Time-Frequency Method for Nonlinear System

Identification and Damage Detection

P. Frank Pai,* Lu Huang, Jiazhu Hu and Dustin R. Langewisch

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, E2403C Lafferre Hall

University of Missouri-Columbia, MO 65211, Columbia

This paper presents a method for extracting system nonlinearities and time-localized transient
response to impulsive loading by processing stationary/transient responses using the HilbertHuang
transform (HHT) and a sliding-window fitting (SWF) technique. Time-dependent dynamic character-
istics of nonlinear systems are derived using perturbation analysis. The SWF is introduced mainly to
show the mathematical implications of HHT and the differences between HHT and the discrete Fourier
transform. Similar to the wavelet transform the SWF uses windowed predetermined regular harmonics
and function orthogonality to extract local harmonic components. It simultaneously decomposes a
signal into just a few regular/distorted harmonics, and the obtained time-varying amplitudes and
frequencies of the harmonics can reveal system nonlinearities. On the other hand the HHT uses the
apparent time scales revealed by the signals local maxima and minima and cubic splines of the
extrema to sequentially sift components of different time scales, starting from high-frequency to low-
frequency ones. Because HHT does not use predetermined basis functions and function orthogonality
for component extraction, components are extracted without distortion and hence their time-varying
amplitudes and frequencies can be accurately computed using the Hilbert transform to reveal system
characteristics and nonlinearities. Moreover, because the first component extracted from HHT
contains all discontinuities of the original signal, its time-varying frequency and amplitude are excellent
indicators for pinpointing the time instants of impulsive loads. However, the discontinuity-induced
Gibbs phenomenon makes HHT analysis inaccurate around the two data ends. On the other hand, the
SWF analysis suffers less from Gibbs phenomenon at the two data ends, but it cannot extract
accurate time-varying frequencies and amplitudes because the use of predetermined basis functions
and function orthogonality in the sliding-window fitting process distorts the extracted components.
Numerical and experimental results show that the proposed method with the use of HHT can provide
accurate extraction of intrawave amplitude and phase modulations, distorted harmonic response
under a single-frequency harmonic excitation, softening and hardening effects, different orders of
nonlinearity, interwave amplitude and phase modulations, multiple-mode vibrations caused by internal/
external resonances, and time instants of impact loading on a structure. These are key phenomena for
performing dynamics-based system identification and damage detection.

Keywords Hilbert-Huang transform
nonlinear signal processing
nonlinearity identification

structural damage detection
Gibbs phenomenon

Copyright SAGE Publications 2008

*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Los Angeles, London, New Delhi and Singapore
E-mail: paip@missouri.edu Vol 7(2): 010325
Figures 11 and 12 appear in color online: http://shm.sagepub.com [1475-9217 (200806) 7:2;10325 10.1177/1475921708089830]

103

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
104 Structural Health Monitoring 7(2)
1 Introduction
Actual structures are often nonlinear by
nature or, in some cases, by design. Highly flexi-
ble structures have been used in many space
structural systems and advanced vehicles in order
to increase speed, efficiency, and/or maneuverabil-
ity [1]. Examples include flexible wing aircraft,
many deployable space structures, cables used for
tethering launch vehicles to certain low-altitude
orbits, high-altitude long-endurance aircraft, sate-
llites, missiles, advanced helicopter rotor blades
for noise reduction, telecommunication antennas,
ultra-lightweight deployable/retractable structural
systems for storage or sheltering, next generation
aero vehicles using extra inflatable control sur-
faces, parachutes, temporary bridges, and air-
supported buildings. Unfortunately, nonlinear
responses are often observed in such structures,
such as wing flutter and panel flutter of high
speed aircraft, tail buffeting of aircraft, wrinkling
of membrane structures, multiple possible deplo-
yed geometries of large balloons, and odd opening
modes of parachutes. Nonlinear responses may be
due to large elastic deformations (i.e., geometric
nonlinearities), deformation-dependent material
properties (i.e., material nonlinearities), backlash
or clearance, geometric constraints on defor-
mations, etc. Moreover, damping dissipation is
essentially a nonlinear and still not fully modelled
and understood phenomenon. Dry friction,
aerodynamic damping, damping of shock absor-
bers used in cars and motorcycles, material
damping of shape memory alloys, and many
other hysteretic types of damping are examples
of nonlinear damping. Hence, methods for non-
linearity identification of advanced structures are
needed.
For several decades structural engineers and
researchers have been developing dynamics-based
methods for rapid damage inspection of large
structures [24]. Damage detection is challenging
because it is an inverse engineering problem.
Based on the complexity of sensor systems used,
signal processing methods, and accuracy of dedu-
ced damage indicators, dynamics-based damage
detection methods can be separated into
Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
three groups. Methods in the first group require
a simultaneous full-field measurement tool
(e.g., Moire interferometry, digital shearography,
or scanning laser vibrometers), and they process
the measured displacement, slope, or velocity
field to compute strains and/or curvatures and
then locate damage by examining abnormality or
sudden change of these spatially distributed
data [5]. Methods in the second group require
simultaneous measurements of many points, and
they use a well-calibrated structural model and a
modal expansion/update method to locate
damage. Methods in the third group require
simultaneous measurements of only a few loca-
tions, and they use the measured time traces and
the travelling sequence of abnormality or sudden
change in the time traces to locate damage.
In-work dynamics-based impact detection meth-
ods usually use the third approach. Methods in
the third group process time-domain data to
extract dynamic characteristics (i.e., natural fre-
quencies, damping ratios, and nonlinear effects)
to reveal the existence of damage, but the
challenge is how to extract linear and nonlinear
dynamic characteristics from dynamic responses
(especially transient responses) and how to corre-
late the damage indicators obtained at just a few
physical locations to locate damage. Dynamics
of damaged structures is often nonlinear. For
example, the opening and closing of cracks in a
structure causes intermittent transient response
in the time domain and sudden change of slope
in the spatial domain even under small vibrations.
Also, dry friction is a nonlinear effect that often
exists after a structure is damaged. Hence, non-
linear system identification is a necessary techni-
que for dynamics-based structural damage
detection.
A linear dynamic system has constant natural
frequencies, and it vibrates at the frequency of an
externally applied harmonic excitation. On the
other hand, a nonlinear system has amplitude-
dependent natural frequencies, and it may vibrate
at a frequency different from an externally app-
lied harmonic excitation. Other nonlinear pheno-
mena include multiple-harmonic response under
a single-frequency harmonic excitation, intrawave
 Pai et al. Time-Frequency Method for Nonlinear System 105

amplitude- and phase-modulated motions, and
multiple-mode vibrations caused by modal inter-
action (i.e., interwave modulation) [6,7]. One
major approach for dynamics characterization of
a nonlinear system is to examine the harmonic
components contained in the systems response to
a harmonic excitation. An in-operation damage
detection method usually uses sudden changes of
vibration amplitudes or frequencies to estimate
the areas subjected to unexpected sudden loads
(e.g., impact). After in-operation damage detec-
tion issues warning, ground or stationary damage
inspections of the suspected areas using changes
of dynamic characteristics and nonlinearities to
pinpoint damage locations need to be performed.
However, the key challenge is how to extract
accurate dynamic characteristics and nonlineari-
ties from actual, noise-contaminated dynamic
responses, especially transient ones.
Tasks of nonlinear system identification of
structures include (1) detection of the existence of
nonlinearities, (2) determination of the types,
orders, functional forms, and locations of non-
linearities, and (3) parameter identification. This
work intends to address the first two tasks.
2 Characteristics of Nonlinear
Responses
Because asymptotic solutions for weakly non-
linear systems subject to harmonic excitations
usually show amplitude- and phase-modulated
characteristics [6,7], next we use perturbation
solutions to characterize dynamic characteristics
of different nonlinear systems.
A stationary time signal u(t) having a major
frequency
and an amplitude modulating at a
frequency ! can be expressed as
different frequencies. If ! 0:5
, u(t) has a
period-doubled trajectory on the phase plane
_ For a stationary time signal u(t) having
u  u.
a major frequency
modulating at a frequency
! can be expressed as


1 2
ut cos
t
cos !t  1 
cos
t
4


1 1 3


sin
!t sin
 !t
2 16
1 2

cos
2!t cos
 2!t
8
1

3 sin
3!t sin
 3!t 1b
48
where Taylors expansion was performed
by treating
cos !t as a small variable. It shows
that, if ! 
, the Fourier spectrum of u(t)
would consist of several small, uniformly spaced
components around
, which are the so-called
sidelobes. If ! 
and
=! is an irrational
number, it is a quasi-periodic motion having a
period of infinity. Moreover, we note that the u_
of (1a) and (1b) are amplitude- and phase-
modulated functions. Equations (1a) and (1b)
clearly show that a distorted harmonic can be
decomposed into many regular harmonics, but a
distorted harmonic itself is more convenient and
meaningful than several regular harmonics for
system characterization.
For a signal consisting of two nonsynchro-
nous harmonics (i.e., not reaching extrema at the
same time), it may appear as one distorted har-
monic because
ut a1 cos
!t a2 cos
 !t
^
atcos
t t

q
ut 1
cos !tcos
t cos
t cos
!t ^ 
at a21 a22 2a1 a2 cos2!t,
2

a1  a2 tan!t
cos
 !t 1a t  tan1 ,
2 a1 a2
_ a21  a22 !
where
is a small parameter. It reveals that t 2 2a
a1 a22 2a1 a2 cos2!t
u(t) consists of three regular harmonics of

