CRISPR-Cas9 The Challenge of Gene-Manipulation

Loren D. Lineberry

Humanity, as we have known it, is about to change, perhaps irreversibly. In the book, A

Crack in Creation: Gene Editing and the Unthinkable Power to Control Evolution1, Dr. Jennifer

Doudna and Dr. Samuel Sternberg extol the powers of a new biotechnology, CRISPR2; they also

raise concerns. Both of these scientists played a major role in creating CRISPR; however, both

share their alarms concerning the technology they helped create.

What I propose to do in this essay is to inform and to alert. I shall discuss what CRISPR

is and what CRISPR does. Most importantly, I intend to challenge the faith-based community to

weigh and consider why CRISPR matters. Indeed, with faith-based community, I cast a wide

loop; I hope to inform and alert pastors and priests and rabbis, youth leaders, educators, and laity

concerning both the promise and the peril of CRISPR. I suspect that academic institutions,

including those with a faith-based orientation, are already confronting the problem. However, the

tendency of academics is to talk among themselves; precious little trickles down to the local level.

I hope that churches, parishes, and temples realize the threat to our moral foundations presented

by CRISPR.

What CRISPR Is

In a nutshell, CRISPR is a biotechnology that allows scientists to genetically edit or

engineer living organisms, including humans. CRISPR gives scientists the means to bring human

genetic development fully under human control. The entire DNA content of a living organism,

plant or animal, is now almost as editable as the words in this text. Doudna and Sternberg write,

Using powerful biotechnology tools to tinker with DNA inside living cells, scientists can now

1
A Crack in Creation: Gene Editing and the Unthinkable Power to Control Evolution
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017).
2
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats

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manipulate and rationally modify the genetic code that defines every species on the planet,

including our own.3

CRISPR is the power to insert, edit, or delete the genetic code for a particular trait. This

command and control of the human genome is the power to rewrite the genetic content of the

genome4. For example, CRISPR can replace a harmful genetic mutation with a healthy new

DNA sequence. Indeed, nothing in the DNA code is beyond the reach of CRISPR. Doudna and

Sternberg affirm, As the CRISPR toolbox has expanded, no letter of DNA in the genome, no

gene or combination of genes, is beyond reach.5 Ultimately, CRISPR is the power to change

biotechnology and human life forever. The reader should allow the import of the following to

sink in: Now, for the first time ever, we possess the ability to edit not only the DNA of every

living human but also the DNA of future generations in essence, to direct the evolution of our

own species.6

The question is: How do scientists actually use this awesome power? Beyond that: What

moral guidelines should shape the use of CRISPR? And finally: Does the faith-based community

have a stake in this power that is already on our doorstep?

What CRISPR Does

Lets consider a bit more closely just what CRISPR does. As Doudna and Sternberg

acknowledge, the capabilities of CRISPR are a good news-bad news proposition. Lets take a

look at some of the benefits that CRISPR offers.

Agricultural benefits. In 2014, scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences used gene-

editing technology, including CRISPR, to produce bread wheat that was resistant to mildew.

Moreover, CRISPR has been used to genetically edit the genes in rice to produce rice that is

resistant to bacterial blight. Also, CRISPR has been used to provide corn, soybeans, and potatoes

3
Ibid., xiii.
4
The genome contains an organisms entire DNA content.
5
A Crack in Creation, 111.
6
Ibid, xvi.

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with resistance to herbicides. What is more, a team of researchers in California is attempting to

apply CRISPR to the citrus industry by engineering plants resistant to a specific bacterial plant

disease. Most would acknowledge the benefit of these modifications.

Genetic engineering of plants can also produce health benefits. Researchers are currently

attempting to genetically engineer reduction in the trans fat content of soybeans. Scientists in

Minnesota have succeeded in altering soybean genes so as to produce a soybean with the fat

content of olive oil. Similar research is being carried on with potatoes. Gene-editing of a certain

type of Russet potato inactivated the gene that produces glucose and fructose. The result was

that, when these potatoes were used in the manufacture of potato chips, there was a reduction in

acrylamide, a possible carcinogen.

