Geod Premer 1

. , .!" . .
" ! , 2006.
1 2
1. # $ ................................. 5
1.1. # % & # ...................................... 5
1.2. ....................................................................................... 8
1.2.1. " ! '( ) ( ()"*........................................................................... 8
1.2.2. # + ,! ) ( ()"* ............................................................................ 9
1.2.3. # ) ( ()"* ............................................................................... 9
1.3. ................................................................................................... 9
1.3.1. ),* ....................................................................................................... 9
1.3.2. - ),*.................................................................................................... 10
1.3.3. " .................................................................................................................... 11
1.3.4. (" ( . ) *") /( . + ( ................................................... 11
1.4. # % ............................................................................... 13
1.4.1. + ) ( ()"* )" , + /" /" ...................... 14
1.4.2. , ( " "* , ( " )" ........................................................... 16
1.4.3. " ()+" " ) + "0 ( ()"* UTM.............................................. 17
2. # ................................................................................................................... 18
2.1. # CONTROL SURVEY ............................................ 19
2.2. # # TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY.............................................. 20
2.3. # 1 2 % ROUTE SURVEYING .................. 20
2.4. # # 3 2
CONSTRUCTION SURVEY............................................................................................ 21
2.5. # & $ LAND SURVEY .................................................................... 22
2.6. # PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SURVEY ...................... 23
2.7. 2 # .......................................................................................... 23
2.8. # # ........................................................................................ 24
3. # 4 5 # ................................................................................. 25
3.1. ,# # ............................ 25
3.1.1. " " ) 0 3 ( ()"* ..................................................................................... 25
3.1.2. " ) 0 3 ( ()"*................................................................................... 25
3.1.3. " ) 0 2 ( ()"*................................................................................... 26
3.1.4. " ) 0 ) ( ()"* ................................................... 30
3.1.5. "6 + ,! . . ) ............................................................ 31
3.2. 4 , % 5 ........................ 32
3.2.1. , 6*"7, +" ) 0 " ......................................................................................... 32
3.2.2. " ,! ! - +" 6*"7, +" ) 0 " .................................................. 32
3.3. 5 3 4 ........................................... 34
3.4. % # 3 ........................................................................................... 37
4. 3 # 4 5 # ................................................... 39
4.1. 3 # 4 5 2 ................. 39
4.1.1. # ! ( * " ............................................................................................... 39
() ,*" ) "* 6 *" "8" , ,! + , ! ( * + , ................... 40
# ! ( " ) 0 " ............................................................................................................ 40
()" ! ( .+ + ............................................................................................ 44
0, 8 , ! ( * + , ...................................................................................... 45
# ! ( + ,*") ,) 6*"7, +" )" ) 0 "........................................................... 45
)+ " ! / 0 8" 6 + 9 + () / ) 0 .......................................... 50
) + 8" ! "9 " . *" "8 ! ( . () ........................................ 52
! + (), 8" " ) + " 6 () ! ( .+ + ............................. 52
6 + 8" ! ( !+ ........................................................................................ 54
# - *") 6 + 8 ! ( !+ ......................................................... 55
2 6 ) ) 0 () ( " ' /" *" "8 , ! ( * * " * .................. 56

1 3
# () 8" ! "9 , ! ( *+ * ............................................................... 61
# ! ( + ,) *" 6 * () , ........................................................ 66
9) "! () "! () ! ( !+ ............................................................. 67
4.1.2. () " *") " . 6 ) ! 6 8 ........................................................ 69
"7 + 8" / " 6 )" ) 0 " "(" 8"* 6 )" , " "
,! + " 6 ) / ) 0 ............................................................................................. 69
0, 8" ) " 6 )" ) 0 " "(" 8"* "(" + ( +" )"
) 0 " (- 6")...................................................................................................................... 70
0, 8" ) " 6 )" ) 0 " "(" 8"* "(" /" ) ( . + 71
"7 + 8" / " 6 ) .) 0 , 6*"7, +" )" ) 0 "
, + / ........................................................................................................................... 73
0, 8" ) / " 6 )" ) 0 " ( +, *" "8 , ............... 75
4.1.3. ) ) 0 () / ) 0 "* "7, / ! 6 / 6
() 6 /, ISO4463 ....................................................................................... 77
( + ( * )* " ) .) 0 !" ")( " ( +" ................................ 77
, ( ((" , )* " ) .) 0 !" ")( " ( +"............................ 77
6+ :" (), 8 -" " + 8 /" ) + . ) 0 .................................... 78
4.1.4. 0, 8" + 9 " 6 )+ " " ' !, " * , ) " * . ) 0 ... 78
4.1.5. " *") / + ,! . ) ....................................................................... 79
4.2. 3 # 4 5 ...................... 82
4.2.1. " *") /( +" * - !" " +" * ................................................... 82
+" * ( " " ....................................................................................................... 83
+" * ( + ........................................................................................................... 83
+" * ( + ,*") ,) 6*"7, + ) " " ...................................................... 84
# " 9"8" ! "9 , !" *") /( * +" * , ......................................................... 87
4.2.2. "7 + 8" + ( ) 0 *") *) ! *") /( ! +" * ...................... 91
# " 9"8" ! "9 ,) ! *") /( * +" * , ................................................. 93
4.2.3. "7 + 8" + ( ) 0 ") : - ") : +" * ......................................... 93
+" * + 9 (,) . ) 0 .................................................................................. 94
+" * + 9 "' ( " + * .................................................................. 95
+" * + 9 "' ( " + * ' !, * ................................................... 96
+" * ,6 , ! ' .......................................................................................... 97
+" * "0 . ' ........................................................................................ 99
0, 8 + ( ") : . ) 0 ............................................................................... 101
4.3. 3 # (3 ) # 4 5 ............... 103
4.3.1. # *") "7 + 8 () ! / ...................................................... 103
# / * *" # ...................................................................................................... 103
* " )" GPS............................................................................................................ 103
4.3.2. # 6 8" ) 0 GPS )". ! / * .......................................................... 106
( ,) GPS 6 8" ................................................................................... 106
'" " / " " ) + " )". " GPS 6 8 ................................... 107
4.3.3. GPS "'" " ) ( ()"* ...................................................................................... 108
" ")( ) ( ()"* ................................................................................... 108
WGS84 "'" " ) " ( ....................................................................................... 109
4.3.4. GPS *" "8 .......................................................................................................... 109
4.3.5. GPS *" ........................................................................................................ 110
5. # # # # ......................................... 112
5.1. # # .................................................................................. 112
5.1.1. ),* ) 8 .............................................................................................. 112
5.1.2. "'" " ) ) ( ()"* ) 8" ............................................... 113
5.1.3. ! '( " )" + ............................................................................ 113
5.1.4. # " () +: 8" ":"' )" " ........................................................................... 114

