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Partial Fractions

We can write an expression such as in a simplified form .

Working, backwards, we can easily show that the expressions are equivalent:

(Note the indentically equals sign ( is used because the expressions are the same for all
values of , not simply particular values of .)

In carrying out this process, the original expression is said to be expressed as

partial fractions: .We need a method for obtaining the partial fractions, given the
original expression and this will be covered in this document.

The first step is to express the denominator in its most simple factorised form, if it is not in
this form already. For example, given the expression the first step would be to write
it in the form and then determine the partial fractions.

In general, the original expression may have a polynomial on both the numerator and the
denominator. If the degree of the numerator is equal or greater than that of the denominator
then it will b possible to divide the numerator by the denominator, leaving a polynomial
expression summed with an expression consisting of a polynomial numerator of lower degree
to the polynomial denominator. For example, given the expression , the degree of
the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator. For example

= .

For the purposes of this document, and without loss of generality, it will be assumed that the
numerator has a lower degree than the denominator.

Note that there are three classes of partial fraction problems, that will be considered
separately: 1. Linear, Unrepeated Factors, 2. Linear Repeated Factors, 3. Quadratic Factors.
In each case there are two basic techniques that can be applied: the cover up rule and
equating coefficients, sometimes both techniques are required for the most efficient means of
solution.

1. Linear, Unrepeated Factors

The example above consists of two linear, unrepeated factors in the denominator.
In this most straightforward case we first write the partial fraction in the required form
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with and being constants that we need to determine.

With a common denominator (always the same as the original denominator) we can write the
partial fractions expression in the following form

Hence we must have:

Since the denominators are equal then the numerators must be, so

The values of and can be determined by either the cover up rule or by equating
coefficients, or a combination of the two. For illustration, let us apply both methods
separately.

Cover-up Rule

This involves choosing convenient values of that reduces the number of unknowns ( eg A,B
etc.) so that their values can be more easily determined. For example if we choose
then the expression above becomes

B is removed from the equation and the value of A is determined:

Similarly, if we choose then the expression above becomes

and hence .

Equating Coefficients

This involves equating the coefficients of (etc.)and constants to determine values for
A,B(etc.). In the example above

Hence
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Equating coefficients in x:
Equating coefficients in constants:

In solving the two simultaneous equations it follows that and .

We have found A and B but A and B have only been introduced as a means to find the partial
fractions. The question is to express as partial fractions and a suitable answer
would be:

2. Linear, Repeated Factors

If we start off with an expression of the form then we write as partial fractiond in
the following way

where the squared factor occurs in one fraction and then it occurs squared in another. Note
that if there were higher powers then we would step through from the linear factor, up
through all the powers in the same way.

We now need to determine the values of A,B and C to completely determine the partial
fraction expansion. We proceed as before, recreating the original denominator from the
partial fractions:

It then follows that the numerators of this and the original expression must be the same:

Using the cover-up rule,

Letting :
Letting :

In order to determine A we could either choose any value of x, or we could use equating
coefficients. Doing the former of these
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Letting : , hence

The solution is

3. Quadratic Factors

If the denominator contains a quadratic or higher order factor, that cannot be factorised
further then the partial fraction is written as follows:

It follows that

and that

Using the cover-up rule, putting : or .

In order to find A and B, we could either choose other values of x or equate coefficients.

For example setting x=0 gives . Since then .

Equating coefficients of gives . Since then .

Hence, the complete partial fraction expansions is