Doudna and Sternberg summarize the value of CRISPR for agriculture, Biotechnology

can help us shore up our food security, stave off malnutrition, adapt to climate change, and

prevent environmental degradation around the world.7 To be sure, much of this is potentially

beneficial.

Animal benefits. Doudna and Sternberg predict that livestock will also be gene edited in

the future. Already, a breed of salmon has been genetically engineered to reach market weight in

half the time of normally harvested salmon. With no changes to its nutritional content, the

salmon promises to reduce the depletion of wild salmon stocks.

Scientists have used CRISPR to create farm animals that are stronger and more muscular

than average. The upshot of this kind of research is to genetically engineer animals with high

yields of lean meat combined with low body fat. Doudna and Sternberg note, In one report,

gene-edited pigs had over 10 percent more lean meat that their unedited counterparts, as well as a

substantial decrease in total body fat and increased meat tenderness. At the same time, the meats

nutritional content and the animals development, diet, and overall health were unaffected.8

7
Ibid., 128.
8
Ibid., 133.

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 Genetic engineering of animals can produce livestock that is more disease-resistant. One

of the major diseases facing the swine industry in America is being tackled by CRISPR. It turns

out that a particular gene can hijack pig cells, opening the way for a virus to attack the pig. Once

this specific gene was identified, CRISPR was used to inactivate it. Pigs that had had this gene

deactivated were then exposed to viral particles, and they remained completely healthy.

Other benefits of genetic engineering are on the horizon. Researchers are modifying

genomes in pigs so that the animals may be raised on less food. Other researchers are altering the

genetic makeup of chickens in order to remove allergens in eggs. Similarly, research is being

conducted to remove the allergies in cow milk.

Even this brief survey unveils some benefits of genetically engineering animals. Poorer

countries in particular could surely benefit by increasing their food supply, raising more and

healthier meats, producing disease resistant animals, and eating less allergenic foods. But these

benefits pale in comparison to the medical benefits of CRISPR biotechnology.

Medical benefits. It is in the world of healing the sick that much of CRISPRs power

emerges. What has already been accomplished in lab animals is stunning. Scientists in China

have cured a lab mouse of cataracts; since then, researchers have used CRISPR to cure live mice

of muscular dystrophy.

Meanwhile, working solely with cultured human cells, scientists used CRISPR to repair

the DNA mutations that cause sickle cell disease, hemophilia, cystic fibrosis, and

immunodeficiency. Doudna and Sternberg report that clinical trials are underway aimed at curing

HIV/AIDS.9 The potential for CRISPR in the world of healing seems without limit. Research

papers have been published providing an expanding list of diseases for which potential genetic

cures have been developed using CRISPR. These include dwarfism, Alzheimers, congenital

hearing loss, high cholesterol, diabetes, and infertility.10

9
Ibid., 157.
10
Ibid., 181.

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 Beyond doubt, one of the most exciting medical benefits of CRISPR involves its potential

in the fight against cancer. To date, a cancer patient typically faces one of three options: surgery,

radiation, or chemotherapy. Now, using genetic manipulation, immunotherapy is an exciting

option. Doudna and Sternberg relate the success of immunotherapy in the case of Layla

Richards.11

Layla was a one-year-old patient suffering from acute lymphoblastic leukemia; hers was

one of the most aggressive cancers her physicians had ever seen. Layla had not improved with

chemotherapy, bone marrow transplantation, and antibody-based drugs. Eventually, her doctors

offered to keep her comfortable until she died. But, Layla wasnt finished yet.

Laylas physicians decided to try a new technology using a cell editing technique that

was a precursor to CRISPR. Layla received edited T cells; these T cells could target cells that

contained the molecular signature of leukemia. Layla underwent the cell transfer, and her

leukemia began to respond. When she improved, Layla underwent another bone marrow

transplant and, within months, the cancer was in complete remission.

Thus far, I have rehearsed the benefits of CRISPR biotechnology, and they are

considerable. However, Doudna and Sternberg wrote A Crack in Creation not only to extol the

exciting possibilities of CRISPR technology, but also to issue a warning. CRISPR could have

some alarming and irreversible consequences for the human race.

Extinction of a species. Using CRISPR technology, a British team created gene drives

that spread genes for female sterility.12 If this technology were used in the mosquito population,

for example, it would eventually lead to outright extermination of an entire mosquito species.