1 4
5.1.5. # () ' * ( )"* .................................................................... 117
5.1.6. 6" 6 " ) ! '( . ) + .................................................... 118
5.1.7. "*" ) ( / ) + ................................................................ 118
5.1.8. ) ) 0 () ) ! '( . ) ) 8 * ...................... 119
5.1.9. ) 6*" " ! ) . ) ......................................................... 121
5.1.10. # " () +" ( " ") : + ...................................................... 121
5.2. # # ....................................................................................... 126
5.2.1. # 8" "*" ........................................................................................... 126
5.2.2. ( () +: 8" * )"* ) 0 " ( +" "*" .................................................... 127
5.2.3. / 0 ( * 8 ) 0 ") : ......................................................... 129
5.2.4. ". " ( * 8 ( "*" ) .............................................................................. 132
# *") ( * 8 .............................................................................................. 132
) ! *") ( * 8 ....................................................................................... 133
# *") ( * 8 ") : ........................................................................................ 135
# /" ) ,*" ) / * " 6 /" *" "8 # *") *.................... 140
6. # & $ (LAND SURVEYING), # # #
.............................................................................................................................. 142
6.1. # & $ ............................................................................................. 142
6.1.1. ()" "*" 6"*: 9) .................................................................................. 142
6.1.2. "* *") " "*" 6"*: 9) ................................................................ 143
6.2. # # ................................................................................... 147
6.3. # .................................................................................................... 147
6.3.1. # / *, ( / ) + () 6 ) () + + ................................. 147
6.3.2. # "* + , ) + 8", -" " + 8" ( * 8" + + ................... 148
6.3.3. 6 + "! () + + .................................................................... 152
6.3.4. + 8" ) () + + .............................................................................. 152
:................................................................................................................. 158
.................................................................................................................. 164

1 5
1.
1.1.
"*: + 9 /" +" * ( " " " " + ! * )"* ) 0 ! - (( 1.1-1).
3" , + 9 )" 9, " "!, " 6"*: " * (" . * !" " * (" * " .#
* )"* ) 0 * 0, * (" 0"() ( * .
'" (" - / - ) 8"* " (" (+ /" " " (".
1.1-1:
, " +" " * " , (" " " ( )" (, , ) -" 1.1-1.
1.1-1:
! " -a " -
b
Clarke (1866) 6 378 206,0 m 6 356 584,0 m
GRS80 6 378 137,0 m 6 356 752,314 m
Besel 1841 6 377 397,155 m 6 356 078,963 m
(" " "!, " * (" "*:" ) " (6 "* "), - / (" 6 +:" + 9
! " /" (+ 8" " "*" ) , + ! + ) , ( , (( , )" ",
+" ) ,). - /" " + )" / + 9 6 + (" . ("
) + + 9 ( ( " 8 * /"* * , 6 + * /" . ("
+ 9 (+" " " , ' !, , "*:" - / * + 9 .
(" "' 9" " + )" / + 9 0 / /" )" / /" )" / ,

+ 9 ( " 8"! + * . 1.1-2 6,/" "0 "(" - ) ! " (
!" . # + 9 !" /" - ! 6 +:" ) 6 * "(" , ("0", (
6 ( 6 " ( . 6 / +" + 9 6 + ("
"6, ) ) /" ". * !" ! ( " 6"*: .* ( .

