Marine Policy 85 (2017) 816

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine Policy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol

Marine protected area networks in China: Challenges and prospects MARK

Yunzhou Li , David L. Fluharty
University of Washington, School of Marine and Environmental Aairs, 3707 Brooklyn Ave NE, Seattle, WA 98105, United States

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: With over 30 years experience of managing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), China has established more than
Marine protected area networks 250 MPAs in its coastal and marine areas, but the overall management eectiveness is unimpressive [46].
China Recently, China has made commitments to expand the MPA coverage in its waters ([7,52,53]) and develop an
Scenarios ecological barrier along the coast by connecting MPAs and islands by 2020 (The State Council 2015). In this
Challenges
context, this study reviews major challenges in current MPA practices in China, including the lack of systematic
and scientic approaches, inadequate laws and regulations, ineective governance mechanisms, conicts be-
tween conservation and exploitation, limited funding, and inadequate monitoring programs. Four scenarios for
developing China's MPA networks are developed and analyzed based on a literature review of experience in the
United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the European Union and the Philippines, as well as a set of
interviews with Chinese MPA experts. These scenarios include: 1) creating a national system with an inventory of
MPAs, 2) developing social networks, 3) developing regional ecological networks, and 4) developing a national
representative network. The rst two scenarios focus on the enhancement of the governance system through
connecting individual MPAs as a social, institutional, and learning network, which could provide opportunities
for creating an ecologically coherent network, while the latter two emphasized ecological connectivity and
representativeness. Given dierent focuses, they can be applied at dierent stages of implementation and
combinations of scenarios can be used depending on China's needs.

1. Introduction form an ecological barrier [56].

In recent decades, China has increased its eorts in marine con-
servation. As one of the parties committed to the Convention of
Biological Diversity (CBD), China updated its National Biodiversity
Conservation Strategy and Action Plan, striving to control biodiversity
decline and loss by 2020 through a series of conservation actions, in-
cluding establishing a network of nature reserves [7]. In addition to the
international agreement, domestic regulations and guidelines for
Marine Functional Zoning (MFZ) were announced to provide a marine
spatial planning framework for the marine areas under China's jur-
isdiction. In 2012, the State Council authorized National Marine
Functional Zoning (20112020), setting a goal to improve the marine
environment with an expansion of the marine protected area (MPA)
coverage in the sea areas under national jurisdiction to 5% and that in
the nearshore marine areas to 11% by 2020 [52]. As declared in the
12th Five-Year Plan, one of the goals of MPA management from 2013 to
2018 is to expand the coverage of MPAs and speed up construction of
the MPA network [53]. National Main Functional Area Plan (FAP) was
approved by the State Council on August 1, 2015 [56]. It highlights the
strategy of area-based protection by connecting islands and MPAs to
MPA networks are widely recommended in the MPA literature as
they provide broader ecological and social benets than small isolated
MPAs [27,42,57]. In China's context, the development of MPA networks
can have signicant benets. Ecologically, networks may be useful to
preserve critical habitats and maintain biological biodiversity, which
are under increasing pressures resulting in loss and degradation. In
comparison to creating a single large-scale MPA that may meet the
ecological needs, an ecological network of several to many small to
moderately sized MPAs appears to be more cost-eective without
compromising ecological benets [27,57], and thus, could be more
feasible for China to conserve biodiversity. In addition, the establish-
ment of MPA networks usually requires comprehensive and systematic
planning at a broader scale, which would help push the administration
to create an inclusive, coordinated and comprehensive management
scheme for MPAs and other ocean uses. Furthermore, the im-
plementation of MPA networks would likely address a number of
challenges in China's MPA management by promoting the interaction of
governance at dierent levels, facilitating the sharing of information
and lessons learned, and allowing for a more ecient use of resources
[27,57]. With respect to social benets, the development of MPA