There are at least two dangers here.

11
Ibid., 176-77.
12
Ibid., 148-52.

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 First, it is unknowable just how the extermination of a specific species might disrupt the

balance in a regions ecosystem. Even scientists who are pursuing CRISPR research in this area

are concerned over the risks involved in further experimentation.

Second, and most alarmingly, it is unknowable just who might latch onto this

extermination technology and put it to nefarious purposes. Doudna and Sternberg report that a

biotech watchdog organization worries that gene drives what they call gene bombs could

be militarized (emphasis mine) and weaponized (emphasis mine) to target the human (emphasis

mine) microbiome or major food sources (emphasis mine).13 If the world is aghast at the

chutzpah of Kim Jung Un of North Korea now, imagine what could happen if he got hold of this

technology.

Genetic enhancement of humans. Sam Sternberg was once approached by an

entrepreneur who wanted to offer parents the first healthy CRISPR baby.14 Ostensibly, the plan

was to customize DNA mutations in order to eliminate any possibility of genetic disease.

Sternberg demurred; he expected that this scientist intended to offer a wider variety of genetic

enhancements; a designer child if you will. There are two dangers with this.

To begin with, editing the human genome in a heritable way could have unforeseen

consequences in the future. Dr. Doudna worries that using CRISPR to enhance a human being

might well change the course of our species history in the long run, in ways that were

impossible to foretell.15 However, and note this well, Dr. Doudna is of the opinion that altering

the DNA in a human genome is not a matter of if, but when and how.16

Beyond that, there is this: Dr. Doudna recounts a dream she had that concerned CRISPR

and editing the human genome.17 In her dream, Dr. Doudna was asked to teach someone how the

gene-editing technology worked. She walked into a room to meet her student, and there sat

13
Ibid., 152.
14
Ibid., 185-87.
15
Ibid., 188.
16
Ibid.
17
Ibid., 199-200.

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Adolph Hitler. When she saw Hitler, she reawakened with her heart racing. Dr. Doudna felt as if

she had had a premonition; indeed, she had. The danger implicit in genetically enhancing

humans is this: The ability to refashion the human genome was a truly incredible power, one that

could be devastating if it fell into the wrong hands (emphasis mine). The thought frightened me

even more because, by this point, CRISPR had been widely disseminated to users around the

globe (emphasis mine).18

Adverse social consequences. Lets assume for a moment that enhancing the human

genome becomes available. Lets assume that parents want to offer their unborn child every

possible advantage. CRISPR can offer exceptional levels of human physical endurance, extra-

strong bones, leaner muscle and greater muscle mass, and lowered requirements of daily sleep.

Additionally, CRISPR could potentially confer lifelong resistance to HIV; could reduce the risk

for Alzheimers, for type 1 and type 2 diabetes, and for certain kinds of cancer.19 If these kinds of

advantages are one day available, what parent would not consider them? It turns out, not every

parent could.

The danger is this: since only the wealthy could afford these enhancements, society

would be divided along genetic lines. Dr. Doudna tells us that recent gene therapies come with a

million dollar price tag.20 Obviously, wealthy families, initially at least, would benefit.

Moreover, since these benefits would be passed on, class distinctions on the basis of genetics

would be passed from one generation to another. If you think that our world is unequal now,

just imagine it stratified along both socioeconomic and genetic lines. Envision a future where

people with more money live healthier and longer lives thanks to their privileged set of genes.21

One can only imagine a future society in which genetic differences exacerbate prejudices.

18
Ibid., 199.
19
Ibid., 230-31.
20
Ibid., 231.
21
Ibid., 232.

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 Why CRISPR Matters

CRISPR matters to Drs. Doudna and Sternberg. Both have initiated a series of

conferences intended to probe the ethical issues surrounding CRISPR. But, with these two

scientists, there is a twist: They are of the opinion that scientists ought not to be the only ones

debating the ethics of CRISPR. Since CRISPR may threaten the moral foundations of our world,

Dr. Doudna writes, I absolutely agree that society as a whole rather than scientists individually

or even as a group should decide how any given technology is used.22 But, theres more, a

golden opportunity, if you will.