1 6
1.1-2:
) 0 * *" * "* : (" 0"() ( * ('" *. # "(" + 9 /

6 6 " ) "*:" (( 1.1-3) ('" " /"()" 6 )+ " + / , - /
8" " 6 + (" . # "(" ) +" + "*:" 6 + ("
. , 6*"7, +" ) 0 " 6"*: / + 9 - A B, " () +: , ,
, (( 1.1-4). , / 6 6 )" ) 0 " ,+" /" , 8"*,
! + /, " )") +".
/ "(" + / 6 6 6"*: " +" ( 6"*: * + 9 6 + ("

.
1.1-3
6 + / * +" + /" 6" 6) 0 " B + 9 "*:" ' * * +"

*" / ( " /" (( 1.1-4), * " (" 6 :,0 ) (, , + " + )
*"7,( - " " /", 6 ( " + ) +" ! /,, 0"*, (" ,! +
+" !" /" +" + /, (" *" / - + /, + * .

1 7
1.1-4:
- "*: - ('" ! - , - (+" /" , + " *" / " " " ,

*" / ( * + * (( 1.1-5) +" ! " " ) , ('" " ( - ) !" (
, " 6 "* * ". * !" () 6"*: . * ( + )+ 8 " - + ).
1.1-5:
# (* ) /* ) ) 0 " ( " 8 / + 9 "*:" /" - 6,/, ) ,! (( 1.1-6). # + 9

, ,) ) ,! /" 6 +:" , () " ) ,! (, , + +" . ,! + . + ) ,!
6 + (" . ( " * / * 6 /" ) ,! , + ( )"*" *
, B C. "*" , * 8 . + 9 , " () ) ,! , + (" 6/" 0 + /, (
, * , + ! + /, "! ('" ! ) ,! . ! + ('" ! ) ,! , (, +"
"( " ) . ,! + , + , . 6 6- ,! + , ) ,! + * /" *
, (, ) ,! + * 8 . *" 6 / , , ) 0 * *" * , 6 /" -"66 0 / .
( " ) ! , + 9 * 8 . *" 6 / , /, / ( / +" ) 0 " + 9
"*:" (* ) * , /, +" ) 6 )" ) 0 " , + ( ,
+ 9 (* ) * , ,! +" 6*"7, / ) + / + 9 (* ) *
.

1 8
1.1-6: !
", , 6 + ( () )" , +" 0 " 6 .)"+ " ) 0 () "*" , + 9 "*"

* "* (* ) ) .
- (" -"6-" ! + /, !" ")( ( + /, " (" "*" ( ) , " .

/" ,( () + ) " . 0
/ ( * 6"*: , ' !, , #
, $ .2 6 ) ),* / (" ) " ,) () , - /
"' ( /" *") * "(" + ! " ( 6 1841. ! " (. 9 * ) 0 * ,
Hermannskoglu ( ,() / ) , / / /" "' ( 8"! + /" ) / .
"' 9" /, (" ( ,(+ /" ( ()"* + ( .
)" ) / " ,- " - /" +" ) ),* /" "' ( ( " 8 * /"* ( !
* - /" * 8"* * , ( " / . , "7 / - * , ) ,
- 6 () , , ) , ( * /" " ! " (1875. ! "). - 9 ),* " 6 + : + /,
98" 6 .)"+" ) 0 () (, :" (6- ! " () ) - : .) , 6+ 0 / , ) "- .
1.2.
# "*" 6,*"+ *" "8" "7 + 8" () ! / " "*" ) ' 6 0 !

() " ) + , (, " ,, " "' ( 6"*: /
+ 9 . ", " ) + / ) 0 0, /, (" , + , , " - !
( /0"9 " /" ) + ) ( ()"*). # " () ) + !
(), ! " /, (" , ( " " "*:
" () + /" , +: 8" ! "9 * ;
+ ) 0 (" /" ),/" "6 + ( ( +, ( 0, ) . 6 / ;
# /" ) + 8" ) 0 "6 + ( ! "9 - / (, 6 ( + ,
*" "8 ,! + , .
) ( ()"* (, ("- " + () , ) :
" ! '( ( + /( );
# + ,! ;
# .
1.2.1. #$ % $! & '& '(

" ! '( ) ( ()"* (" () , /9 "* (* ( ,. 3"! "' 9, /"
. # " " "' 9, !" ! '( " 9 " ( ) ), "), *" /

1 9
!" ! '( " , " ( ! ), "). ) ), " ' * /, "(" 6"*: " + 9 +
" " " + ) ,, ( /" ) + 8"* ,! + ) ), (* ) " ) "*:"
8" * * ) 0,. , ) + " () ) ), " /" " + ) , , ("+" /, , 8" "
+ " () (), * ( * 90 ()" " . ! ), " (, /" (*" / ) /" ("
() , + "* ("+" -/,! ' * " (, /" ) + 8"* ,! + ! ), (* )
, " + ) , " ) "*:" 8" * * ) 0,. ! ), " (" *" " () 0 6
/ , ) ! ( 0 !) *" / * !, * ) + " () 0 180 ()" "
() 0 " 6 " !" ! '( " , ". ()"* !" ! '( . ) () (" ,
+ ! / !" ")( * "*" , (" 6"*: 6 +:" () " * " 6 "* ) .
1.2.2. $ ) "# $! & '& '(

"*" , , + 6 +:" () "*:" (" 6 "* ,/" , ) * ( ,0 /, (" /0"9 " ()
.# , (" + ,! ! ( ()"* " . /" , "
"' ( ) . 6 ) 0 . 6 ! , - 0 (" 6 + ( + ,! ! ) !
( ()"* ()" + ("+" (N- North, X ( + " "! % $ ,
" ,- - / , ( Y ( &
6 ) /" UTM) () (E East, Y ( + " "! % $
, " ,- - / , ( X ( UTM /" /").
1.2.3. $&$! & '& '(