Corresponding author. Present address: G3-502, Fenggejingyuan, Jinhe Rd. 277, Yinzhou District Ningbo, Zhejiang 315100, China. Tel.: +86-18069196085.
E-mail address: yunzhouli1113@gmail.com (Y. Li).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.08.001
Received 6 April 2017; Received in revised form 25 July 2017; Accepted 2 August 2017
0308-597X/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Li, D.L. Fluharty
networks would be expected to enhance the public awareness of marine
conservation and improve human well-being [26]. From a political
point of view, the benets from networks that improve the resilience of
ecosystems and livelihoods as well as sustain ecosystem services are a
close match with the spirit of ecological civilization, a recent ecolo-
gical reform that aims to strike a balance between nature, society, and
economy [31]. Last but not least, the promotion of networks would be
likely to help China accomplish its commitments on the CBD Aichi
Target 11 and fulll its goal to expand MPA coverage in the sea areas
under national jurisdiction by 2020 [52].
Taking into consideration the recent policy in marine conservation
as well as the benets of establishing MPA networks from a Chinese
perspective, the aim of this paper is to (1) review major challenges in
current MPA practices; (2) understand lessons and experience from
development of MPA networks in other nations; and (3) evaluate sce-
narios for China to establish MPA networks.
2. Methods
In order to advise how China could develop MPA networks, this
study reviews the current state of MPAs in China, focusing on the
challenges in current practices, as well as the lessons and experience
from other jurisdictions in developing MPA networks. Six countries or
entities are chosen for a systematic literature review the United States,
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the European Union, and the
Philippines. The criteria applied to choose these countries are that they
have developed or they are in the process of developing MPA networks.
Instead of using the literature on best practices, this study explores a
range of experiences and strategies to build networks such that could be
used to devise solutions tailored to China's needs. With the aim to oer
a national framework for China, the literature review focuses on na-
tional initiatives at the country level rather than a regional or site level.
Considering that the unique governance structure in China may
limit the applicability of international experience, qualitative inter-
views to explore Chinese expert perceptions of current practices of
MPAs were conducted with respect to the development of MPA net-
works. Seven interviews were conducted in person from July to August
2015 with the use of snowball sampling methods and semi-structured
interview techniques [6,62]. Interviewees include two governmental
employees, three national research institution scientists, one university
professor, and one manager of a nationally designated MPA. Because
decisions about MPAs in China are made using a top-down approach
and managers at local governments have limited knowledge of MPAs,
interviews are mostly conducted with interviewees working in national
or regional research institutions, universities, and nationally designated
MPAs. The participants are coded as Government (G), Scientist (S),
Academia (A), and Manager (M), with an informant number.
3. The current state of MPAs in China
As of the end of 2015, about 250 MPAs have been developed in
China [54] and 16 new MPAs were designated in 2016 [46]. The term
MPA, in the Chinese context, refers to two categories of marine re-
serves: Marine Nature Reserves (MNRs) and Special Marine Protected
Areas (SMPAs). The key distinction between MNRs and SMPAs is the
level of protection; MNRs are designed to provide full protection and
prohibit extractive activities within the protected areas, while SMPAs
are protected areas managed with a sustainable use of natural re-
sources, allowing multiple uses [49,50]. Both MNRs and SMPAs can be
designated at a national, provincial, municipal or county level de-
pending on the value of the protected targets [49,51].
3.1. Challenges
Seven challenges persist despite the fact that China has been com-
mitted to establishing MPAs for over 30 years and has created a number
9
Marine Policy 85 (2017) 816
of MPAs in its 12 nm territorial sea. First, there is no systematic plan-
ning for MPAs at a national scale in China [44]. It is recognized that
biodiversity is lost as a result of an uneven distribution of MPAs and
exclusion of critical marine ecosystems in the limited marine area
planning that has been done [13,67]. Geographically, nearly half of
national MPAs are located in the Yellow Sea, while only four national
MPAs are established in the South China Sea and they are much smaller
in size than other MPAs. In addition, the designation of many existing
MPAs does not correspond to the priority areas identied in National
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan [7]. In terms of protection goals,
inter-tidal ecosystems, mangroves, rare and endangered species, and
islands are the priority targets, while coral reefs, natural monuments,
estuaries, salt marshes, upwelling systems, geographic features and
underwater cultural heritage receive less attention in conservation and
protection [33,67]. Furthermore, ecological connectivity, which has
been globally recognized as a key principle in biodiversity conservation
and MPA networks design, is little discussed in China's marine research
(e.g., [25,14]), or in the designation criteria for MPAs [4850]
Second, current laws and regulations are inadequate to support the
eective management of MPA systems. Many of these laws and reg-
ulations were enacted in the late-1900s such as the 1994 Regulations on
Nature Reserves and the 1995 Regulations on Marine Nature Reserves
and have not been updated to address new challenges [49]. In addition,
these two regulation documents, as core legislation for MPAs, have
relatively limited legal force and are low in priority for enforcement.
Researchers argue that these regulations fall short of a clear statement
and a specic guideline for implementation, monitoring and evaluation
[28,45,66]. Furthermore, it is noted that the low management eec-
tiveness of MPAs is partly attributed to the lack of consistency and
coherency in the current laws and regulations and lack of an over-
arching legal framework to coordinate eorts of managing MPAs in a
bigger picture [66,72].
Third, the current governance mechanisms are another major ob-
stacle for an eective and ecient management. MPAs in China are
managed by dierent government agencies depending on their type.
Researchers argue that these agencies usually compete with each other
on MPA designation and there is little eective communication and
coordination between the agencies, which results in disorderly man-
agement and duplication of designation [13,43,72]. At a site level,
evidence suggests that local governments usually take greater respon-
sibility for and have greater inuence on MPA selection, zoning, and
planning than the central government despite the more limited capa-
cities [44]. Many important decisions made by local governments are
not bottom-up approaches but are driven by economic interests with
limited incorporation of conservation [29,44]. Furthermore, MPAs are
usually designed within the administrative boundaries to facilitate the
management for local government, e.g., a county, regardless of the
trans-boundary ecological processes. These issues help to explain why
the protection of biological diversity is ineective in China.
Fourth, conservation goals are often at odds with economic devel-
opment. In contrast to terrestrial protected areas that mostly lie in the
undeveloped western China, Chinese marine waters are experiencing a
rapid economic transition characterized by expanding urbanization and
industrialization in the coastal regions [45,47]. The conict rises with
the degradation of the marine environment as a result of the growing
economic development. Although MNRs are established to oer con-
servation benets, they are mostly managed to provide full protection
and permanent closure and rarely take consideration of socio-economic
impacts. Furthermore, the relationship between local communities and