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
106 Structural Health Monitoring 7(2)

where  _  d=dt. If a1  a2 and hence ! and the corresponding second-order asymptotic

a1  a2  a21 , one can obtain that
2 2
perturbation solution [8]:


a2 u u_ !2 u u3 Fcos
t,
!
^  a1 1 cos2!t ,
at
a1 ut acos
t   a3 cos3
t  3
a2
t  !t  sin2!t  a3
a1 ^
atcos
t   t, a3  a
32
2

^ 
!  2!a2 cos2!t, q
a1 ^  a2 a23 2aa3 cos2
t  2
at

! da^
! da=dt
^
!  a3 
 2b  a 1 cos2
t  2
a1 d
^ ^
a1 d
=dt 2! a
1 a3 sin2
t  2
t  tan
where g is an integration constant. It reveals that, a a3 cos2
t  2
if the two harmonics are treated as one function, a3
 sin2
t  2
the combined frequency
^ and the combined
a 
amplitude a^ modulate at 2! (i.e., the difference of ^ 
1 2a3 cos2
t  2 ,


the two original frequencies). Moreover,
^ is at a
its maximum (minimum) when a^ is at its mini-
da^
da=dt ^
 0:5 3
mum (maximum), but u(t) may not be at its a d
^ a d
=dt ^
extrema. This phenomenon exists in any combi-
nation of two harmonic functions of different
where , a, F, and g are constants. The amplitude
frequencies with the high-frequency harmonic
a is a nonlinear function of F, , !, and a and
having a larger amplitude. Similarly, if a2  a1
needs to be obtained by solving the modulation
and hence a22  a21  a22 , one can obtain that
equations derived from perturbation analysis [8].

 We note that the perturbation solution consists of
a1 two synchronous harmonics. Because a  a3 if a
^  a2 1 cos2!t ,
at
a2 is small and/or
is big, the amplitude consists
a1
t  !t sin2!t  of a constant plus a small amplitude varying at a
a2 frequency 2
, and the  is a small angle varying

^ 
 ! 2!a1 cos2!t, at a frequency 2
. In other words, it is a
a2 distorted harmonic with intrawave frequency and

 ! da^
 ! amplitude modulations caused by nonlinearities.
2c
a 2 d
^ 2! This phenomenon can be used to determine the
order (cubic or other) of nonlinearity. Moreover,
where g is an integration constant. It reveals that if  > 0, a3 =a > 0 and the actual vibration

^ and a^ modulate at 2!, and u(t) may not be at frequency
^ and the actual amplitude a^ are at
its extrema when
^ is at its maximum (minimum) their maxima when u(t) is at its maximum or
and a^ is at its maximum (minimum). This pheno- minimum. If 50, a3 =a50 and
^ and a^ are at
menon also exists in any combination of two their minima when u(t) is at its maximum or
harmonic functions of different frequencies with minimum. This phenomenon can be used to
the high-frequency harmonic having a smaller determine the type ( hardening or softening) of
amplitude. The phenomena shown by (2b) and nonlinearity. Figure 1 shows the nonlinear fre-
(2c) can be used to identify two independent quency response curve obtained from a first-order
harmonics that appear like one harmonic. perturbation solution (i.e., set a3 0 in (3)) and
To show dynamic characteristics of nonlinear direct numerical integrations. Direct numerical
systems we consider the following Duffing oscilla- integrations show that u(t) is a regular harmonic
tor subjected to a harmonic excitation with a when a is small, and u(t) becomes a distorted
frequency
close to its linear natural frequency harmonic consisting of more and more regular,

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
 Pai et al. Time-Frequency Method for Nonlinear System 107

1.2
u u_ !2 u u2 Fcos
t,
 !
ut a0 acos
t   a2 cos2
t  2,
1.0
a2 a2
a2   a, a 0   3a2
0.8 6
2 2
2
^
a0 atcos
t   t
0.6
q
a

^  a2 a22 2aa2 cos
t  

at
 a2 
0.4  a 1 cos
t  
back

a
a 2 sin
t   a2
bone

0.2 t  tan1  sin
t  

0 2
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
W /w
Figure 1 The nonlinear frequency response curve of (3)
with  0:1, ! 1,  1, and F 0:1, where dots are
from direct numerical integrations and solid and broken
lines represent the stable and unstable perturbation
solutions, respectively.
synchronous harmonics (revealed by the Fourier
spectrum of u) when a increases, as the perturba-
tion solution predicts. Because of multiple solu-
tions, nonlinear frequency response curves are
difficult to be experimentally obtained using
impulse excitations, random excitations, pseudo-
random excitations, or chirp excitations [1,7,9].
Dynamic tests using a frequency sweeping method
can be used to reveal softening and hardening
effects, but it is not reliable due to the coexistence
of multiple solutions in a nonlinear system,
especially when the sweeping rate is high [7,9].
More seriously, it is impossible to determine the
order of nonlinearity from frequency response
curves at all because one class of nonlinearity can
behave like another in a certain range of vibration
amplitude. Moreover, because a frequency
response curve is an averaged presentation of the
whole period of sampled data, it is difficult to
capture any transient nonlinearity. Ideally, if the
backbone curve [6] shown in Figure 1 can be
extracted, it will reveal the type and order of
nonlinearity. But the challenge is how to extract
such frequency-dependent amplitudes from experi-
mental data.
Next we consider the following nonlinear
oscillator with quadratic nonlinearity and its
asymptotic perturbation solution [8]:
a a2 cos
t   a
 a 
^ 
1 cos
t   ,


1.6 a

da^
da=dt ^
 1: 4
a d
^ a d
=dt ^
It shows that the u(t) is a distorted harmonic
with intrawave frequency and amplitude modula-
tions at a frequency
. This phenomenon can be
used to determine the order (quadratic or other)
of nonlinearity. If  > 0, a2 > 0 and the actual
vibration frequency
^ and the actual amplitude a^
are at their maxima (minima) when u(t) is at its
maximum (minimum). If 50, a2 50 and
^ and a^
are at their minima (maxima) when u(t) is at its
maximum (minimum). Moreover, a0 40 50 indi-
cates a 5 0 (4 0). Hence, these two phenomena
can be used to determine the type (i.e., the sign of
a) and to distinguish quadratic nonlinearity from
cubic nonlinearity. These phase relationships
between the signal and its time-varying amplitude
and frequency can be used to separate a harmonic
distorted by nonlinearities from a distorted har-
monic consisting of two nonsynchronous harmo-
nics (see (2a)). Moreover, (3) and (4) also show
^

that
=ada=d ^  0:5 for cubic nonlinearity
^

and
=ada=d ^  1 for quadratic nonlinearity.
To show dynamic characteristics of a system
of multiple nonlinearities we consider the follow-
ing weakly nonlinear system:
u u_ !2 u 3 u_ 3 2 u2 3 u3 4 u4 5 u5
Fcos
t  5a
where ai are constants,  and 3 are damping
coefficients, F is the excitation amplitude, ! is the
linear natural frequency,
 ! is the excitation
frequency, and g is the phase angle of the