# ) ( ()"* "' ( /" * ) ! ( ()"*
. * ) * ( ()"*,, ) 0 /" "7" , *
,! * ! - 6,/" 0") + + 8 /. , /" ,+" 6 ) + +" 0 ,
,! * " - ) 0 360 ()" , (*" , ") 8 6 : " ( ),, 0, /,
0") ! + .
1.3.
!" ")( / ( 0"() (" " , () " !" " ) 0 " )" - /" " GPS
)". ! / * + ,! " ) " ) 0 " )" - /" " ( 0 * )" "() 0 *
*") * "*" . # * 0, 8 , 0"() (" + 9 +" 6 / /" . , ,!" .
) " ) 0 . , !" " ) 0 " - ) . 5 9) + 9", "* + /" ) 0 "
"'" " ) . * " (" ,/, )" , - ( ()"* . "6 6*"7, /" . ,! .
()+ ,/" (" ' *, * 6 ) (' * /,.
1.3.1. & ! '"(

9 () ("- , * /" ) ( 0"() ( ,0 /, . 6 ) +" ) ),* (,
(" 6* ) + /" . 6+ / )". ! / 6 6+ /" 8 . +, )"! /, , /" ()+" , 3
),*. - ! 9"! 6,*"+ 8 , ) "- -/ ( ) 6 , 6*"7, . ! - .
),* . # /" () +:" "0" , !" ")( ),* (" - ) /- :"
( * " , ") , , ' 6 0 , + 9 - 0 (" "' 9" ( (" *
*") ( +" "' ( 8" ),* ):
+ " "*" ) / "' 9, !" *") /, " ( ;
" ! '( * 9 * , * (. 9 " ) 0 ";
"'" " ) * 6 *,) * /" ) /";
" *+ ( * (. 9 " ) 0 " ( - 0 (" ,6 * , ) + " ());
# ") () + * " () * " , (" " ( (" 6"*: " ) /".
)" ) / " ,- " - /", ),* "' ( /" *") *
( " "*" ) * "' ( * 1841. ! ", /"* ( ) ), ! ), )
!" *+ ( * , ) 0 Hermannskogel ( " '$ * ) 6 *,) * () " ( /" ) / *)
Hermannskogel Hundsheimerberg.

1 10
1.3.2. & ! '"(
" , , "" ( 6 /" ( )" )( " !" "6 /", ( "! , "!" " ) 0 )
),* (, - , - 0 /" . " 8 . /" )$ ! '"( 1950 50. # *
,( () +: 8 "!" " ) 0 . ),* /" (" + 0, 8 . + * (, "*
!" " ) ,. "7,) *, (+" ( + 9" / ( )" )( ( ()"* 6 .)"+ (, ,( () +: 8"
!" " ) 0 ! ),* . 2 6 ) +" ) / ( + 9" (, +" "6 + ( "
* " )" / ) 0 . -6 * (" ( )" ) " , ,) 8 * " ) * ("
"*:", / 6 ( + ) + * )". ! / * ! 0 0 + (
(. 9)"* , !" " ) ,. ) /" " . "' ( ) ) ( ()"* , /"* " ("
) + +" ) ( ) .
( " 8" + "*", , "*" ,, 6 0 / /" (,) )". ! / &# '(

+, & $ - (GPS) / -"6-"7,/" !" ")( " /" ) 0 , () *
!" " ) 0 * ( ()"*, WGS84 (GRS80). GPS "7,/" )" ) 0 "*: ,
) 6 0 (" 6 8 . + 6* () ) ) ( ()"* +"6 6 "*:,. +
( ()"* 6 ) /" 6 + *
(Conventional Terrestrial Reference System - CTRS)
(Conventional Terrestrial System - CTS). ) 0") CTRS 6 (" ,
" ) , * (" "*:" (!" " ) ), X ( 6 !" " ) 6 6 ) 0 , "("
, ) ! *" / ( 0 *" / ) " + ) , Y ( 6 !" " ) " ,
+ ( " 8"! / " + ) , + /" X (,, Z /" ,(*" " , + , ( " 8"!
/ (" ) /" "*:" "' ( " , " , 1900. 1905. ! ".
- !" ")( ),* "' ( /" (Moritz, 1980):

(. 9 * ) 0 * ( " ) * (" "*:");
Z ( * ,(*" " * , + , CIO ( "' 9" ( " 8 / ("+" ! );
X ( * " * , ) * *" / , .+ " * () " BIH 6 ) /"*
0 ( " 8 () *( *" / ;
"'" " ) * " ( * "' ( * ( 0") ' 6 0 *") .
" " , ) ( ()"* /" , (,9) () ) / *. ),* ) *

( ()"*, " / /" ) /" , ,/" ' 6 0 (+ /()+ . , *" ,
!" " ) 0 ( ()"* WGS84 /" ,/" ! - ),*, /" ( * 9) /" 6 ( +
*") * " ( GRS80, 8"! + * /"* /" ) / *, ( "7" "
' 6 0 " *") ", / * " - ) "0 + 9 * , ("+ * .
1.3.1-1:

1 11
1.3.1-2:
1.3.3. !
# " !" ")( " 9 " , ", (+ ) 0 + 9 "*:" * ) " , ), -
+ ( ,. "'" " ) + 9 ( ),*) + ( - /" . !" *") /( * +" * * /"()" + 9
# !. ( " /" (" (" , ), + ( , + 9 (!" ) 6 + /, (" $' ( '$ * (
) &( . 0, 8" ) *") /( . + ( , " + ( ( . 6 , ,) 8"
+" 8 , *" (" ,- 6 8" ( " 6"*: " )" ".
9 "8"* +"9) 0 . 6"*: . ( )" ) - /" /" -"6- / ' * / - ,
"*:" 8" * ! + ) * :,, 9) /" 6 0 / ,) "' ( 8" + 9
!" . (" " , () ) ( !" , 0"() (" " (" ( " *
+ 9 * " ( " + 9 , (* ( , 6 "* + 8 (+ . ,) / 9) (,
() ,/", * )( "*" / , *" " )"* " ), " ( ., ( * ,) / ! + ) /"). +,
"' /, !" + /" J. B. Listing / 9 1872. ! ". "7,) *, +" " " / +"
" ,) 0, ( " 8 + * , (, /, + 9 !" + 6 1 m 2 m
(Sickle, 2001) ) ) + /" "' / + 9" /" " + . + ) (
/" 6 ()" ) , ) ! '( " 6"*: " + 9 . (+ / ) 0 6"*: " + 9
* (+ / + )" 6 )"), )/. * " (" +" ) ( ( ) , 8" " + " ()
6 0 ) * *"() * ) ! '( " + 9 (, 6 0 )". # + 9 /" ! ! + ) !
)" / * " (" ( * 6 * ( ) . + /" " + )" + 9 - - ,
+ * (* ( , & ) )$.. ( " 8 + * " * " "' ( ) ) +, + 9,
/" 0 () * ! )"! / . ! )+ 8 /" !" " )"! / ,
! + " / +" ,) / + ( , "90 0 ( + , ") 8" ( )" ) . # + 9
!" /" * )"* ) 0 "!, 9) /" ) ! '( 6"*: + 9. /"
"! " 6 ! ,) "! " , "! ,) . 6 ) + ! 8"! + ! - (, 6 0 ) , /"
/6 0 / / . /" (+ " + *" ( " 6"*: . * ( , 8" / , ,) 98 () .
/" ) , 8"! + - - - + - 6 " ( *. "7,) *, ( * 6"*:
' 6 0 + 9 + 9 !" (), " ( ", " * *"() * 100 m.
1.3.4. !& !& / $' ( '$ * /) &

( " /" (" - / /, GPS *" "8 * , (" (" + 9 " ( GRS80 (" (
),* WGS84) 6 + /, (" . 6 ! 6 )"9 " , " 6, 6

1 12
!" *") /( . - " ( . , ) *") /( " + ( " " , /" *" ,) *
" "!, * - , !" ( ),* ( ()"* ) *") /( . + ( ). 6 "
) *") /( . " ( . + ( /" (" (" !" " ) 0 " ( GRS80
6 (" + 85 m 106 m. - / , 6 6 ( + 40 m ( 6 " (, 6 ) + "
, /" !" 6 " ( ). 6 + 9 " ( !" 6 + ("
, , / * !" 6 0 + (" ( N (geoidal height !" !" + ( ).
(, 6 )" " ( "+ ( " , , /" !" , ) *") /( " + ( " /"
" ) . (), )" ) / - /" (, "7" " + " () , , / !" (
" + ) * ) 0 9 ,, ) (" 6 " ( . + ( " * !, " ) ( 0, )
) *") /( " + ( ".
) 0 * *" * , +"6 + ( ()"* + ( (" ( ! + ! / (" (
( " 8 + ( !* "7" *" "8"* * ( ! + /" ** " ! ' *,) ,
( * /" " ! ") "7,/" (" "' ( 8"* * " "'" " ) " + 9 + ( / ("
" ) + + . + 9 , ) 0 ) ") + 9 " " ( ,. (,
6 )" " ( "+ ( ") 0 ,+ ( ") 0 , + * ( ()"*, , , ) "- 0, /,
(" *" * )" ! * + ! ()" " (' GPS "
- , 2002) / ! ( :
H = h + A + BY + C X (1.3.4-1)
! " (,: H - + ( , + * ( ()"*,,

h - " ( + ( ,
Y, X - )" ) 0 , + * ( ()"*,,
, B, C - " 6 ) *") * .
# *") , B C "7,/, (" ( +, 6 ) . + ( , - ( ()"* , *")

/* 8 . + ) , 0"*, * * - / 6 /" 0 . ) 0 " (*" - ) * 8
0") .
( " 6 ) .) 0 * - ) + (/" ) 0 + 9 2 x 2 km).

1 13
1.3.5-1: (
1.4.
! '( ! '0 6,/" / "7" . " "*" ) !" ! '( ! () .