MNR authorities is often a contested issue [13,34,43,45]. Because many
traditional uses of marine resources are restricted and alternative li-
velihoods are not considered once a MNR is established, local com-
munities are often unwilling to support MNRs or comply with regula-
tions. The concept of eco-compensation has been recently incorporated
into the MPA management system in China, which seeks use govern-
ment and market mechanisms to charge fees to marine resource users
Y. Li, D.L. Fluharty
and to use these monies to compensate for the loss of revenues that
resulted from environmental protection policies. CCICED-TEMP China
Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Develop-
ment-Task Force on Eco-Compensation Mechanisms and Policies ($year
$) [31,69,70,9]. The rst regulation on eco-compensation for MPAs
went into force at a provincial level on March 1, 2016, but a national
policy has not yet been made [18]. As a complementary approach for
MNRs, SMPAs allow a range of sustainable uses of resources within the
protected area. However, balancing development and protection has
been a challenge for SMPAs [30]. Many local governments perceive
SMPAs as a symbol of administrative achievement and a potential
source of tourism revenues, although their commitment to conservation
may not turn out to be as eective as promised especially when the
planning is primarily driven by economic interests [34,44]. Therefore,
the trade-o between economic development and marine conservation
remains a focus in the future MPA selection and management.
Fifth, the lack of funding and personnel for management has hin-
dered the development of MPAs in China. Under the current govern-
ance structure, the central government provides limited funds to cover
the cost of infrastructure in newly established national MPAs, and it is
local governments that provide personnel and funds for the daily
management and enforcement of individual MPAs [43,44,72]. The
limited funding restricts needed scientic research and social surveys
on established and potential MPA sites [72]. In addition, a large pro-
portion of MPAs in China, especially locally designated MPAs, become
paper parks because they do not have specic management bodies
and plans [19,44,72].
Sixth, monitoring and evaluation, as a crucial component of adap-
tive management, is not well designed in China's case. It is noted that
only a few MPAs in China have an independent and long-term mon-
itoring program [44]. For some MPAs covered by 18 ecological mon-
itoring regions established by the SOA in 2004, the status of re-
presentative and fragile inshore ecosystems is monitored [44]. Despite
these monitoring programs, the ecological monitoring data provides
little insight to the management eectiveness of MPAs, without a se-
paration of monitoring inside MPAs from that outside MPAs [44]. Be-
sides, as required by the SOA, 27 MPAs in China undertook a self-
evaluation. This management eectiveness evaluation gives an em-
phasis on the governance conditions, such as personnel, funding, and
management plan, but gives no information on the status and trends of
species and habitats protected within the MPAs ([44] Page 603). This
self-evaluation is also considered not reliable without an independent
and transparent process [44].
Seventh, political will is decisive in any formation of MPAs, espe-
cially in China's top-down political context. Although responsibilities
for MPA designation and planning have devolved to local governments,
the central government plays a signicant lead role nationwide and
provides a framework for local administrations to work. The recent
establishment of Marine Parks [65] and the proposal for eco-compen-
sation [9] are examples of this lead role. For the transition from the
current MPA policy to a systematic MPA network design, more inputs
and changes in management mechanism would be called for, which
should be supported by a strong political will at a national level.
In terms of interview results, all interviewees stated that they felt
the MPA is a vital tool to conserve biodiversity and habitats, but there
was agreement that the current practice of MPAs in China is incapable
to deliver that result (G1, G2, S1, S2, S3, A1, M1). Some claim that
many existing MPAs are products of opportunistic decisions made by
local governments, instead of systematic and scientic planning (S1, S2,
G1, and G2). Similarly, some observe administrative boundaries have
also restrained the size and boundary design of MPAs and result in
planning that makes no sense in terms of ecological connectivity, and
thus can be considered as an obstacle for the development of networks
(G1 and S2). When it comes to the ocial status and denition of MPA
networks, interestingly, not all participants are familiar with it.
Interviewees perceptions are basically regarding the ecological benets
10
Marine Policy 85 (2017) 816
of networks and signicant costs for implementation, with little un-
derstanding on the social and economic aspects (G1, G2 and S2). Given
this concern of the technical and nancing inputs for networks, as well
as of the limited capacity of local governments, G1 suggested that
designation of MPA networks should come second after capacity-
building. S1 and A1 suggested that a small-scale or a regional network
of MPAs for certain species might be more feasible than a national in-
itiative for MPA networks. Another comment from G2 indicated that the
ultimate goal for China would be to create a comprehensive, re-
presentative, and adequate MPA network, but how to reach this goal
heavily relies on national strategies being developed. However, there is
currently no evidence that there is the political will to advance this
concept.
3.2. Current progress in developing a network of MPAs
As declared in the 12th Five-Year National Plan, one of the goals of
MPA management from 2013 to 2018 is to expand the coverage of
MPAs and speed up construction of the MPA network [53]. On August
1, 2015, China released revisions to the policy for National Main
Functional Area Planning, which promotes the strategy of area-based
protection by creating an ecological barrier connected by islands and
MPAs in the sea areas under its jurisdiction [56]. This is the rst policy
in China that highlights the necessity of connectivity in marine con-
servation. No follow-up guidelines or laws yet have been issued, but
there are several projects in progress regarding developing a network of
MPAs in China. Since 2012, North East Asia nations, including China,
Japan, North Korea, South Korea, and Russia, have been discussing the
planning of an eective and representative North East Asia Marine
Protected Areas Network (NEAMPAN), which aims to conserve marine
species and their habitats, promote sustainable use of resources, and
facilitate regional cooperation in MPA management [41]. Six existing
MPAs under China's jurisdiction were selected as NEAMPAN sites.
Moreover, Nanji Islands National MNR was selected as a pilot site to
develop a small-scale MPA network for marine species under the pro-
gram of Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East
Asia (PEMSEA). The project of Demonstration of Estuarine Biodiversity:
Conservation, Restoration and Protected Area Networking in China is
also undertaken, but is primarily focused on developing a social net-
work, which would be expected to strengthen individual MPAs and
build institutional capacity to better achieve their goals ([52]; S3).
4. The practice of MPA networks in other jurisdictions
In this section, we reviewed a range of approaches to MPA networks
designation in six jurisdictions. Approaches taken dier from each
other as a result of varying perceptions of problems, goals, as well as
existing legal frameworks and governance systems. Broadly, manage-
ment tools adopted by these jurisdictions can be divided into three
types. The rst is to create an inventory of MPAs that meet specic
criteria and considers the component MPAs as a network, as the U.S.
applied. The second is to develop representative networks of MPA
through bioregional planning. Canada has promulgated legislation and
other strategies to promote the development of a national MPA net-
work. Australia, too, has national legislation that calls for cross-jur-
isdictional implementation of a MPA network. New Zealand has a na-
