Synchronous generator dynamics

Source: BPA

Source: O. Elgerd

Olof Samuelsson
Outline

Synchronous generator at steady state

Synchronization

Swing equation

Transient angle stability

The Equal Area Criterion

Small-signal stability

Frequency control

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 2

Synchronous machine

Rotor
g fed with DC current
One field winding
Stator
Three windings 120
120 apart in space

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 3

 Loaded synchronous generator

Armature
Armature reaction
reaction flux from load current in stator
Adds to field flux to form air gap flux
St t flux
Stator fl also
l includes
i l d lleakage
k flflux

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 4

 Equivalent circuit 1

Indices: g generator
a armature
t l lleakage
k
d d-axis q q-axis
f field r resulting
g

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 5

 Equivalent circuit 2

Eq(If) internal voltage (also Ef) Indices:

I stator current a armature
V terminal voltage d d-axis
f field
Xd=Xa+XlXa l leakage
Eq=V+(Ra+jXd)I q q-axis

I lags V by angle (g)

g (g)
Eq leads V byy angle

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 6

 Load angle

is a spatial angle between field and air gap flux

and

a phase angle between Eq and V+(Ra+jXl)I

Note
is given relative to rotating reference (rotor)
is a spatial coordinate for a mass the rotor

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 7

 Steady state operation

Ra neglected Pe
Eq V
Eq Xd
jXdI VI

V V2
Qe
Xd
I
Scale by V/Xd

Components of VI:
Vertical EqV/Xdsin=VIcos=Pe
Horizontal EqV/Xdcos-V2/Xd=VIsin=Qe

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 8

 Two control inputs

Pe2

Pe1
Eq
Turbine P Pe

Eq constant
V Qe2 Qe1
P affects Q
Pe
Eq2
Eqq1 Field current If Eq
P constant
V Q >0 or <0
Qe2 Qe1

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 9

Synchronous generator rotor types
Round rotor = Turbo
Turbo rotor
Two poles q-axis

High speed - 3000 rpm @ 50Hz d-axis

Used with steam turbines (e.g. nuclear)

Salient pole rotor (Swe: utprglade poler)
Manyy poles
p q-axis

Lower speed - e.g. 150 rpm @ 50 Hz

d-axis

Used with hydro turbines

Gear ratio with more poles: mechanical=electrical(2/p)
IEA lab
l b generators
t h
have ffour-pole
l salient
li t pole
l rotors
t

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 10

 Salient pole rotor

q-axis q-axis
d- and q-axis different
Geometry
Geometry
d-axis d-axis
Flux
Inductance
Currents and voltages
Iq Vq Eq
q-axis

Vd
jXq Iq
Eq=V+jXdId +jXqIq
V
Id jXd Id

d-axis

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 11

 P and Q for salient pole rotor
Pe+j Qe=(Vd+jVq)(Id+jIq)* Pe

Vd+jV
jVq=V(sin+jcos)
V(sin jcos)
Id=(Eq-Vq)/Xd
Iq=V
Vd/Xq

EqV V 2 1 1
Pe sin

sin 2 Pfield Preluctance

Xd 2 Xq Xd
Try Xd=X
Xq!

2 sin cos
EqV 2 2
Qe cos V
Xd Xq Xd

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 12

 Synchronization

Connect to an energized network (think Thvenin equiv.)