/" (* () /" + 9 "*:" 6 +:" , /" + 9 + 8 *" /"
* !, " /" ) + ) ' 6 0 , )" ) /, -"6 "' * / . /" )" ) / * ,
"*: (" * " (* ) ) + *.
(" +" )" ) / "*" , "' * /" (, 6 0 / /". ) * ( ,0 /, *

"( + 8 ( +" + , + 9 ()" (" 6 0 )" /" /" /" 6 0 )"
0 " * * 6 /, "'" )" () 6 / . 0 " * )"* ) 0 " ( +" (* " ) .
) 0 ) (" (" ( +, + /( . ) - !" ")( " 9 ", , ") 0 .
" ")( 9 " () +: ,! + () / 8" + " + ) + * , /"
!" ")( , ,! + () / 8" , + " + ) 6*"7, 0 ! *" /
*" / " " ) 0 ".
) ! '( /" / / (" ( () * "( + 8 6 +:" "

6"*: " + 9 , + ( , )"! /, &% $(& / $ * , * , 9)
6,*"+ 0,+ 8" - ' !, (,! + . + " () 6*"7, / -/" ) ).
, ) "- /" " + () ' * . /" / 0 / *" 6 + ( -
*" 6 / + 9 "*" . + /" / * (+ /" ( " ' 0 () /" 6 + (" + ()"
"' * /" , ", ,! + 9 ". ) ! '( " /" /" * !, - ) :
#" ( " ) + ";
,( ";
% 0 ".
/+" "* " , 9" )" ) /" *"8" /"
- /" / .

1 14
1.4.1. $0 )& $! & '& '( $! & ' " $ )& $ * , *
6 , !" " ) 0 . ) , + " + /( " )" (" ("
" ( , () +:" ) /- :" ( * !" ) 0 / )" ) / .
+ " + /( " )" (" /" ),/, + 6 *"8,/, + ,! *
) * . (" WGS84 " ( 6 ,/, /,, *" 6 / *
/" ) / , ) (" 6*"7, 8 . ,( () +: " + ) * )"* ) 0 +"6 . # 6 ) /" (" ,
" ,- - / 1924. ! " () -) ( 6 ) /"
,! * *" * ). IUGG , 6+ 0 / , ) "- ()
& , 6 ) *" * UTM grid system
(Universal Transverse Mercator UTM). ( * IUGG * ! ,! . *"7, .
. ! 6 / ( +"6 ( *" , "+" - ) )( + / ( +"6 NATO)
,(+ / (, UTM (+ /, /" /,. (, GRS80 " ( UTM /" / (
6+ 0 ,(+ /" , , ( (" / 9 ,+" )" 6 + /, , /" ,(+ /" / ,(-
!" + / /" / .
,(- !" + /" / () /" 0 / /" ( ( +

" + ) , ( (, 6"*: " ) /". ("0" " (
"(" * " * " ) * *" / ,. (" 6+ /", (+
( ( * " ) !) (" /" ),/, /". )" ) 0
"7,/, (" , (, ) ( ()"* ! "' 9, +" (" 0 / (, /
/" ) / 6 ( 1.4.1-1. 9 / 6"*: ,(+ /" /" * ( *
"' * / , , /" / 6 ( 1 dm/km. " " )" ) /" - /" 6 /" ,
/" * ) * ( ()"*, ( " ) * *" / * 21 () 0 " !" ! '( " , "
(" * 6 . 6 " () ", * 8 " )" ) /" 6. 6 .
( (" "( + ( " " * ,( + * :
( " , + " + ) ;
# /" / /" ' ;
" 8 *" / (" "( + + / 8"! + /" / " () +: X
(, ) ! ( ()"* , + , /" /" / " + ) -Y ( ) !
( ()"*
1.4.1-1: ( -) )
,(- !" +" /" /" *" / " " (" "( + /, .
+ ,! * ) * ( ()"*, / (+ " ) 0 " "7" /" $ ) "# (
$! & ' ( - Y, X. (" " - 0, ( "! ) + * ) * , X ( ("
, ,/" + " () Y = 500 000,00 ) (+" ) 0 " () 0 " ) ! *" /
* /, )" +" " 500 000,00 m, (, )" 6 " ) ! *" /

1 15
* 8" 500 000,00 m. 7", 6 () ) * ( ()"*,, ( " Y
)" , (,/" (" - / 6 ", )/. 6 (" *, 6 , , (,/" (" - / 7 ( *" , 7 500 000.00
m). ,! ) X ) , 6 0 + () / 8" ) 0 " /" /" " + ) .
, :"8"* ! *" / +" + (" "' * / , ' *,
d = d , (1.4.1-1)
! " /"
Y2 Y4
= + + , . (1.4.1-2)
2R 2 24R 4
"' * / , ( 0, ) 6 6, 1.4.1-1 ( (" /" , , ". , "
* 8" 10 km () (" ( * + 0 6 6 1.4.1-2. "' * /" (" +" + /,
, : + 8"* ( " 8"! *" / . () / 8, 90 km, "' * / 6 ( 1 dm/km
, ) * ( ,0 /, 9 6 " 6 ( 215.
0.3
0.25
0.2
Deformacija
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 50 100 150 200
-0.05
Y
1.4.1-2: % $ m/ km
- (" - +" 9 6 ", ,*"() ! () (" (" , /

"(" " ( () / 8, 90,18 km, ( -" () " ( " 8"! *" / 6 ".
*" (" () " ( " " ":

"' * / ( " 8"* *" / , 6 " 6 ( : - 1 dm/km;
"' * / () / 8, 90,18 km ( " 8"! *" / /" , ;
"' * / /, 6 " ( 120 130 km " ) ! *" / ) 6 ( 1
dm/km.
+ / 0 () ! ,) /" 9 6 " -, " 3.