tional approach based on signicant mapping/analysis. The European
Union has set forth a marine strategy directive to guide implementation
of a MPA network by member coastal states. The last strategy is to scale
up to social, institutional and learning networks in order to improve the
management eectiveness, which has been applied in the Philippines.
4.1. The United States
As required in the Presidential Executive Order 13158 of 2000, the
U.S. developed a national system of MPAs. It can be envisioned as a
Y. Li, D.L. Fluharty
social network that ties member sites together and supports them to
maximize socio-ecological benets. In order to guide the development
and implementation of the national system of MPAs, the National MPA
Center was established and served as conduit that supported and co-
ordinated the system by oering information, technologies, and stra-
tegies [39]. In addition, a Marine Protected Areas Federal Advisory
Committee (MPAFAC), composed of 20 members representing broad
areas of expertise, was authorized by the Order to oer expert advice to
the Secretaries of Commerce and the Interior [36].
Though the national system in the U.S. made limited contributions
to the creation of ecological networks so far, it provides a common
approach for the marine conservation with a design of common goals
and selection criteria, which could be seen as a model for China to
organize and manage its MPAs under an overarching set of goals and
selection criteria. The crucial role of the MPA Center in guiding and
coordinating the development of MPAs within the system also provides
ideas for China to use in organizing its work toward developing a
system of MPAs at a national scale.
4.2. Canada
The Government of Canada, in collaboration with provincial and
territorial governments, Aboriginal groups, industries, academia and
environmental organizations, is leading the development and im-
plementation of a national network of MPAs through the division of
bioregions under the Integrated Ocean Management (IOM) framework
[22].
The development of the national network has been supported by a
spectrum of marine conservation legislation, including the Oceans Act
(1996), Canada's Oceans Strategy (2002), Oceans Action Plan (2005),
and the Health of the Oceans Initiatives (2007). At a national level,
three federal departments and agencies Fisheries and Oceans Canada,
Environment Canada and the Parks Canada Agencies are playing a
leading role in the development of MPA networks and are responsible
for three core MPA programs independently [21]. However, it has been
noted that communications and collaborations among these federal
agencies have not always been consistent and have tended to evolve
opportunistically ([20] Page 7), and hence, calls for the development
of strategic partnerships and the establishment of interdepartmental
working groups.
Although Canada remains slow in achieving its goal to protect at
least 10% of coastal and marine waters by 2020, its eorts in specifying
bioregions based on the scientic research, incorporating three dif-
ferent core programs to form a network, and applying decision support
tools to minimize the socio-economic impacts of MPAs might be helpful
to China [24].
4.3. Australia
Australian Government committed at the 2002 World Summit on
Sustainable Development (WSSD) to develop a National Representative
System of Marine Protected Areas (NRSMPA) and developed a bior-
egional framework in 2012. The NRSMPA consists of MPAs in
Commonwealth, State and Territory waters and some associated in-
tertidal areas, covering a total area of 3.1 million square kilometers of
ocean, almost a third of Australia's marine territory [3,59].
The establishment of the NRSMPA takes a top-down approach with
cross-jurisdictional cooperation of the Commonwealth, State and
Northern Territory agencies relevant to conservation [3]. To ensure
national consistency in data exchange and network planning, Aus-
tralian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council- Task
Force on Marine Protected Areas (ANZECC-TFMPA) was developed to
provide advisory inputs and guidelines that identify planning principles
and selection criteria [3]. Furthermore, stakeholder engagement has
been crucial throughout the planning process, which takes a variety of
forms, ranging from multi-stakeholder workshops and meetings to a 90-
11
Marine Policy 85 (2017) 816
day public comment period in the review of the draft marine bior-
egional plans and reserve network proposals [3]. Education and
training are also provided to improve stakeholders awareness of en-
vironmental and ethical values, and thereby facilitate their involvement
[3].
NRSMPA in Australia has been criticized for its piecemeal or ad hoc
decision-making as a result of a race for the completion [58]. Never-
theless, Australia's experience in developing MPA networks through
bioregional planning, involving stakeholders, and utilizing decision-
making support tools to balance the trade-os might be useful for
China's MPA networks program.
4.4. New Zealand
New Zealand takes a comprehensive approach in planning a re-
presentative MPAs network to maximize biological and ecological
benets. Its national initiative of ecosystem mapping, inventory de-
veloping, and gap analysis provides a solid basis for the MPA selection,
which may oer valuable insights for China to develop a systematic
planning for MPAs. Similar to China's MNR, the Marine Reserves Act in
New Zealand provides full protection with limited socio-economic
considerations. As the development of the network proceeds, the con-
icts among dierent marine sectors become intense, especially the
marine tourism industry, which contributes over NZ $11 billion an-
nually to the New Zealand's economy [12]. It is also criticized for that
sector's interests being strongly under-represented in the MPA proposal
[12]. One solution that New Zealand proposes is a new law to manage
all management tools within the network, improve the consultation
process and add a compensation mechanism. This suggests that China
could take a legislative approach to respond to the conicts of interests
in establishing an MPA network.
4.5. The European Union
The EU has committed to ensure that 10% of its coastal and marine
areas are protected by 2020 [8]. To meet this target, the EU has im-
plemented the Natura 2000 network of protected areas, established by
the Habitats and Birds Directives, in its coastal and marine areas as well
as the Regional Sea Conventions (RSCs) that provide a coordination
platform for its Member States to create an ecologically coherent and
representative MPA networks [15]. The development of the network is
driven by a policy framework comprising international, EU, regional,
and national legislation and initiatives, while the implementation of
MPA networks highly depends on actions by individual Member States.
Progress on implementation of MPA networks in the EU has been slow
and large dierences in MPA coverage exist across marine regions and
individual Member States [15,16]. Furthermore, it is recognized that
there is considerable overlap and complexity in the policy framework
for establishing MPA networks [15,16]. The European Environmental
Agency (EEA) has recommended the development of a common un-
derstanding of MPA networks in the EU context, which may include
clear vision and high-level goals framing the EU MPA network en-
visaged under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), a
classication of MPAs distinguishing various purposes, and operational
criteria for MPA network designation and evaluation ([15] Page 28). A
comprehensive and transparent evaluation mechanism is also called for
to specify the next step for building MPA networks [15].
Despite of these challenges in the EU MPA network planning, the
experience from the EU could provide China with an example of a broad
scheme of creating MPA networks in coordination with coastal pro-
vinces. The ecosystem-based approach introduced by the MSFD and
Marine Spatial Planning Directive (MSPD) oers an opportunity to
apply a holistic approach for the MPA network designation and man-
agement. The MSPD, in particular, shares similarity with China's
Marine Functional Zoning, and hence might be useful in China's setting.
In addition, the RSCs enforced in the EU could facilitate China's
Y. Li, D.L. Fluharty Marine Policy 85 (2017) 816