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
108 Structural Health Monitoring 7(2)

excitation w.r.t. the response. The second-order Results obtained from HHT are compared with
asymptotic solution can be derived using the those from a sliding-window fitting (SWF) method
method of multiple scales to be [8] to show that HHT is more accurate in extracting
time-varying dynamic characteristics and nonlinea-
X
5 rities than Fourier and wavelet transforms.
ut ai cosi
t b3 sin3
t
i0
2 a21 34 a41 2 a21 4 a41 3 Signal Decomposition and
a0  2
 2
, a2 ,
2
8
6
2 6
2 Time-Frequency Analysis
3 a31 55 a51
a3
32
2 128
2 Here, we present a sliding-window fitting
4 a41 5 a51 3
a31 (SWF) method to reveal the drawbacks of discrete
a4 , a 5 , b 3 5b
120
2 384
2 32 Fourier transform (DFT), the similarity between
SWF and wavelet analysis, and the mathematical
where a1 is a nonlinear function of F, , and 3 and implications of HHT, and to explain why HHT is
needs to be obtained by solving the modulation essentially different from wavelet transform
equations derived from perturbation analysis [8]. and DFT.
Equation (5b) reveals that the nonlinear solution is
a periodic function (period T 2=
) expanded
3.1 Discrete Fourier Transform
into multiple harmonics. Because a5 appears in a3
and a4 appears in the a2 and a0 in (5b), it indicates To numerically extract regular harmonic
that higher-order odd-power nonlinearities will components from an arbitrary time signal u(t) the
behave like cubic nonlinearity, and higher-order discrete Fourier transform (DFT) is usually used.
even-power nonlinearities will behave like quadra- The DFT is given as [15]
tic nonlinearities. Then the question is how to X
N=2
extract and recognize several different orders of utk  uk a0 2 ai cos!i tk bi sin!i tk
nonlinearity from a dynamic response. i1
!
From the above derivations and discussions it X
N=2
j!i tk
is obvious that the key for successful dynamics- Real ai  jbi e
based system identification and damage detection iN=2

is the ability to extract accurate time-varying 1X N

dynamic characteristics and nonlinearities from ai uk cos!i tk ,

N k1
dynamic responses (especially transient ones) and
to pinpoint the time instants when dynamic 1X N
bi uk sin!i tk , !i  2i=T 6a
characteristics and/or nonlinearities change. N k1
Unfortunately, actual dynamic response usually
contains many fundamental dynamic characteris- 1X N
U!i  ai  jbi uk ej!i tk 6b
tics and/or nonlinearities. Hence, it is important to N k1
have a method that can decompose a complex time p
signal into components of different characteristic where j  1, k 1, . . . , N, N is the total
time scales and extract the time-varying frequency number of samples (assumed to be even), tk 
and amplitude of each extracted component. This kt, t is the sampling interval, 1=t is the
paper presents a method of using HilbertHuang sampling frequency, T Nt is the sampled
transform (HHT) [1014] to decompose a dynamic period, f 1=T is the frequency resolution,
signal into components of different time scales, to and the maximum (Nyquist) frequency is 1=2t
compute the time-varying frequency and amplitude N=2T. Moreover, ai ai , bi bi ,
of each component, to identify different nonlinea- ai cos!i tk ai cos!i tk , bi sin!i tk bi sin!i tk ,
rities, and to pinpoint time instants when sudden U is the Fourier spectrum of u(t), and ai and bi are
changes of dynamic characteristics happen. spectral coefficients and they represent amplitudes

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
 Pai et al. Time-Frequency Method for Nonlinear System 109

of the extracted regular harmonic components. These equations can also be used to compute the
The formulas for computing ai and bi in (6a) show instantaneous frequency and angular acceleration
that the orthogonality between u(t) and cos !i t without using numerical differentiation and/or
and sin !i t is used to extract regular harmonics curve-fitting, as shown later in (23).
from u(t). Moreover, it is apparent that the time Unfortunately, if u0 6 uT due to sampling
signal u(t) is expressed as the summation of N / 2 and/or transient effects in u(t), U will include
harmonics of constant amplitudes and phases. many high-frequency harmonics (i.e., leakage
If h(t) denotes the Hilbert transform (HT) of in the frequency domain) caused by Gibbs
u(t), it can be shown that [16] phenomenon [17,18], which makes it difficult to
understand the Fourier spectrum of u(t). Gibbs
X
N=2
phenomenon happens because many continuous
htk  hk 2 ai sin !i tk  bi cos !i tk
i1 functions (i.e., cos!i t and sin!i t in (6a)) are
! required to fit a discontinuous function, and it
X
N=2
Imag 2 ai  jbi e j!i tk results in overshoots at the discontinuous points
i1 of the function [17]. For example, Figure 2 shows
!
X
N=2 Gibbs phenomenon caused by the discontinuity
j!i tk
Imag ai  jbi e at t 0, T. The exact HT of ut sin2t 0:1
iN=2 is ht cos2t 0:1. Although the u(tk) from
H!i  bi  jai : 6c the inverse DFT (IDFT) agrees with the exact
u(t), Gibbs phenomenon causes overshoots at the
In other words, h(t) is the u(t) with each har- two ends of h(tk). The overshoots in u(t) have a
monic components phase being shifted by 90 . constant height (=17.9% of the discontinuity)
Moreover, (6a) and (6c) show that the Fourier and they move towards the discontinuous points
spectrum needed for computing h(t) can be used as the number of terms N increases [18].
to compute the instantaneous velocity and accel- The DFT is a frequency method, which
eration by using the inverse DFT as extracts regular harmonics from the whole sam-
pled period of the signal and cannot provide time-
X
N=2
varying characteristics of the processed signal.
ut jht a0 2 ai  jbi e j!i t
i1
Wavelet analysis is windowed Fourier analysis
X
N=2 using a predetermined localized wavetrain (i.e., a
_ 2
_ jht
ut j!i ai  jbi e j!i t wavelet) to extract localized components similar
i1 to the wavelet [19]. Hence, wavelet transform is a
X
N=2 time-frequency method that can provide time-
ut 2
jht !2i ai  jbi e j!i t : 7 varying characteristics of the processed signal.
i1 The Morlet wavelet w(t) is arguably the original
1.5
Gibbs
1
u(t)
0.5
u(t), h(t)

0
0.5
1 h(t)

1.5
2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (s)

Figure 2 The IDFT and HT of ut sin2t 0:1, 05t51:8, with T 1:8 and N 40, where the solid lines represent
the exact u(t ) and h(t) and the lines with dots are the u(tk) from IDFT and the h(tk) from HT.

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
110 Structural Health Monitoring 7(2)

wavelet and is a popular wavelet obtained by minimize the square error Eerror defined as
localizing a complex sine wave using a Gaussian
(bell-shaped) envelope as X
m
Eerror  jij ui  u^ i 2 , 11
2 2
=z20 im
wt, z0 cos2t jsin2te2t 
2 2 2 2
 ez0 =22t  =z0 8 where ui denotes uti from (9) and u^ i denotes the
experimental data at ti . The total number of
where z0 = is the envelope width. Although the points used is 2m 1, jij is the weighting factor,
Morlet wavelet can extract localized harmonics, and the forgetting factor 
1 is chosen by the
the extracted harmonics are artificially distorted user. The seven equations to determine Ci and C^ i
by the Gaussian envelope used in wt, z0 . In for the point at t 0 are given by
order to understand the properties of Hilbert
Huang transform we present in the next section a Xm
@Eerror @ui
sliding-window fitting method using a set of 2jij ui  u^ i 0,
@Cj @C j
predetermined regular harmonics as a wavelet for im

extracting local, distorted harmonics. Cj  C1 , C^ 1 , C2 , C^ 2 , C3 , C^ 3 , C4 : 12

3.2 Sliding-Window Fitting Because, for example, @ui =@C1 cos!1 ti , (12)
shows that Cj are extracted by using the ortho-
If a time signal u(t) is identified from its gonality between the predetermined functions
Fourier spectrum to have two major frequencies used in (9) and the experimental data u^ i . After Ci
!1 and !2 5!1 , one can assume that and C^ i are determined, it follows from (9) that

ut e1 cos!1 t e2 sin!1 t e3 cos!2 t uts C1 C2 C3

2
e4 sin!2 t e5 e6 t e7 t _ s !1 C^ 1 !2 C^ 2 C^ 3
ut
C1 cos!1 t C^ 1 sin!1 t s !21 C1  !22 C2 2C4 :
ut 13
C2 cos!2 t C^ 2 sin!2 t C3
It indicates that u(ts) consists of the instantaneous
C^ 3 t C4 t 2 9
value C1 of the harmonic cos !1 t, the instanta-
neous value C2 of the harmonic cos !2 t, and the
where ei are constants, t t  ts is a moving low-frequency moving average C3. More impor-
time coordinate, ts is the observed time instant, tantly, each of u, u, _ and u is decomposed into
and three components of different frequencies.
q Furthermore, it follows from (10) that
C1  e21 e22 cos!1 ts  1 , q q
q
e2 A1  C21 C^ 21 e21 e22 ,
C^ 1   e21 e22 sin!1 ts  1 , tan1 
e1
q C^ 1
1  tan1 !1 ts  1
C2  e23 e24 cos!2 ts  2 , C1
q q q
e4
C^ 2   e23 e24 sin!2 ts  2 , tan2  A2  C22 C^ 22 e23 e24 ,
e3
C3 e5 e6 ts e7 t2s , C^ 2
2  tan1 !2 ts  2 14
C2
C^ 3 e6 2e7 ts , C4 e7 : 10
where A1 and A2 are the instantaneous ampli-
To obtain the coefficients Cj and C^ j for the data tudes of the first and second harmonics, respec-
point at t 0 we use data points around t ts to tively. To reduce the influence of noise on the