1 16
0.2
0.15
0.1
Deformacija
0.05
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
Y
1.4.1-3: % $ m/ km * ( - 0.0001)
1.4.2. !" & & ( !" & $! & '

)" ) 0 /" (" (" 6 + /, ("
6 0 + /, (" ( Y , X ( Y * " - ) 6 ) + "! ) + , 6 + (
/ ) 0 " "* X ( . )" /" (" (" 6 + /, ("
6 0 + /, (" ( Y , X . "6 6*"7, + ( ()"* )
6! "
Y = YM
, (1.4.2-1)
X = XM
! " /" - " * , / 6 ( = 0,9999.

# 1.4.2-1: ) (, "* , ( " )": Y = 22 362,48 X = 4 837 219,68 , , (" * /
6 . 0, ) * , ( " )".
$ 3 :
Y = 7500000,00 + ( 22362,48) (0,9999) = 7 477 639,76

X = 4837219,68 0,9999 = 4 836 735,96
Y = 7 532 411,11
# 1.4.2-2: )" (, * , ( " )": . 0, ) "* , ( "
X = 460 6302,41
)":
$ 3 :
"* , ( " )" 6 (":
Y = ( 7532411,11 7500000,00) / 0,9999 = 32 414,35

X = 4606302,41 / 0,9999 = 4 606 763,09
" , / , " ( " ( (, 9"* "*" , - , )" + ( " + 9 ) d +

/" /" d ( (" , "* ,) 0, (" "* 6 6,

1 17
Y2
d = d+( 0,0001) d . (1.4.2-2)
2R 2
1.4.3. ! & ') & $ ' $ ) $ 1& ' ( UTM

! - 6 )" ) /" "*:" /0"9 " (" () &
(Universal Transverse Mercator UTM) / /" "' ( *") *
)" !" ( .
6, 9", /" ,(+ /" " + " /" /", &

(UTM ( ()"*) " "*:, 60 6 . # 0") *" / +" 6 " 6 (
= 180 , 9 6 " 6 ( 6 , (+ 6 (" )" " 84 ("+" " !" ! '( " 9 "
80 /, " !" ! '( " 9 ". +" " " + 9 , ("- (, 6 + /" " +" "
6 ". " ) /, - /" + 34. 6 / (" () " 18. 24. *" / () 0 "
!" ! '( " , ". UTM * " "' ( /" , *") * . + 6 (" /" ),/"
/ /" /" ) ( . )" ) 0
( "'" " ) ! " ( , ! + /, / 6 /" ),/, (" UTM * " ,. ,(-
!" +" /" /", "(" " ) ! *" / 6 " " + ) "' 9" )
0") + ,! ! ) ! ( ()"* . +" /" /" ) " (" (, (, )
"' ( " , (, 9 + ) ( ()"* (X ( /" ,(*" " , + ,
() , Y ( , + , ("+" ). ("+" / ."* ('" , )" ) ! 0")
6 (" X0 = 500 000 m, Y0 = 0 m. ) 6*" " /" *" : + " " (" 0.9996 ,
" ) ! *" / UTM 6 " 1.00 () / 8, 180 km () 0 6
" ) ! *" / 6 " (* ( * "' * / 6 ( 1:2500 4 dm/km).
( + " )" () " UTM /" /" (,:

$ 6 ": 6 ;
"'" " ) " ( : GRS80;
X ( (" 6 , + " + ) ;
Y ( (" ( " ) * *" / * 6 ";
)" (" 6 + /, , *") * ;
" 8 *" / 6 " * + " () )" =500 000.00 m;
) 6*" " ( " 8"* *" / , 6 ( 0.9996;
# + 6 " (" (" 6 6*"7, 180 W 174 W *" / , ( " 8 60. 6
6*"7, 174 E 180 *" / .

1 18
2.
: * # " "
$
.
# " ) ! 9) /" +"9) , "*" * (+ ,0 -" " / .
# "*" /" /" ( :,0 + !" ")( () ,08 (" ,/" " . 6 8
)". * "*" ( +, 0"! ,0,/" 6- , /"' ( / . *") /" *
"9 + 8 / 6 + ( / . - "* "*" + " ) * . "6, ) ) .
,0 -" " / "*" () 0, 6 *" " () ! . * )"* ) 0 . )". /" ("

()" , - 6 ) )" " ( . *" "8 .
6 + ( () ) ")* 6"*: " 6 +:" () , "*" (" ,( + * " " ) :

# "*" , + (plane surveying),
" ")( "*" (geodetic surveying).
$ ( $ " $ )& , + 9 "*:" ( * ( + *" 6 * + ( "' 9" X,Y

/"). ( (Z H /) (" "' 9" , (, ( " 8 / "*:"
(( " 8 + * ). +" ( ,0 /"+ , , "8" ( * ) () ( -) ! '( *
"*" , *"8,/, (" "*" , + . ( " ' 0 * /" ) * , ,)
,! 0 . /( . "8" /( . -/" ) ( ,)"+ " "6 "), 0, (" ,6 * , -6
6"*: 6 +:" ().
!' $ ( $ * "' ( 8 / ) 0 , "*:, ) ") , 8" *