The ability of four scenarios to address the challenges in current practices of MPA network designation. In order to clarify the ability of scenarios to address the trade-o between economic development and conservation as well as the tension
initiatives at a regional scale.

Political Will

Yes means the scenario is able to address the challenge; No means the scenario is not able to solve the issue; Maybe means that the scenario could help address the problem but would require additional guidelines or management tools.
4.6. Philippines

Yes

Yes

Yes

No
7

The Philippines has established over 1200 MPAs throughout its

Monitoring and Evaluation

Maybe, could be achieved

territory and most of MPAs have been designated and managed by
Maybe, depending on

Maybe, depending on
communities in collaboration with local governments [4]. Motivated by

approach by regional
through a bottom-up
national guidelines

national guidelines
the interest to enhance sheries management, biodiversity conserva-
tion, and individual MPAs performance, as well as to attract shery and
tourism investments related to the good environmental governance

alliances
commitments, numerous eorts have been made to scale up individual,

Yes
locally-managed MPAs to form social and ecological networks
6

[10,17,23,32,5]. In particular, social networks, which have been de-

Insucient funding

veloped through local governments alliances and national and regional

Maybe, depending institutional networks, has contributed to the improvement of man-
on national
agement of MPAs where there is political will and local benet. This
guidelines
innovative approach to scale up individual sites to networks could be
helpful for China considering the similarity of both countries with re-
Yes

Yes
No
5

spect to the institutional structure where local governments play a

critical role in the MPA designation and management and the wide
communities and MPA
Tension between local

range of MPA performance over the nation. In the meantime, the

shortcomings of this approach are obvious. The social networks or al-
liances can be constrained by a variety of factors, such as a lack of
authorities

sustainable nancing and political interest as well as changes of lea-

dership [23]. Furthermore, the alliances usually have limited capacity
Yes

Yes
No

No
4b

to address issues happening at a large scale, such as regional-scale

processes and resilience to climate change [23,61]. Therefore, a key
economic development

lesson for the development of an ecologically and socially connected

Maybe, depending on

Maybe, depending on
The conict between

MPA network would be how to set up a national framework that could

national guidelines

national guidelines
and conservation

draw benets from social networks but also could make sure the in-
formation is eciently delivered downwards and upwards through
dierent levels of governance.
Another lesson from the Philippines is that monitoring and eva-
Yes

Yes
4a

luation are critical means to improve MPA management and promote

between communities and MPA authorities, the fourth challenge identied earlier is split into two items in this Table.

MPA networks. Studies have reported an increase number of MPAs,

framework but would focus
The inecient governance

Yes, at a regional or local

Maybe, depending on the

primarily attributed to the application of an MPA management eec-

within the ICZM scheme
mechanism and limited

Yes, at a regional level

tiveness rating system with a focus on governance indicators [2,4,63].

on the national level

Other surveys on biophysical conditions are also undertaken to de-

capacity of local

termine if the MPA sites meet the ecological objective [63].