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016

calculated instantaneous frequency !i, each !i at
t ts can be computed by averaging over 4t as
P2
d1 1 ts it  1 ts i  1t
!1  i1
dt 4t
P2
d2 2 ts it  2 ts i  1t
!2  i1
dt 4t
15
Because harmonic functions are not ortho-
gonal to the polynomial C3 C^ 3 t C4 t2 , one
needs to choose an appropriate window length to
enforce the orthogonality in order to obtain
unique values for each Ci and C^ i . Numerical results
show that an appropriate choice is 2mt  4=!2 ,
i.e., two periods of the lowest-frequency harmonic.
This method can be used to extract as many
harmonics as needed by adding to (9) major
harmonics identified from the signals Fourier
spectrum.
3.3 HilbertHuang Transform
HilbertHuang Transform (HHT) is a relati-
vely new technique for processing nonlinear and
nonstationary signals [1014]. The two major steps
of HHT are (i) using the empirical mode decom-
position (EMD) method to decompose a time-
domain signal u(t) into n intrinsic mode functions
(IMFs) ci corresponding to different intrinsic time
scales as
X
n
ut ci t rn ,
i1
where rn is the residual, and (ii) performing Hilbert
transform and computing the time-dependent
frequency !i and amplitude Ai of each ci [10,11].
The time-frequency-energy (i.e., t  !i  Ai ) distri-
bution is named the Hilbert spectrum and is
denoted by H!, t.
An IMF is a function that satisfies two
conditions: (i) the number of extrema and the
number of zero crossing must either equal or
differ at most by one in the whole data, and
(ii) the envelope defined by the local maxima and
minima is symmetric and hence the mean value
of the maxima envelope and the minima envelope
Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
Pai et al. Time-Frequency Method for Nonlinear System 111
is zero at any point. The EMD is based on the
assumptions that the signal has at least one maxi-
mum and one minimum, and the characteristic
time scale is defined by the time lapse between
the extrema. Once the extrema are identified, all
the local maxima are connected by a natural
: cubic spline line as the upper envelope. Repeat
the procedure for the local minima to produce
the lower envelope. The mean of the upper and
lower envelopes is designated as m11 , and the first
intrinsic function c1 is estimated as c11 given by
c11 ut  m11 : 17
Ideally the upper and lower envelopes should
cover all the data between them. In reality, over-
shoots and undershoots may exist, and they
generate new extrema and shift or exaggerate the
existing ones after the process shown in (17).
New extrema generated in this way actually reco-
ver the proper modes lost in the initial examina-
tion, and this process can recover low-amplitude
riding waves with repeated sifting. This process is
like sifting because it uses the characteristic time
scale to separate the finest local mode from the
data first. The sifting process is to eliminate riding
waves and to make the wave-profiles more sym-
metric. Toward this end, the sifting process has to
be repeated more times. In the kth sifting process,
c1k1 is treated as the data, then
c1k c1k1  m1k , k 2, . . . , K: 18
16 Keep repeating the process until all the local
maxima are positive, all the local minima are
negative, and waves are almost symmetric. Then
c1k is accepted as c1. A systematic method of
determining the end of iteration is to limit the
deviation Dv computed from the two consecutive
sifting results as
sP
N 2
i1 c1k ti  c1k1 ti 19
Dv  PN 2
i1 c1k1 ti
to be a small number and/or to limit the maxi-
mum number of iterations [10,11]. Here ti it,
and Nt T is the sampled period. After the c1
is obtained, define the residual r1, treat r1 as the
112 Structural Health Monitoring 7(2)

new data, and repeat the steps shown in (17)
and (18) as
c21 r1  m21 , r1  ut  c1
c2k c2k1  m2k , k 2, . . . , K:
After the c2 is obtained, define the residual r2,
treat r2 as the new data, and repeat the steps as
c31 r2  m31 , r2  ut  c1  c2
c3k c3k1  m3k , k 2, . . . , K
The whole sifting process can be stopped when
the residual rn becomes a monotonic function
from which no more IMF can be extracted. In
other words, the last IMF has no more than two
extrema. For data with a trend, rn should be the
trend. After all ci(t) are extracted, one can
perform Hilbert transform to obtain di(t) from
each ci. Then one can combine the ci and di into
a complex function zi and use (16) to obtain
q Because the m1k in (17) and (18) is the
zi t  ci t jdi t Ai e ji , Ai c2i d 2i ,
i tan1 di =ci
!
X
n
ut Real ci t jdi t
i1
! tives of u are shared by all extracted ci and rn.
X
n
Real Ai te ji t
i1
Comparing the Ai(t) in (22) with the ai  jbi in
(6a) reveals that the HHT is a time-varying signal
decomposition method, and it allows the use of
distorted harmonics to present a complex signal
using just a few IMFs.
To reduce the influence of noise on the cal-
culated frequency !i di =dt, each !i can be
obtained by averaging over 4t, as shown in (15).
However, for damage detection applications, it is
better to compute the true instantaneous !i and
other time derivatives using
which are derived from (22). Here, c_i , ci , d_i , and
di can be computed using the method shown in
(7) for computing the time derivatives of u and
h using the inverse Fourier transform. As shown
20 in (16), the ci represent a complete set of basis
functions and they are local and adaptive, but
they may not be really orthogonal to each
other. Even regular harmonics of different fre-
quencies are not exactly orthogonal, and it is
21 why the continuous wavelet in the most com-
monly used Morlet form suffers from severe
leakage [19]. However, the EMD does not use
orthogonality of functions to extract ci, and this
makes HHT essentially different from Fourier
and wavelet transforms. Moreover, because
distorted harmonics with time-dependent fre-
quencies and amplitudes are allowed in the
data decomposition, it doesnt need spurious
harmonics to represent nonlinear/nonstationary
signals.
average of the upper and lower cubic spline
envelopes, m1k , m_ 1k and m 1k are continuous time
functions. Hence, the discontinuities of u, u, _ and
u remain in c1 t and the discontinuities of
third-order and other higher-order time deriva-
22 Because the first IMF, c1 t, from HHT analysis
retains all discontinuities of u, u, _ and u, all
other ci, c_i , and ci i > 1 are essentially contin-
uous. Hence, the !1 and A1 of c1 t become
excellent indicators for pinpointing time instants
of impacting loads on structures, as shown later
by experimental results. Hence, HHT is more
versatile than Fourier and wavelet transforms
for signal decomposition and time-frequency-
energy presentation of nonlinear/nonstationary
signals.
4 Numerical Simulations

ci c_i di d_i c_2 ci ci d_2i di di  A_ 2i The perturbation solutions shown in (3) and
A_ i , A i i
Ai Ai (4) show that nonlinearities can be revealed by
_
di ci di  c_i di the time-varying dynamic characteristics extracted
!i , from dynamic responses. Next we demonstrate
dt A2i
how to use HHT and SWF to extract such
ci di  ci di  2!i ci c_i di d_i information from linear, nonlinear, stationary,
!_ i 23
A2i and/or transient signals.

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
 Pai et al. Time-Frequency Method for Nonlinear System 113

4.1 Intrawave Modulation better than that from SWF because the frequency
variation and nonorthogonality of the functions
To show intrawave amplitude- and frequency-
used in (9) causes serious leakage errors in SWF
modulated motions we consider the following
analysis. However, when !p reduces and/or
=!p
function
is an integer, the errors become smaller because of
function orthogonality. The c1 in Figure 3(b) is
ut 2 0:2sin !a tsin
t sin!p t obtained using itrmax 20 (the maximum allow-

randn 24 able number of iterations) and Dv 0:001.
Next we perform HHT and SWF analyses of
the following function
where
2 (i.e., 1Hz), !a 0:1
, and
!p 0:3
. The number of samples, N, is 1024; the
randn is a N  1 vector of normally distributed ut 2  0:3sin!a tsin2:5
t sin!p t
random numbers with a mean of zero and a  4 0:01t2
standard deviation of one;  0:005; and t
3 0:6sin!a te0:05t sin
t
30=1024, which is used in all following examples,
except otherwise stated. Figure 3 shows the results 
randn 25
from HHT and SWF analyses, where the thin
broken lines in Figure. 3(c)(f) represent the where
2, !a 0:1
, !p 0:2
,  0:01,
original functions in (24). Figure 3(c) and (d) show and t 30=1024. Figure 4 shows the results,
that the Hilbert spectra from HHT well capture where the broken thin lines represent the original
the amplitude modulation frequency !a functions in (25). Again, the Hilbert spectra from
0:1 Hz, the variation of amplitude 0:2, the HHT well capture the amplitude-modulation
phase modulation frequency !p 0:3 Hz, and frequency !a 0:1 Hz, the variation of ampli-
the variation of frequency !p 0:3 Hz. tude A1 0:3, the phase-modulation fre-
The accuracy of Hilbert spectrum from HHT is quency !p 0:2 Hz, the variation of frequency

(a) 3 (c) 1.6 (e) 1.6

2 1.4 w1 1.4 w1
Frequency (Hz)

Frequency (Hz)

1 1.2 1.2

0 1 1
u

1 0.8 0.8

2 0.6 0.6

3 0.4 0.4
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

(b) 3 (d) 2.6 (f) 2.6

c1
2 2.4 2.4
A1
1 2.2 2.2
Amplitude

Amplitude

A1
ci & rn

0 2 2

1 1.8 1.8

2 1.6 1.6

3 1.4 1.4
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 3 HHT and SWF analyses of (24) with !a 0:1
and !p 0:3
: (a) u(t), (b) c1 and r1, (c,d) !1 and A1 of c1 from
HHT, and (e,f) !1 and A1 of C1 from SWF.