1. Control prime mover to reach correct speed right el
2. Magnetize field (and armature) winding
3. Make V close to Vsystem (magnitude and angle!)
4 Connect!
4.
Aim
St d t t no-load
Steady-state l d situation
it ti
Careless synchronization
High currents and high mechanical stress
Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 13
 Synchronization conditions
V close to Vsystem if the voltages have
Same phase order (= wiring correct)
Same frequency (= speed correct)
Same magnitude (= right magnetization)
Same phase (= right timing of connection)
Think generator Eq and network V as rotating
three-phase phasors:

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 14
 The swing equation
d m
Torque balance for rotor J Tm Te
dt

2
p magnetic rotor poles m mech. rad/s e elec. rad/s
p

Multiply
p y torque y m
q balance by
Use e as state and es,e 2H d e
Pm p.u. Pe p.u.
Divide by Sbase to get p u
p.u. s,e dt

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 15

 The inertia constant H

1 2
Kinetic energy of rotating masses J m
H= 2
g
Generator MVA rating Sbase

Unit: Ws/VA=s

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 16

 H on different MVA bases
Machine base
Steam turbines 4-9 s
Gas turbines 3-4 s
Hydro turbines 2-4
2 4s
Synchronous compensator 1-1.5 s
Common
C b
base
Narrow
H ~ generator size (kW-GW) range!
Infinite bus has infinite H

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 17

Single Machine Infinite Bus
Eq
E V0
Pm X

X
H, Xd
Classical
Classical model:
model : Infinite
Infinite bus
bus generator:
Fixed Eq behind Xd Infinite H
Constant Pm Zero impedance
No damping Fixed voltage V0
No saliency
Xeq=Xline+Xd

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 18

 Classical dynamic generator model
Synchronous generator connected to infinite bus:
2H d e
Pm Pe
Pe omega

dt
s,e wnom/2/H
1 1
delta

d Pm s s

e s,e

dt Pmax sin

in rad,, e in rad/s,, s,e

s etypically
yp y 100 rad/s
Eq and Xd in Pe () for slow transients
Second
Second order ssystem
stem with
ith poor damping
Electro-mechanical or swing dynamics

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 19

 Two equilibrium points
E 'q V
Pm Pe sin
X eq
Two solutions for : Pe
Pm X eq
0 arcsin

E ' q V Pm
180 0


Synchronizing torque dPe/d
dPe/d>0 for <90 - stable equilibrium
q
dPe/d<0 for >90 - unstable equilibrium

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 20

Dynamic response

* Temporary short-circuit Pe
near generator, Pe zero
during fault
Pm
Response?
1. Second order system
2 No damping
2.

3. Oscillator! and oscillate
(roughly sinusoidally)
Demo
4. (t) will lag (t) sm.mdl
tcl=0 05
tcl=0.05

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 21

Second order response
Pe zero at short-circuit near gen
Pe
Step in Pm-Pe
Mechanical states slow
Pm
Start at 0 and Pe((0)
Acceleration during fault
d att =
F lt removed
Fault 1

Overshoot to 2 and Pe(2)
0 2
Oscillate around equilibrium 0 so Pe(0)=Pm
1
Si l ti tcl=0.05,
Simulation t l 0 05 0.1
01
PW Example 11.5
Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 22
Angle stability
0 must be less than steady state limit 90
2 also has limit transient angle stability limit

Questions:
How large can 2 be?
What happens when it becomes too large?
What is the largest disturbance that is OK?

Simulation
tcl=0.15,
0 1505 0
0.1505, 151
0.151

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 23

The Equal Area Criterion

Pe DA
Short-circuit: Pe=zero
AA Mark areas between Pe() and
Pm Pm in interval 0 to 2
Accelerating Area: Below Pm
Decelerating Area : Above Pm
For stable system AA=DA

0 2

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 24

Transient stability limit

Pe DA
More severe disturbance:
AA
AA larger
Pm
Greater 2 makes DA larger
g
Maximum DA at 2=180-0
For larger 2 only AA grows
grows

0 1 2

Simulation

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 25

Beyond stability limit

d/dt never becomes zero

Rotor accelerates even more
Machine transiently unstable = loses synchronism
Must disconnect and resynchronise

Demo

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 26

Equal Area Criterion

Stability check for known disturbance

Use EAC for 2 and check 2<UEP
Max disturbance from stability limit
Determine disturbance for 2=UEP
Typical disturbances
Loss of line
line, generator or load
Short-circuit