governments

5. Four scenarios to establish MPA networks in China

level
Yes
3

Based on the review of national approaches, four scenarios tailored

to meet China's challenges can be derived, which includes creating a
national system through an inventory of MPAs; develop MPAs using
Incompleteness of
current laws and

bottom up social networking; develop regional networks based on na-

tional guidelines; develop a national representative MPA network.
regulations

5.1. Scenario 1: Create a National system with an inventory of MPAs

Yes

Yes
No

No
2

This scenario is similar to the U.S. national system of MPAs that

Maybe, could become a
Unsystematic planning

provides common selection criteria for the network and works to im-
basis for a systematic

prove management capacity across MPAs instead of focusing on the

ecological connectivity. The network would be developed in a top-
down approach in this scenario. To ensure the implementation, a na-
planning
of MPAs

tional framework or guidelines would be expected to guide national

Yes

eorts, and a national coordinating agency can be established to sup-

No

No
1

port the network by oering information, technologies, and strategies

Scenario 2 Social network

such as the role of the MPA Center in the U.S. As recognized in ex-
representative MPA

periences in other countries, it is important to create an inventory of

Scenario 1 Inventory

Scenario 3 Regional

Scenario 4 National

MPAs to build a national network [35,37]. The U.S. and New Zealand
have indicated that the inventory of MPAs could maintain baseline
scenario