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
114 Structural Health Monitoring 7(2)

(a) 10 (c) 4 (e) 4

Frequency (Hz)

Frequency (Hz)
5 3 w1 3
w1
0 2 2
u

w2 w2
5 1 1

10 0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)
(b) 5 (d) 4 (f) 4
c2
c1
3 3

Amplitude
Amplitude
A1 A1
ci & rn

0 2 2

1 1
A2 A2
r2
5 0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 4 HHT and SWF analyses of (25) with !a 0:1
and !p 0:2
: (a) u(t), (b) ci and r2, (c,d) !i and Ai of ci from
HHT, and (e,f) !i and Ai of Ci from SWF.

!p 0:2 Hz, and the low-frequency transi- 4.2 Identification of Nonlinearities
ent part (i.e., r2). However, the cubic spline fitting
(affected by noise and the transient part r2) of 4.2.1 Cubic Nonlinearity
local extrema causes errors in the HHT, and the We consider the following oscillator with
most serious errors of HHT occur at the two cubic nonlinearity:
ends and are mainly caused by discontinuity (due
to ci 0 6 ci T) and hence Gibbs phenomenon
u 2 !u_ !2 u u3 Fsin
t: 26
introduced during Hilbert transform of each
IMF. If itrmax is large, the Gibbs phenomenon
becomes more serious but more localized at the For a forced vibration with F 20, ! 2,
two data ends. To reduce Gibbs phenomenon in _ 0, Figure. 5(a)(d)
0:03,  1, and u0 u0
the Hilbert transform of an IMF, one can add to show the results from HHT analysis of the
the two ends characteristic waves to make the steady-state responses with
0:7! and
!,
slightly enlarged data begin and end with zero. respectively. We note that the amplitude and
On the other hand, the Hilbert spectra from phase modulation frequency is always 2
even
SWF suffers again from the frequency variation when
is away from !, which reveals that the
and nonorthogonality of the basis functions used nonlinearity is cubic. Figure 5(c) and (d) can be
in (9). Because the frequency ratio !p =2:5
is used to estimate a. From (3) and Figure 5(c) and
smaller than that in Figure 3(e) and (f), the (d) one can estimate the average amplitude as
extracted !1 and A1 have relatively smaller errors. a 2:9176, and the variation amplitude of fre-
It is obvious that the error patterns of both quency as 2a3
=a 0:0146  2. Hence, a3
transforms are different because HHT extracts the 0:02130, and  32
2 a3 =a3 1:083. The a is
highest-frequency IMF first and the lowest-fre- positive because !1 is at it maximum when u(t) is
quency IMF last, but the SWF use orthogonality at its extrema, as revealed by (3) and discussed in
of predetermined functions to extract all IMFs at Section 2. Moreover, Figure 5(e) shows that the
the same time. slope of the !1  A1 curve is a constant of

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
 Pai et al. Time-Frequency Method for Nonlinear System 115

(a) 0.705 (c) 1.03

w1 1.02 w1
Frequency (Hz)

Frequency (Hz)
1.01
0.7 1
0.99
0.98
0.695 0.97
60 70 80 90 60 70 80 90
Time (s) Time (s)
(b) 0.965 (d) 2.96 (e) 2.95
2.94
A1
A1 2.94
0.96 Amplitude 2.93
Amplitude

A1
2.92 2.92

0.955 2.91
2.9
2.9

0.95 2.88 2.89

60 70 80 90 60 70 80 90 0.98 0.99 1 1.01 1.02
Time (s) Time (s) w1 (Hz)

_
Figure 5 The !1 and A1 of the c1 from HHT analysis of (26) with F 20,  1, and u0 u0 0: (a,b)
1:4,
(c,d)
2, and (e)
2.

0.2334 and hence !1 =A1 dA1 =d!1 0:50264,
which also reveals it is a cubic nonlinearity (see (3)).
For a free vibration with F 0, ! 2,
0:03,  1, u0 8, and u0_ 0, Figure 6
shows the results of HHT analysis. It reveals that
the natural frequency !1 is about 1 Hz and the
frequency-modulation frequency !p 2!1 , which
indicates the nonlinearity is cubic, as shown in (3).
Moreover, because Figure 6(b) and (d) show
that !1 increases when the amplitude A1 incre-
ases, it is a hardening nonlinearity (i.e.,  > 0).
Because !1 ! 3A21 =8! from perturbation
analysis [8], the a can be estimated using
Figure 6(c) and (d) and the perturbation
solution to be  8!!1  !=3A21 , as shown in
Figure 6(e). We note that the estimated a is
accurate only when 55t510 (i.e., 1:1 Hz >
!1 > 1:0 Hz), which is because the perturbation
solution is valid only for weakly nonlinear pro-
blems. The formula is invalid when A1 is too
large, and the formula becomes singular when A1
is too small. The backbone curve shown in
Figure 6(f) can be smoothed by averaging out the
high-frequency small variation [20,21], which is
the essence of perturbation analysis. However,
this small variation actually contains the
nonlinear characteristics, as shown in Figure 6(c).
Moreover, the smoothed backbone curve is
different from the quadratic curve predicted
by perturbation analysis. The damping ratio can
be estimated using Figure 6(d) to be
d logA1 =!dt 0:02984. Note that the
t  logA1 curve around large A1 is below the line
tangent to the right end also indicates that it is a
hardening nonlinearity.
4.2.2 Quadratic Nonlinearity
Next we consider the following oscillator with
quadratic nonlinearity:
u 2 !u_ !2 u u2 Fsin
t: 27
For a forced vibration with F 20, ! 2,
_ 0, Figure 7
0:03,  1, and u0 u0
shows the results of HHT analysis. We note that
the amplitude and phase modulation frequency is
always
even when
is away from !, which
reveals that the nonlinearity is quadratic.
Moreover, the a can be determined to be positive
because !1 is at its maximum (minimum) when
u(t) is at its maximum (minimum), as discussed

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
116 Structural Health Monitoring 7(2)

(a) 8 (c) 1.8 (e) 2

6
1.6
4 1.5
2

w1 (Hz)
1.4
0 1

a
u

2 1.2
4 0.5
1
6
8 0.8 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

(b) 8 (d) 3 (f) 7

6 6
2
4 5
2
Log (A1)
1 4
ci & rn

A1
0
3
2 0
2
4
1 1
6
8 2 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time (s) Time (s) w1 (Hz)

_
Figure 6 HHT analysis of (26) with F 0,  1, u0 8, and u0 0: (a) u(t), (b)c1 and r1, (c,d) !1 and log(A1) of c1,
(e) estimated a, and (f) !1  A1 curve.

(a) 0.74 (c) 1.1 (e) 0.7

w1
w1
Frequency (Hz)

Frequency (Hz)

0.72 1.05 0.695

0.7 1 0.69
a

0.68 0.95 0.685

0.66 0.9 0.68

60 70 80 90 60 70 80 90 60 70 80 90
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

(b) 0.996 (d) 7.52 (f) 7.52

0.994 A1
A1 7.51 7.51
Amplitude

Amplitude

0.992
A1

7.5 7.5
0.99
7.49 7.49
0.988

0.986 7.48 7.48

60 70 80 90 60 70 80 90 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1
Time (s) Time (s) w1 (Hz)

_
Figure 7 The !1 and A1 of the c1 from HHT analysis of (27) with F 20,  1, and u0 u0 0: (a,b)
1:4,
(c,d)
2, and (e,f)
2.