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 27

Stability analysis tools
Analytical the Equal Area Criterion
Simple, can be done by hand, but approximate
Formulated before 1930 by Ivar Herlitz, KTH (First
Swedish PhD in engineering)
Time simulation
Computer application since the beginning
Voltages and currents as phasors or waveforms
Multi-machine model with Differential Algebraic Equations
Set of Differential equations for each generator
Power flow for Algebraic network equations
Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 28
Small-signal angle stability

Linearize at steady state (0, 0, Pm0)

State space: dx/dt=Ax+Bu
Compute eigenvalues i of A
Compute right eigenvectors i of A
Applies also to multi-machine
multi machine models
Popular application of control theory

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 29

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Eigenvalue i:
Im(i)=resonance oscillation frequency (e.g. 0.35 Hz)
Re(i)=resonance oscillation damping
0 for all i system is small-signal stable
>00 ffor any i system
t is
i small-signal
ll i l unstable
t bl
Right eigenvector i:
Which generators participate in mode (resonance) i
g Generators in FI against
E.g. g those in NO and DK

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 30

Small-signal damping
Low >0 for
f uncontrolled system
Negative damping from controllers
Automatic Voltage Regulators
HVDC controllers
Damping added by dedicated controls
P
Power System
S t Stabilizers
St bili (PSS) on generator
t
Power Oscillation Damper (POD) on HVDC or FACTS

FACTS=MW size p
power electronic devices

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 31

System frequency
One eigenvector shows all generator speeds vary together
The rigid body mode the dynamics of system frequency
All generators synchronize to same , but which one?
H i i
system i

H i
i

Large generators dominate

Infinite bus is extreme case
H= so that system=infbus
frequency like center or gravity!
Also center of inertia frequency,

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 32

System frequency dynamics

All generators modeled as one with:

=system
H Hi
i
system
Pm nom
fsystem
+
2H
1
2

Pe,tot
D

This is single machine, but no infinite bus (to relate to)

Electrical load is frequency dependent
Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 33
Frequency event without control
G
Generator is suddenly disconnected...
system
Step reduction of Pm fsystem
Pm nom
+ 1
Unbalance: Pm<Pe 2H 2

Pe,tot
decreases D

Decrease stops when Pe is reduced to Pm

Error in

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 34

Turbine governor
Proportional frequency
f control law:
Pm= Pref+f/R
f=fnomfsystem
R is speed droop, Hz/MW or p.u./p.u.

fnom
f
+ Pm
+

+
K

fsystem P
1/R
R
+ Pref

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 35

R on machine base
All generators usually have the same R given in p.u. on machine
base
A disturbance
di t b gives
i same f everywhere
h
All generators do same p.u. contribution
Typical R value is 5%
f=0.05 p gives Pm=1 p
p.u. g p.u.

PW Example 12.4
Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 36
R on common base

R for entire system on common base:

1 1

Rtotal i
Ri

More generators give greater 1/Rtotal

In Nordel 1/Rtotal6000 MW/Hz

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 37

Frequency error tolerance

Instantaneous value of f:
0.01
0 01 Hz in US
0.1 Hz in Nordel
0.2 Hz in Ireland
Time integral of :
Time error on clocks <10s in Nordel

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 38

600 MW step excites f and angle dynamics

Deviation from
50 Hz at LTH

Phase angle
differences
(degrees)
LTU=Lule

13:39 13/11: 600 MW generator in Denmark disconnected

F
Frequency dip
di and
dNNorth-South
th S th angle
l oscillations
ill ti

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 39

Conclusions
S
Steady state
P and Q for round and salient pole rotor
Transient
T i t anglel stability
t bilit
Equal Area Criterion and simulations
Small-signal
Small signal stability
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Frequency dynamics
All generators like one
Fair sharing: All generators respond equally in p.u. on
machine base if same p.u. R

Lund University / LTH / MIE / Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation L5 40