scenario

scenario

scenario

information, provide basis for the gap analysis and prioritization

Challenges

identication at a national scale, and eventually assist the development

Table 1

of ecological networks of MPAs [35,38]. Currently, China has an in-

ventory of MNRs and SMPAs at a national level. This inventory covers

12
Y. Li, D.L. Fluharty
the location, size, protection targets, management authority, and year
of establishment, but lacks a spatial and functional component that
could allow a more organized and comprehensive analysis of the da-
taset. Furthermore, the remainder of MPAs, accounting for almost two-
thirds of the total number of MPAs in China, has not yet been su-
ciently documented. Therefore, one possible approach for China to ll
this knowledge gap and assist in the creation of the network is to update
the inventory. The ideal inventory could include not only the MNRs and
SMPAs at all levels but also the de facto sites compatible with the
common goals of the network, which may include Aquatic Germplasm
Resources Conservation Zones, seasonally closed shing areas, under-
water cultural heritage sites, prohibited navigation zones, and military
areas. In addition, a GIS-based spatial component can be introduced
into the data compiling. The management component of each MPA site
can also be incorporated into the inventory such as New Zealand has
adopted, e.g., relating to infrastructure, personnel, and management
eectiveness that can be obtained through a management rating system
like the Philippines has developed [2,4,63].
In the Chinese context, the development of a national inventory
could address a part of the current challenges (Table 1). It would ll an
information gap and provide a basis for the systematic and compre-
hensive planning in a top-down approach. By incorporating all types of
MPAs in a holistic system, scenario 1 could foster legislation such that it
could match with the scale and scope of a new system. Furthermore,
creating such a national system with an independent coordinating
agency could be meaningful to address the disorder and competition
among government departments in designating and managing MPAs
and thus enhance the coherence of MPAs to reach the CBD goal.
However, this scenario has limited contributions to the development of
an ecological network. The capability of this scenario to address issues
at a site level, such as the trade-o between development and con-
servation and tension between local communities and MPA authorities,
might not be as eective as scenario 2 that utilizes a bottom-up ap-
proach. Nevertheless, incorporating socio-economic considerations into
the guideline of the national MPA system could be an alternative. With
a focus on providing a common approach at a national level, this sce-
nario is also unable to address the funding issue, but it may improve the
monitoring and evaluation by requiring it in the national guideline
through a top-down approach. Another challenge to the implementa-
tion is the political will as the new system calls for the adjustment of the
existing institutional structure as well as the investment for the devel-
opment of the inventory and the coordinating agency. There is no
specic request on the coordinating agency from the central govern-
ment yet. However, eorts have been made on developing an inventory
of MPAs that would collect information related to the MPA status and
issues and would be used to inform MPA managers and governments of
further decision-making [55].
5.2. Scenario 2: Develop social networks
Dierent from scenario 1 that operates at a national level, this
scenario proposes a decentralized or bottom-up approach to scale up
individual MPAs to networks. This alternative is based on the model
used in the Philippines, reecting the crucial role of local governments
as well as their limited capacity in designating, planning and managing
MPAs. Social networks can be established at all levels, ranging from
local government alliances to regional institutional and learning net-
works. Horizontally, networks can also be categorized by sector, such as
baseline data collection, monitoring and evaluation, or by types, such as
MNRs, SMPAs, and Marine Parks (a core component of SMPAs).
Recognizing the synergic ecological, social and economic benets that
can be created by social networks, possible sites to implement this al-
ternative can be found in regions with a cluster of adjacent MPA sites,
such as Shandong Province where four national MNRs and 17 national
SMPAs have been established.
Taking a bottom-up management strategy, this scenario is more
13
Marine Policy 85 (2017) 816
capable to address the site or regional level issues than national-scale
challenges such as protection of ecological processes at a large scale, the
national systematic design, the legislation, and the governance me-
chanism at a national level (Table 1). The development of social net-
works could be expected to resolve the problems such as the limited
management capacity of local governments, the limited funding source,
and conicts between communities and MPA authorities by building
consensus on common issues, fostering information transparency, in-
stitutionalizing the mechanism for administration, improving social
acceptance, and promoting sustainable nancing [63]. Within this
scenario, local governments might also be capable to deal with conicts
between socio-economic interests and ecological objectives, with more
comprehensive knowledge regarding the management of MPAs. Be-
sides, the case of the Philippines reveals that neighboring governments
could share the cost of monitoring and responsibility of patrolling,
which could improve monitoring and eectiveness at a local or regional
scale [23].
There are deep concerns on how to improve the management ef-
fectiveness of MPAs in China (S1 and G1). According to the interview
results, S1 agrees that information sharing can be an important strategy
to enhance the performance of MPAs in China. The recent project in
networking protected areas to restore estuarine biodiversity with a
social network perspective also depicts China's interest in this idea of
social network [52]. Furthermore, given the fact that the administrative
boundary restricts the size and boundary design of existing MPAs, the
formation of institution networks across boundaries could be a sig-
nicant step to take for the further development of ecological networks.
Currently, there is no approved mechanism or process that oers an
opportunity for MPA managers, stakeholders, the public, and other
private sectors to communicate and collaborate in MPA management.
Considering the benets of social networks in enhancing the manage-
ment eectiveness, especially in a trans-boundary context, this scenario
might be accepted as a feasible solution. After all, through scaling up to
networks, it is important to ensure the consistency with national po-
licies, which would require an ecient mechanism to connect the social
networks with the central government and vice versa.
5.3. Scenario 3: Develop regional MPA networks
Another alternative is to establish ecological networks of MPAs at a
regional scale. In this case, the network could be designed for a variety
of goals and objectives based on the needs of the region. For example, it
could be developed for the purpose of biodiversity conservation and
located in a region with abundant biodiversity but where it is not yet
adequately protected. Potential sites could be the priority areas iden-
tied in the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan [7]. Spe-
cically, these may include the East China Sea along Zhejiang and
Fujian Provinces, as suggested by Manager 1, and the South China Sea.
In the East China Sea, Zhejiang and Fujian Provinces are in the process
of developing a regional network based on Nanji Island National Marine
Nature Reserve (M1). The South China Sea has internationally im-
portant habitats and resources which are under serious threats of loss,
degradation, and pollution [60]. The network could also be developed
to protect rare and endangered species or species with signicant values
(S1).
The Chinese white dolphin (Sousa chinensis) and spotted seals (Phoca
largha) are two example species that are under consideration for
creating MPA networks in Pearl River Delta and the Bohai Sea respec-
tively [1,11]. Also, a region with signicant social and economic values
could be considered to develop an MPA network. Marine parks, for
instance, can be connected as a network to maximize the benets from
tourism but also maintain the ecological performance as the network of
marine parks as seen in the case of South Australia [40]. The specic
design criteria for the regional networks can be determined by regional
authorities, experts, and stakeholders, which may include biophysical
conditions, representation of habitats, larval connectivity, presence of
Y. Li, D.L. Fluharty
species, and existing resource use patterns. To ensure that the govern-
ance mechanism matches with the spatial scale of MPA networks, it is
critical to enhance the interaction of dierent levels of governments by
establishing a coordinating agency or other institutional networks.
Because the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) scheme has
been proposed and applied in several coastal cities in China with a
recommendation of creating regional advisory committees and in-
dependent evaluation institutions, this management mechanism of
ICZM could be likely to be used to manage regional MPA networks
([64,68,71]; A1).
Similar to scenario 2 that utilizes a bottom-up or decentralized ap-
proach, scenario 3 has limited ability to systematically protect and
manage coastal and marine areas at a broad scale and to foster the
comprehensive national legislation, but could remove regional barriers
(Table 1). First, the governance mechanism at a regional level can be
improved through the incorporation of ICZM, which has been proved to
be successful in enhancing the integrated management in current
practices [64]. Second, developing regional networks of MPAs could
help China better respond to variable management capacity and dif-
ferent needs across regions, for example, needs for multiple-use MPAs
or no-take MPAs based on social-economic values and resources status.