In 2015, Dr. Doudna called for an international meeting to probe both safety and ethical

matters relative to the CRISPR technology. She decided that this meeting should be attended by

a variety of leaders, including religious leaders.23 That faith-based thinkers should be invited to

weigh in on the ethics of CRISPR technology is a golden opportunity. Normally, when moral

issues arise, the faith-based community is politely shunned. But now, one of the scientists

responsible for creating CRISPR in the first place is requesting faith-based input. We have a

golden opportunity to have a say on why CRISPR matters; we have a golden opportunity to

witness philosophically and theologically.

CRISPR matters philosophically. Beyond any reasonable doubt, the threats associated

with CRISPR permit the faith-based community to question modern societys basic philosophical

stance: Atheism.24 CRISPR matters because men and women without a transcendent moral

compass may soon wield the power to change the human race irreversibly. Can the faith-based

community afford to remain silent?

22
Ibid., 204.
23
Ibid., 211.
24
I am not casting aspersions on either Dr. Doudna or Dr. Sternberg; they were
completely silent on their faith commitments. Rather, I am addressing society as a whole from
this point forward.

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 CRISPR matters because it grants the faith-based community the opportunity to raise

questions concerning atheistic materialism.25 At one level, materialism excludes God from

public debate since, it is affirmed, man is incapable of transcending sensory experience, the

material world. The threats that CRISPR poses may well open the door of opportunity for the

faith-based community to respond to this assumption. At another level, materialism asserts that

man simply has no other environment beyond that of the physical world. The faith-based

community might weigh and consider introducing society to the fact that there is a world beyond

ours, complete with a transcendent moral code.

CRISPR matters because we have a golden opportunity to challenge atheistic

rationalism. In a nutshell, rationalism is the assumption that by human reason alone man

discovers the why and wherefore of things. The faith-based community might mention that

human reason created the moral crisis implicit in CRISPR. The splendid isolation of human

reason is a pretext for ignoring a more transcendent outlook; the faith-based community has a

golden opportunity to challenge the autonomy of human reason.

CRISPR matters because believers have a golden opportunity to confront atheistic

skepticism. For decades, atheists have been suspicious of any mention of God. That is, atheists

and agnostics have claimed that interjecting God into mans life is detrimental to mans freedom

and development. Skepticism of God is a prerequisite for a happy and fulfilled life. The faith-

based community could remind mankind that CRISPR has the capacity for irreversible

impairment of mans freedom and development. Perhaps we should reconsider God!

CRISPR matters theologically. I intend to raise only one theological matter: the question

of interests. The theological question is: Is man intended to represent Gods interests or mans?

Lets turn to Genesis 1:26b.

25
On these points, see Cornelio Fabro, God In Exile: Modern Atheism, translated and
edited by Arthur Gibson (New York: Newman Press, 1968), 5.

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 The passage says, Let us create man in our image, according to our likeness.26 The

theological crux here is image and likeness. To begin with, there are no grounds whatsoever

for cleaving image from likeness as though each term has its own content. The fact that the

Hebrew as written does not have a conjunction should be noted. To be sure, the second term,

likeness, is written in apposition to the first noun, image. Thus, we may provisionally read

the collocation as our image (which is tantamount to) our likeness. The question now is: What

is the sense of image?

The Divine image includes man as Gods counterpart, His complement, His colleague,

His viceroy, His witness, His proxy and His agent. What is more, if the Egyptian sources are of

any value, there is an element of rulership involved in the nature of the Divine image. David

Clines summarizes the theological point, Man is created not in God's image, since God has no

image of His own, but as God's image, or rather to be God's image, that is to be deputized in the

created world for the transcendent God who remains outside the world order.27 To make a long

story short, theologically man is created in Gods image in order to represent the interests of God

on earth.

CRISPR now gives mankind the power to create in mankinds image, thus turning

Genesis 1:26 on its head. But Genesis affirms that mankind populates planet earth in order to

represent Gods lordship. Mans function is to represent Gods interests. We must do so, lest we

perish! This is why CRISPR matters!

26
The translation is the authors.
27
David J.A. Clines, The Image of God in Man, Tyndale Bulletin 19 (1968): 101.

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