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
 Pai et al. Time-Frequency Method for Nonlinear System 117

(a) 8 (c) 1.1 (e) 2

6
4 1.05 1.5
2

w1 (Hz)
1

a
0 1
u

2
4 0.95 0.5
6
8 0.9 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)
(b) 8 (d) 3 (f) 8
6
2 6
4
2 Log (A1) 1
ci & rn

A1
0
2 0
4 2
1
6
8 2 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time (s) Time (s) w1 (Hz)

_
Figure 8 HHT analysis of (27) with F 0,  1, u0 8, and u0 0: (a) u(t), (b)c1 and r1, (c,d) !1 and log(A1) of c1,
(e) estimated a, and (f) !1  A1 curve.

in Section 2. It follows from (4) and Figure 7(c) indicates the nonlinearity is quadratic, as shown
and (d) that one can estimate the average in (4). The extracted residual r1 is negative and
amplitude as a 7:498, and the variation ampli- significant when A1 is large and hence  > 0. The
tude of frequency as
a2 =a 0:061  2. Hence,
a2 0:45738, and  6
2 a2 =a2 1:927, which is
inaccurate. The extracted residual r1 0:493
(i.e., a0 in (4)) is negative and hence  > 0. The
a can be also estimated as  2
2 r1 =A21
(see (4)), which is also inaccurate as shown in
Figure 7(e). Figure 7(f) shows that the slope of
the !1  A1 curve is not constant, but the
perturbation solution predicts it to be a constant
(see (4)). This indicates the inaccuracy of the
perturbation solution. However, this special
!1  A1 curve can be used to identify quadratic
nonlinearity. Moreover, numerical simulations
reveal that, if a factor of 0.72 is used to estimate
the a as  2
2 r1 =A21 =0:72, the estimated a has
a maximum error about 8% for 20055200.
Hence, this factor is recommended for identifica-
tion in order to rectify the perturbation formula.
For a free vibration with F 0, ! 2,
_ 0, Figure 8
0:03,  1, u0 8, and u0
shows the results of HHT analysis. It reveals that
the natural frequency !1 is about 1 Hz and the
frequency-modulation frequency !p !1 , which
Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
a is estimated using  2
2 r1 =A21 and shown
in Figure 8(e), which is inaccurate but the error
would be 5 5% if the factor 0.72 is used to
rectify the perturbation formula as
2 2
 2
r1 =A1 =0:72. Figures 8(c) and (d) show
that, when A1 is large, the average of !1
decreases slightly but !1 modulates significantly,
which is not predicted by the perturbation solu-
tion. The damping ratio can be estimated using
Figure 8(d) to be d logA1 =!dt 0:03032.
Note that the t  logA1 curve is straighter than
the one in Figure 6(d). The backbone curve
shown in Figure 8(f) shows significant variation.
4.2.3 Higher-Order Nonlinearities
We consider the following oscillator with nth-
order nonlinearity:
u 2 !u_ !2 u un Fsin
t: 28
For a forced vibration with F 20,
! 2,
_ 0, and n 5 and
0:03,  1, u0 u0
n 7, Figure 9 shows the results of HHT analysis
of the steady-state responses. We note that, when
118 Structural Health Monitoring 7(2)

(a) 2.01 (b) 1.7

2
1.68
1.99
1.98 1.66

A1

A1
1.97 1.64
1.96
1.62
1.95
1.94 1.6
0.98 1 1.02 1.04 0.96 0.98 1 1.02 1.04 1.06
w1 (Hz) w1 (Hz)

_
Figure 9 The !1  A1 curve of the c1 from HHT analysis of (28) with F 20,  1, and u0 u0 0: (a) n 5
(!1 =A1 dA1 =d!1  0:545), and (b) n 7 (!1 =A1 dA1 =d!1  0:551).

(a) 1.6 (c) 2.1

1.58
2.05

1.56 a
a

2
1.54

1.52 1.95
60 70 80 90 60 70 80 90
Time (s) Time (s)

(b) 1.94 (d) 1.62

1.935
1.61

1.93
A1

A1

1.6
1.925

1.59
1.92

1.915 1.58
0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1
w1 (Hz) w1 (Hz)

_
Figure 10 The a and !1  A1 curve of the c1 from HHT analysis of (28) with F 5,  1, and u0 u0 0: (a,b)
n 4, and (c,d) n 6.

n increases, the !1  A1 curve bends and the
!1 =A1 dA1 =d!1 deviates more from 0.5, which
can be used to identify higher-order odd-power
nonlinearities.
For a forced vibration with F 5,
! 2,
_ 0, and n 4 and
0:03,  1, u0 u0
n 6, Figure 10 shows the results of HHT analysis
of the steady-state responses, where the a is
estimated as  2
2 r1 =A21 . We note that the
!1  A1 curves are dramatically different from that
in Figure 7(f). When n increases, the !1  A1 curve
becomes skinnier and the modulation frequency of
a increases, which can be used to distinguish
different order of nonlinearities. Moreover, the

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
 Pai et al. Time-Frequency Method for Nonlinear System 119

Window NT

Video control box 400 MHz.

PCB 790
Pan/tilt

HP33120A
Video
Controller Fun.gen. Power amp.
Interferometer
B
Scanner

A
x
OFV-3001-S

OFV-055 scan head

W u
Video
OFV-303 A
Sensor head B

Beam

PZT
Z

Figure 11 The experimental setup of the scanning laser vibrometer and a vertically cantilevered beam for vibration
testing.

estimated a deviates more different from the high frequency bandwidth (0.2Hz20MHz),
actual value. and accurate (a velocity resolution of 0.1 mm=s)
measurements.
Figure 12 shows the large-amplitude opera-
tional deflection shapes captured using a digital
5 Experimental Verification
camera when the beam was subjected to a
harmonic excitation at the first four linear nat-
5.1 System Identification
ural frequencies, respectively. Although the vibra-
To verify the HHT for signal decomposition tion amplitudes are big, the operational
and the proposed method for system identifica- deflection shapes are almost the same as linear
tion we investigated the nonlinear vibration of a mode shapes. When the beam is subjected to a
496:8 mm  52:07 mm  0:4699 mm vertically can- harmonic excitation at the first linear natural
tilevered titanium alloy beam and used a Polytec frequency (i.e.,
! 1 1:313 Hz), the time-
PSV-200 scanning laser vibrometer for vibration varying amplitude and frequency from HHT
measurement, as shown in Figure 11. The excita- analysis (Figure 13(c) and (d) clearly show
tion was provided through a lead zirconate modulations at 2
and hence the nonlinearity is
titanate (PZT) patch glued close to the clamped cubic. Moreover, the !1  A1 curve is almost the
end of the beam. The PSV-200 scanning laser same as Figure 5(e) with !1 =A1 dA1 =d!1
vibrometer can provide noncontact (measuring 0:491, which also indicates it is a cubic nonlinear-
velocities of a dynamical system by checking the ity (see (3)). Figures 13(a) and (c) show that the
frequency shift of a back-scattered laser beam), !1 of the extracted c1 is at its minimum when u(t)
remote (up to 30 m away), large-area scanning is at its extrema and hence it is a softening cubic
(up to 40  40 ), dense (up to 512  512 points), nonlinearity, but the perturbation solution

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
120 Structural Health Monitoring 7(2)
P4
P1
P3
P2
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 12 The operational deflection shape of the beam
subjected to a harmonic excitation at a linear natural
frequency: (a) ! 1 1:313 Hz, (b) ! 2 9:406 Hz,
(c) ! 3 26:28 Hz, and (d) ! 4 51:25 Hz.
predicts that the first-mode vibration should be
slightly hardening due to geometric nonlinearity
[22]. The reason is that the beam is slightly tilted
to the left (see Figure 12(d), and hence gravity-
induced initial bending causes the softening
effect. The large-amplitude second-mode vibra-
tion (i.e.,
! 2 9:406 Hz) shown in Figure
13(e)(h) shows modulations at 2
and
, which
is because of the cubic nonlinearity due to large-
amplitude vibration and the quadratic nonlinear-
ity due to gravity-induced bending. Moreover,
the !1  A1 curve consists of two major lines
with !1 =A1 dA1 =d
1 0.486 and 0.753, which
also indicates the existence of both cubic and
quadratic nonlinearities.
For
! 3 26:28 Hz and the response
measured at Point P3 in Figure 12(c), the signal
can be decomposed into two IMFs with
!1  2
 2! 3 and !2 
, as shown in Figure
14(b)(d). The modulation frequency of !2 is 2
,
which indicates the existence of cubic nonlinear-
ity. But, the 1 : 2 superharmonic resonance indi-
cates the existence of quadratic nonlinearity in
the system, and the quadratic nonlinearity is
revealed by the gravity-induced bending shown in
Figure 12(d) and was also experimentally verified
Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
by using a camera-based motion analysis system.
For the response measured at Point P4 in Figure
12(c), Figure 14(f)(h) shows that the r1 > 0 and
!1 and A1 modulating at
also confirms the
existence of quadratic nonlinearity with 50
(see (4) and (27)). The !1  A1 curve shown in
Figure 14(i) is similar to Figure 7(f) but is
stretched by the cubic nonlinearity (see Figure
P5 5(e). Moreover, the !1 is about at its maximum
(minimum) when A1 is at its maximum
(minimum) but u(t) is not at any specific value.
As explained right after (2c), this indicates the
existence of two independent harmonics with the
low-frequency harmonic has a larger amplitude.
Hence, we conclude from Figure 14(c), (d), (g)
and (h) that the vibration consists of two modal
vibrations: the third and fourth modes.
(d) Moreover, the vibration of Point P5 (Figure
12(d)) when
! 4 51:25 Hz also reveals the
existence of quadratic nonlinearity as well as
cubic nonlinearity.
5.2 Locating Impacts
On-line detection of impacts and intermittent
transient vibrations by processing time signals
measured at a few locations to pinpoint impact
instants in each signal and then locate impact
locations by time-of-flight analysis and triangula-
tion is one of the major methods for structural
health monitoring and condition-based system
inspection [23]. Figures 1517 show the HHT and
SWF analyses of the third-mode vibration
(Figure 12(c) of a point about 13 cm above the
clamped end and the beam being impacted by a
tiny aluminum bar at a point close to the
clamped end. These impact tests were chosen to
be performed under a stationary nonlinear vibra-
tion in order to show the capabilities of HHT for
processing nonlinear non-stationary signals. It is
obvious that the time-varying frequencies and
amplitudes of the first IMF, c1, from HHT
clearly indicates the time instants of impacts
because c1 contains all discontinuity of the
original signal and the impacts introduce IMFs
of different time scales. On the other hand, the
time-varying frequency and amplitude of the only
component extracted from SWF do not clearly
indicate the time instants of impacts because of
 Pai et al. Time-Frequency Method for Nonlinear System 121

