs, power-to-fuel and P2G was conducted
(see Section 3). All potential pathways have their advantages and challenges, and therefore, each has
its own particular potential in each context. Therefore, all pathways must be considered in terms of
modeling a future energy system, so as to identify the optimal solution for each country.
The literature already contains a lot of studies that consider SC, but oftentimes, at least on the
international level, the term SC is not used. Since a detailed analysis of worldwide SC approaches is
beyond the scope of this paper, only the most important were noted and roughly described, in order
to give researchers a starting point if they would like to analyze these studies in greater detail.
Nevertheless, Germany was selected to be analyzed in greater detail for several reasons, one of
which was the high share of RESs in the country and the increasing studies that analyze SC in detail.
These differ in terms of the intermittent behavior and spatial distribution of renewables, which is
important for seeing the location of potential technologies in a country for SC, or to determine the
available surplus for SC. Summarizing the modeling of the intermittent behavior of the RESs or spatial
resolution differs from case to case. In particular, models that try to conduct studies at the European
level are often inaccurate, due to computational limitations (see Section 4).
Whereas this paper shows and analyzes the international and national studies on SC, especially
for Germany, Part 2 [63] will show the results of a SC model that connects the power and transport
sectors in great detail in Germany.
The analysis of the worldwide, EU and German cases shows that there is still a long way to go
towards achieving the COP21 goals. This work introduces the concept of coupling the power and
transport sectors in order to reduce GHG emissions. At all scales, conventional electricity production
(hard coal, lignite, fuel oil, natural gas and nuclear energy) accounts for roughly three-quarters
(worldwide: 77%; EU: 70%; and Germany: 72%) of the total. Moreover, the share of fuel consumption
by gas/diesel/oil and kerosene amounts to roughly 90% at all scales (worldwide: 92%; EU: 91%;
Germany: 94%). While conventional electricity production and fuel consumption of gas/diesel/oil
and kerosene account for roughly the same ratios of total electricity production and fuel consumption,
respectively, the emissions of the energy industries and fugitive emissions from fuels and the transport
sector differ to a greater degree, due to, for example, the different share of nuclear energy or the
efficiency of the processes. At the worldwide scale, the total contribution of the energy industries and
fugitive emissions from fuels and the transport sector is 65%, while at the EU level, it is 48%, and
on the German level, it is 57%detailed: worldwide: 42% (energy industries and fugitive emissions
from fuels) and 23% (transport); EU: 29% (energy industries and fugitive emissions from fuels) and
19% (transport); and Germany: 40% (energy industries and fugitive emissions from fuels) and 17%
(transport)(see Section 5). Therefore, the potential of SC for the power and transport sectors is not
adequate for achieving the COP21 goals.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Helmholtz Association under the joint initiative
EnergySystem 2050A Contribution of the Research Field Energy and by funding of the Virtual Institute
for Power to Gas and Heat by the Ministry of Innovation, Science and Research of North Rhine-Westphalia.
Furthermore, the authors would like to thank Christopher Wood for editing this paper.
Author Contributions: Martin Robinius proposed the research topic, the structure of the paper and included all
reviewer comments. Alexander Otto, Philipp Heuser, Lara Welder, Konstantinos Syrandis, David S. Ryberg and
Thomas Grube wrote sections of the paper (ranked by their contribution). Peter Markewitz took part in revising
the paper. Ralf Peters helped validate the section on power-to-fuel. Detlef Stolten also validated the idea and
revised the final paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Energies 2017, 10, 956 17 of 22

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