The trade-o analysis applied through the process would also benet
the relation between economic development and conservation. Third,
the regional councils proposed by the ICZM scheme would be likely to
involve a variety of stakeholders, and thus increase the communication
among sectors. Fourth, although uncertainty exists on the funding issue,
collaborative strategies could be developed through the regional net-
works to attract investments. Last but not least, as noted in scenario 3,
monitoring responsibility can be shared by neighboring administrations
within the network. Evaluation can be conducted by the independent
agency as proposed in the ICZM scheme [64].
Although regional networks of MPAs were not requested by the
central government, they are being under consideration by several
administrations and institutions, which makes this scenario the most
feasible one in terms of the political will (M1, R1, [11,1]). In addition, a
network at a regional scale requires fewer inputs than the national in-
itiative without a compromise of addressing major environmental and
ecological concerns in marine areas and the goal of expanding the MPA
coverage. Lessons can also be learnt through regional networks and
contribute to the further development of a national initiative.
5.4. Scenario 4: Develop a National representative MPA network
The last scenario proposal is to establish a national representative
network of MPAs, based on the approaches taken by Canada, Australia,
New Zealand, and the EU. Through this network, all biogeographic
regions should be represented. The network would be expected to
provide long-term protection of biodiversity, major ecosystems, natural
features, as well as the ecosystem services they provide. Evidence shows
that the development of a representative network of MPAs heavily re-
lies on an appropriate national framework consistent with the existing
legislation and a set of implementation strategic plans. This would also
require China to enact a more comprehensive legislation that could
incorporate laws and regulations relevant to MNRs, SMPAs and other
management measures, as well as provide guidelines to lead the na-
tional eorts to create a network. The lessons from the EU indicate that
standardization is an important factor to create a successful MPA net-
work. For China, a nation consisting of 10 coastal provinces that takes
decentralized approach in MPA designation, standardization is also
crucial in the implementation. Therefore, several components can be
considered to be included in the proposed legislation, i.e., overarching
goals and objectives, the institutional structure, design processes, cri-
teria, stakeholder involvement, socio-economic considerations, and
monitoring and evaluation. The goals and objectives of networks,
especially, should be determined through an open and transparent
process and reect both the needs of a network and the objectives of
14
Marine Policy 85 (2017) 816
individual MPAs [27]. Plus, in China's context, socio-economic per-
spectives should be fully considered in the goal setting process and
network design principles. Social-economic impacts analysis and sce-
nario modeling can be utilized to minimize the potential conicts be-
tween traditional uses or signicant industries and conservation. In
addition, an inter-departmental management body would be re-
commended to coordinate the national network and facilitate the
communication across departments and levels of governance.
With respect to the implementation, the national network can be
designed through a marine bioregional planning. Four large marine
ecosystems (LMEs) have been identied in China: the Yellow Sea, the
East China Sea, the Kuroshio Current, and the South China Sea [44].
Many research institutions and administrative agencies are also estab-
lished in each region supporting the scientic research and manage-
ment of its sea areas, which provides a basis for the implementation of
marine bioregional planning. Finally, MPA networks are not created
rapidly, but evolve over time with good planning ([63] Page 58). Thus,
it is important to develop a monitoring and evaluation system in col-
laboration with local agencies and build an adaptive management
mechanism to ensure the network could evolve and ultimately achieve
its goal.
Scenario 4 would be considered as the optimal approach among all
the scenarios in terms of conservation outcomes by oering a holistic
approach to protect the marine environment and resources and address
most of the current issues in the MPA management (Table 1). Solutions
would be expected to be devised through developing a national fra-
mework, guidelines, as well as legislations that support the im-
plementation of a national network. As mentioned, this framework or a
guideline should take a range of factors into consideration, including a
well-organized governance mechanism, a trade-o analysis between
social-economic and ecological aspects, funding strategies, as well as
monitoring and evaluation design. However, this scenario may have
limited eect on improving local governments capacity in managing
MPAs and easing authorities tension with communities when capacity
building is unvalued and information transparency remains low. Fur-
thermore, the implementation of this scenario anticipates great bar-
riers, especially from the national will and limited funding. This sce-
nario can be seen as a signicant reformulation of MPA policy in China
and would require a strong political commitment and support from a
national level. Signicant funding would also be required to implement
the legislation, scientic research and capacity building in this scenario.
According to the current policy and interview feedback, there is no sign
for proposing a national representative network from the central gov-
ernment yet.
These four scenarios provide potential pathways for China to de-
velop a network of MPAs. It should be noted that these scenarios are not
mutually exclusive. Alternatives can be adopted in dierent stages of
implementation and a combination of alternatives can be applied de-
pending on China's needs. For example, a national system with an in-
ventory and social networks can be developed before creating an eco-
logical network or a regional MPA network can be established as a pilot
for the further development of a national network.
6. Conclusion
In order to help China develop its MPA networks and to address
major issues in MPA development, this study reviews the current status
of MPAs in China and derives four scenarios for China to use to develop
its MPA networks taking into consideration the barriers identied to
MPA establishment. These scenarios are: 1) creating a national system
with an inventory of MPAs, 2) developing social networks, 3) devel-
oping regional ecological networks of MPAs, and 4) developing a na-
tional representative MPA network. The rst two scenarios focus on the
enhancement of the governance system through connecting individual
MPAs as a social, institutional, and learning network, which could be a
necessary step for creating an ecologically coherent network. The latter
Y. Li, D.L. Fluharty
two scenarios emphasize ecological connectivity and representative-
ness. Given the dierent focuses of each scenario, scenarios can be
applied at dierent stages of implementation and a combination of
scenarios can be employed depending on China's needs.
In order to overcome the barriers in the current planning and
management of MPAs in China, this study concludes with re-
commendations for the implementation of MPA networks as follows:
1. The central government should develop an overarching legal fra-
mework to guide the systematic and strategic planning of eective
MPA networks. This overarching legal framework should include
the goal and criteria of MPAs or MPA networks, a specic guideline
for implementation, monitoring and evaluation, social and eco-
nomic considerations, funding strategies, and stakeholder engage-
ment. Dierent from the current laws and regulations in MPAs, the
legal framework would provide more comprehensive and consistent
support for the development of MPAs or MPA networks.
2. The central government should take an active role in improving the
governance mechanisms by establishing a coordinating entity at the
national level and setting up a standardized process for local gov-
ernments to use in developing MPA networks. The coordinating
entity could be set under a central-level agency, such as the SOA. To
ensure the consistency of MPA networks in terms of spatial scale and
ecological processes, standardization is required in the im-
plementation. This may include selection criteria, data documenta-
tion, and comparable evaluation indicators across administrative
boundaries.
3. Capacity building for local governments to manage MPA networks
can be achieved through creating social networks with the support
of the national coordinating entity. These social networks could be
established at all levels, fostering information sharing and in-
stitutionalizing the mechanism for administration.
4. In many cases, scientic information is inadequate to support the
design of MPAs and MPA networks. More attention should be
brought to the incorporation of community knowledge. This would
require the administration to enhance information transparency and
stakeholder engagement.
5. Modeling software can also be provided to support the decision-
making throughout the planning process. In addition to ecological
models that track species distribution, other decision-support tools
that help address trade-os between conservation and other uses
could be applied. On one hand, more inputs for facility improve-
ment and technology provision would be required for the adminis-
tration; on the other hand, personnel training should be brought into
agenda.
6. The central government should establish long-term monitoring
programs for MPAs and independent evaluation processes.
Monitoring and evaluation indicators should be carefully designed
consistent with the goals and objectives. In order to ensure the
evaluation results should return to the decision-making cycle, the
adaptive management mechanism, especially the institutional me-
chanism, should be developed.
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