(a) 0.4 (c) 1.4

0.2 1.35

Frequency (Hz)
0 1.3
u

0.2 1.25

0.4 1.2
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Time (s) Time (s)

(b) 0.4 (d) 0.28

0.2 0.275

Amplitude
ci & rn

0 0.27

0.2 0.265

0.4 0.26
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Time (s) Time (s)

(e) 1 (g) 9.8

0.5 9.6
Frequency (Hz)

0 9.4
u

0.5 9.2

1 9
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Time (s) Time (s)

(f) 1 (h) 0.66

0.5 0.65
Amplitude
ci & rn

0 0.64

0.5 0.63

1 0.62
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 13 HHT analysis of the large-amplitude first and second modal vibrations: (a) u(t), (b) c1 and r1, (c,d) !1 and A1
of c1 of Point P1 in Figure 12(a); (e) u(t), (f) c1 and r1, and (g,h) !1 and A1 of c1 of Point P2 in Figure 12(b).

the use of predetermined basis functions and r1 t  ut  c1 t according to (16) although the
function orthogonality for component extraction r1 is not really the trend of the signal.
(see (9) and (12)). Note that, because only one For pinpointing impact instants using wavelet
IMF is extracted in Figures 15(b), 16(b), and 17(b), analysis, numerical experiments show that it is

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
122 Structural Health Monitoring 7(2)

(a) 0.2 (c) 80

0.1 60 w1

Frequency (Hz)
0 40

u
w2

0.1 20

0.2 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (s) Time (s)

(b) 0.2 (d) 0.15

c2
c1 A1
0.1
0.1

Amplitude
ci & rn

0.05
0.1 A2

0.2 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (s) Time (s)

(e) 1.5 (g) 40

1 35
w1
Frequency (Hz)

0.5 30

0 25
u

0.5 20

1 15

1.5 10
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (s) Time (s)

(f) 1.5 (i) 1.2

r1 (h)
c1
1 1.1 1.1
A1
0.5
Amplitude

1 1
ci & rn

A1

0
0.9 0.9
0.5
0.8 0.8
1

1.5 0.7 0.7

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.5 1 1.5 20 25 30

Time (s) Time (s) w1 (Hz)

Figure 14 HHT analysis of the large-amplitude third-mode vibration: (a) u(t), (b) ci and r2, (c,d) !i and Ai of ci of Point P3
in Figure 12(c); (e) u(t), (f) c1 and r1, (g,h) !1 and A1, and (i) !1  A1 curve of c1 of Point P4 in Figure 12(c).

better to perform one-step decomposition using a the Daubechies wavelet db10 in MATLAB.
high-order wavelet. Figure 18(a) and (b) show the Figure 18(c) and (d) show the d1 of the u(t)
level-1 approximation a1 and the detail d1 of the shown in Figures. 16(a) and 17(a). Although the
u ( a1 d1 ) shown in Figure 15(a) by using d1 component of each u(t) clearly indicates the

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
 Pai et al. Time-Frequency Method for Nonlinear System 123

(a) 1 (c) 800 (e) 50

600
40

Frequency (Hz)

Frequency (Hz)
0.5 400
200 30
u (t)

0 0
200 20
0.5 400
10
600
1 800 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

(b) 1 (d) 1 (f) 1

r1 c1
0.8 0.8
0.5 Amplitude

Amplitude
0.6 0.6
ci (t)

0
0.4 0.4
0.5
0.2 0.2

1 0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 15 HHT and SWF analyses of the third-mode vibration subjected to one impact: (a) u(t), (b) c1 and r1, (c,d)
!1 and A1 of c1 from HHT; and (e,f) !1 and A1 of C1 from SWF.

(a) 1.5 (c) 800 (e) 60

1 600
Frequency (Hz)

Frequency (Hz)

400 40
0.5
200
u (t)

0 20
0
0.5
200 0
1 400
1.5 600 20
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

(b) 1.5 (d) 1.4 (f) 1.4

r1
c1 1.2 1.2
1
1 1
0.5
Amplitude

Amplitude

0.8 0.8
ci (t)

0
0.6 0.6
0.5
0.4 0.4
1 0.2 0.2
1.5 0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 16 HHT and SWF analyses of the third-mode vibration subjected to three impacts: (a) u(t), (b) c1 and r1, (c,d) !1
and A1 of c1 from HHT; and (e,f) !1 and A1 of C1 from SWF.

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
124 Structural Health Monitoring 7(2)

(a) 1.5 (c) 800 (e) 80

1 600

Frequency (Hz)
60

Frequency (Hz)
400
0.5 200 40
u (t)

0 0
200 20
0.5
400
1 0
600
1.5 800 20
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)
(b) 1.5 (d) 1.4 (f) 1.4

1 c1 1.2 1.2
1 1

Amplitude
0.5

Amplitude
0.8 0.8
ci (t)

0
0.6 0.6
0.5
0.4 0.4
1 0.2 0.2
r1
1.5 0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 17 HHT and SWF analyses of the third-mode vibration subjected to four impacts: (a) u(t), (b) c1 and r1, (c,d) !1
and A1 of c1 from HHT; and (e,f) !1 and A1 of C1 from SWF.

beginning of each impact, each spike of the d1 patch than using an electromechanical shaker.
has a low value and a long duration, which may Our experiments on a 558:8 mm  25:4 mm
cause difficulty in finding the exact number and 6:4 mm aluminum alloy beam using an electro-
time instants of small impacts. On the other mechanical shaker showed that it was difficult to
hand, each spike of the !1 in Figures 15(c), 16(c), have nonlinear vibration but keep the excitation
and 17(c) has a high value and a short during. harmonic (even with the use of a feedback
The small spike right next to the third spike in controller) because of the coupling between the
Figure 17(c) indicates a secondary impact due to shaker and the beam. However, a PZT patch has
improper handling of the impact bar, but it is not only limited power to harmonically excite a small
revealed in Figure 18(d). The time-varying fre- or flexible structure to have large-amplitude
quency of a1 (Figure 18(a)) from wavelet analysis vibrations, and hence the flexible beam shown in
cannot be accurately computed using Hilbert Figure 12 was chosen for testing. Unlike regular
transform because its envelope is not symmetric structures, geometric nonlinearity of such a
and hence it is not an IMF. Note that the spikes highly flexible structure appears only when the
of d1 and those of the !1 in Figures 15(e), 16(e), vibration amplitude is much larger than the
and 17(e) have small values and long durations thickness [1].
because both SWF and wavelet analysis use The points P1, P2, P4, and P5 in Figure 12
localized basis functions and orthogonality for were chosen because the laser beam was almost
component extraction. perpendicular to the structural surface at these
points and there were large displacements and
hence large signal-to-noise ratios to show clear
5.3 Discussions
geometric nonlinearity. The point P3 was chosen
To examine nonlinear vibrations under a to show multi-frequency vibrations because addi-
harmonic excitation it is easier to obtain a pure tional low-amplitude but high-frequency modes
harmonic excitation by using an integrated PZT contributed to a main low-frequency operational

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
 Pai et al. Time-Frequency Method for Nonlinear System 125

(a) 1 (c)
0.1
0.5

d1
0 0
a1
0.5
0.1
1
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 1 2 3
Time (s) Time (s)

(b) (d) 0.1

0.02
d1

d1
0 0

0.02
0.1
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 1 2 3
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 18 Wavelet analysis of the third-mode vibration subjected to impacts: (a,b) a1 t and d1 t under one impact,
(c) d1 t under three impacts, and (d) d1 t under four impacts.

deflection shape can be easily detected around
the nodes. For a nonlinear structure, the vibra-
tion of an arbitrary point can be treated as a
nonlinear second-order oscillator. Because the
magnitude of nonlinearity at a point depends on
its amplitude of vibration, the measured non-
linearity may vary from point to point. However,
the relation between vibrations of different points
is governed by the structures material and
geometric properties and loading conditions.
For system identification purposes, it is better
to filter out noise before performing signal
decomposition. Because the first IMF, c1 t, from
HHT analysis retains all discontinuities of u, u, _
and u, there are two unique methods for noise
filtering using HHT. The first one is to add
random noise to make the first IMF to be
extracted is the added noise and the noise and
discontinuities contained in the original signal.
The second one is to add a high-frequency
stationary harmonic to make the first IMF to be
extracted is the added harmonic and the noise
and discontinuities contained in the original
signal. After c1 is extracted, one can subtract the
added noise (or harmonic) from c1 to reveal the
noise and discontinuities of the original signal.
Moreover, if the signal is too noisy and t is
small enough, one can process the signal by
downsampling. For other techniques for noise
filtering and system identification using HHT, the
reader is referred to Refs. [13,14,16,2428].
The presented method is different from
on-line parameter identification methods in the
literature (e.g., [25]). The presented method is
more for system identification by decomposing a
set of recorded block data into components of
different time scales and extracting detailed time-
varying frequencies and amplitudes to reveal
linear/nonlinear characteristics of a dynamic
system. Numerically on-line identification pro-
blems are more challenging than system identifi-
cation problems because less data are available
for accurate estimation.
Because damage usually introduces nonlinea-
rities and intermittent vibrations into dynamic
responses, the capability of accurate identification
of nonlinearities and intermittent transient vibra-
tions plays the key role in structural damage
detection. The use of the proposed time-frequency
method for structural damage detection by

Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
126 Structural Health Monitoring 7(2)
processing time-domain signals and spatial-
domain signals (e.g., operational deflection shapes,
[1,5]) will be reported in a follow-on paper.
6 Concluding Remarks
In this paper, time-varying dynamic charac-
teristics of nonlinear systems are derived from
perturbation solutions and are numerically and
experimentally verified by processing stationary/
transient responses using the HHT and a SWF
technique. The SWF reveals the mathematical
implications of HHT and the major differences
between HHT and Fourier and wavelet trans-
forms. The SWF suffers from the use of prede-
termined basis functions and function
orthogonality for extracting components, and the
major frequencies of basis functions need to be
known before the SWF processing. Similar to the
SWF, Fourier and wavelet transforms have the
same problems caused by the use of function
orthogonality and predetermined basis functions
to extract components of different time scales.
Because HHT does not use basis functions or
function orthogonality for extracting components
and it allows the use of adaptive distorted
harmonics, it can decompose a transient or
stationary signal into just a few components and
provide accurate time-varying frequency and
amplitude of each extracted component to reveal
nonlinear characteristics, including quadratic,
cubic, and higher-order nonlinearities, softening
and hardening effects, intrawave amplitude- and
phase-modulated motions, distorted harmonic
response under a single-frequency harmonic exci-
tation, interwave amplitude- and phase-modu-
lated motions, and multiple-mode vibrations
caused by internal/external resonances. Intrawave
amplitude and frequency modulation explains the
distortion of harmonics by nonlinear effects, and
interwave amplitude and frequency modulation
explains modal coupling of modes with different
time scales. Because the first IMF from HHT
contains the discontinuities and noise in the
original signal, its time-varying frequency and
amplitude become excellent signals for pinpoint-
ing time instants of impact loadings. All numer-
ical simulations and experimental results confirm
Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
these capabilities of the proposed method with
the use of HHT. However, the discontinuity-
induced Gibbs phenomenon at two data ends in
HHT analysis needs further study in order to
enhance its accuracy and robustness.
References
1. Pai, P.F. (2007). Highly Flexible Structures: Modeling,
Computation and Experimentation, Reston, VA: AIAA.
2. Doebling, S.W., Farrar, C.R., Prime, M.B. and
Shevitz, D.W. (1996). Damage identification and health
monitoring of structural and mechanical systems from
changes in their vibration characteristics: a literature
Review, Los Alamos National Laboratory.
3. Sohn, H., Farrar, C.R., Hemez, F.M., Shunk, D.D.,
Stinemates, D.W. and Nadler, B.R. (2003). A review of
structural health monitoring literature: 19962001,
Report No. LA-13976-MS, Los Alamos National
Laboratory.
4. Humar, J., Bagchi, A. and Xu, H. (2006). Performance
of vibration-based techniques for the identification of
structural damage, Structural Health Monitoring, 5(3),
215241.
5. Pai, P.F. and Huang, L. (2006). Dynamics- and laser-
based boundary effect evaluation method for damage
inspection of one- and two-dimensional structures.
Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation, 25(2), 83105.
6. Nayfeh, A.H. and Mook, D.T. (1979). Nonlinear
Oscillations, NY: Wiley.
7. Nayfeh, A.H. and Pai, P.F. (2004). Linear and
Nonlinear Structural Mechanics, New York: Wiley-
Interscience.
8. Nayfeh, A.H. (1981). Introduction to Perturbation
Techniques, New York: Wiley-Interscience.
9. Worden, K. and Tomlinson, G.R. (2001). Nonlinearity
in Structural Dynamics: Detection, Identification and
Modelling, Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics
Publishing.
10. Huang, N.E., Shen, Z., Long, S.R., Wu, M.C.,
Shih, H.H., Zheng, Q., Yen, N.C., Tung, C.C. and
Liu, H.H. (1998). The emperical mode decomposition
and the hilbert spectrum for nonlinear and non-
stationary time series analysis. In Proc. R. Soc.
Lond. A, Vol. 454, pp. 903995.
11. Huang, N.E., Shen, Z. and Long, S.R. (1999). A new
view of nonlinear water waves: the hilbert spectrum.
Annu. Rev. Fluid Mechanics, 31, 417457.
12. Huang, N.E., Wu, M.C., Long, S.R., Shen, S.S.P.,
Qu, W., Gloersen, P. and Fan, K.L. (2003). A
confidence limit for the empirical mode decomposition
 Pai et al. Time-Frequency Method for Nonlinear System
and Hilbert spectral analysis. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A,
Vol. 459, pp. 23172345.
13. Wu, Z. and Huang, N.E. (2004). A study of the
characteristics of white noise using the empirical mode
decomposition method. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A,
Vol. 460, pp. 15971611.
14. Huang, N.E. and Attoh-Okine, N.O. (eds) (2005). The
Hilbert-Huang Transform in Engineering, Boca Raton,
FL: CRC Press.
15. Brigham, E.O. (1974). The Fast Fourier Transform,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
16. Flandrin, P. (1999). Time-Frequency/Time-Scale Analysis,
Academic Press, New York.
17. Wylie, C.R. (1975). Advanced Engineering Mathematics,
New York: McGraw-Hill.
18. Zygmund, A. (1955). Trigonometrical Series, New York:
Dover Publications.
19. Strang, G. and Nguyen, T. (1997). Wavelets and Filter
Banks, Wellesley, MA: Wellesley-Cambridge Press.
20. Feldman, M. (1994). Nonlinear system vibration
analysis using the Hilbert transformI. Free vibration
analysis method FREEVIB. Mechanical Systems and
Signal Processing, 8, 119127.
21. Feldman, M. (1994). Nonlinear system vibration
analysis using the Hilbert transformII. Forced vibra-
tion analysis method FORCEVIB. Mechanical
Systems and Signal Processing, 8, 309318.
Downloaded from shm.sagepub.com at UNIV AUTO DEL ESTADO DE MEXICO on March 16, 2016
127
22. Pai, P.F. and Nayfeh, A.H. (1990). Nonlinear non-
planar oscillations of a cantilever beam under
lateral base excitations. Int. J. Nonlinear Mechanics,
25, 455474.
23. Beard, S. and Chang, F.K. (1997). Active damage
detection in filament wound composite tubes
using built-in sensors and actuators. Journal of
Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 8(10),
891898.
24. Flandrin, P., Rilling, G. and Goncalves, P. (2004).
Emperical mode decomposition as a filterbank. IEEE
Signal Proc. Lett., 11(2), 112114.
25. Yang, J.N., Huang, H. and Lin, S. (2006). Sequential
nonlinear least-square estimation for damage identifi-
cation of structures. Int. J. Nonlinear Mechanics, 41(1),
124140.
26. Yang, J.N., Lei, Y., Pan, S. and Huang, N. (2003).
Identification of linear structures based on Hilbert-
Huang transform. II: complex modes. J. Earthquake
Eng. Struct. Dyn., 32(10), 15331554.
27. Zhang, R., Ma, S. and Hartzell, S. (2003). Signatures of
seismic source in EMD-based characterization of the
1994 Northridge, California, earthquake recordings.
Bulletin of Seismological Society of America, 93,
501518.
28. Hahn, S.L. (1996). Hilbert Transforms in Signal
Processing, Boston: Artech House.