*6 +:" * - ,. "*: (" - 0 ( * * )"* ) 0 "' ( *
+ 9 - ) ! " ( . , "*" , , + , + ( " (" "' 9, , (,
( " 8, 6"*: , + 9 (( " 8 + * ). , !" ")( "*" /" ,+"
(* ) "*" + ( " " 6 () +" . ,0/ * ( + ! ,
) "* " " .) 98" + "*", ( + "*" "*" ()" ! - " )". ! /"
6 8 ( # , , .) /" (" 6 ( + /, !" *") /( *
- , "*:". + (), 6 .)"+ : + * )"* ) 0 * " + 8" ) "*"
8 . + ! 7 + 8" 6 .)"+ * + ( ( . ( ()"* "*" ( +" * ,) /" ) *
! "*" .
6 + ( () *" ", "*" (" * " " ) :

# "*" 6 ) "-" " 6 /" * )"* ) 0 " (!" ")( ") ( +" (control survey);
# "*" 6 ) "-" "' ( 8 ! + ( 9)+ 6"*: 9 . " (land,
boundary, property survey "*" 6"*: 9) );
# "*" *"8" 6, ' !, /" )" " / . +"9) 0 .
-/" ) (topographic survey ) ! '( "*" );
# "*" *"8" 6, / + " . + 9 6 ) "-" + ! /",
+ ( - "+ 8 6! 8" -/" ) + (hydrographic survey- . ! '(
"*" );
# "*" *"8" ) "- * 6! 8" " ( ) /" , / ()
" " " +" " . - "*" (control, land, topographic) (
:"* ) " 6 + +"6 . 6 " ( ) /, , (mine surveying
"*" , );
# "*" *"8" -" " + 8,, 8, "8, 6! 8" -/" ) (construction
survey "8" ( "*" );

1 19
# "*" *"8" 6! 8 *, / ( ,)"+ , ,!", ,) ( ) " /",
-/" ) *, /" .) / () " ) !, "8" ( !,
"*" 6"*: 9) ) ! '( ! "*" (route surveying - "*" *, / );
# "*" / () " " )" "() 0 " ' ) ! *") /" 0"*, ("
*" "8 ') ! ' / * ()" 6 ) "-" "7 + 8 / ') ! '( .
-/" ) (photogrammetric survey).
2.1. CONTROL SURVEY
"' ( 8" !" ")( " (* )"* ) 0 " ( +", , :"* )" (), "*" ) . ) 0 )
( +" 6,*"+ "7 + 8" . 6 ) . +" ) . ( () .) /
- . ) 0 6"*: / + 9 . ") " *" "8 - " , "*" , ) .
) 0 " *") (, 6,0 + 8 !" ")( . ( , " * 8 . - " + 9" "0 ,
" * ! +: * ( ! *") / , ) !, / , ) )" / , # .).
, "7 + 8" . 6 ) . +" ) . / ) .) 0 -
/" + /" )" / + * # )". ! /" 6 -/" 8"8 ) . +"/, " / ,
/" ,, 0 *" (" ! !,- . 9) /" " *" ,) , !" ")( "*"
) . ) 0 ,6 * , -6 6"*: , 6 +:" () !" " (" ()
,( () +: 8 * . !" ")( . * " +" . *" 6 / + ( . 6 .)"+ ) 0 ()
( ) " ) . + .). 98" + "*", , +" ( ,0 /"+ 6 ) "-" !" ")( !
"*" ) .) 0 (!" ")( . * " ) () (" # )". ! / 0"*, ("
:" ) 0 " + ( ( "7,/, )". * +" * , ) '" " / # ,) * )(
/" ) " . 6 ) * /, ) 0 .
# "*" ) . ) 0 , + , "8" ( ! "*" -"6-"7,/" " . ,

. 6 ) , +" ) , ( +, - + 8 6! 8" "8" ( . ! 7"+ ( .
-/" ) . 6 + ( () +" 0 " -/" ) , "*" ) .) 0 * " - )" !" ")( !
)" 6 "* ,/" 6 +:" (), )" * (+ -" " / "*" , + . /0"9 /"
,! ( ,0 /, 0"*, (, + /" " " /" . 6 ) ! +" ) ! 6 8 .
" - - (" "*" ) .) 0 6 ) "-" "8" ( ! "*" ( 8
) " ) 0 " (. 6 ) +" ) ) "( + ") * " ".
" ,- - / "!6 () /, +" 6 0 )" / " !" ")( " ( +":

.
) /
* " -,.+ ) :
" ") ! *") /( . ) 0 ( + !, ,! !, ) " "! 0")+ ) ! " );
# ! ( "* " "( ( + , ( ( + * + !, ,! !, ) " "! 0")+ ) !
" );
" " /( . ) 0 (+ + !, ,! ! ) " "! " ).
+ / * " -,.+ ) :
( + , "'" " ) , * " ,;
+ , "'" " ) , * " ,;
( ) + " ")( "'" " ) + ) * " ,;
, "'" " ) , * " ,;
# ! ( , * " ,;
/( , * " ,.
( + "'" " ) * " , + "'" " ) * " * " " 6 + " (,
*" * # )". ! /" "' ( " (, , + , ! "
ITRF (International Terestrial Reference Frame; !" " ) 0 ()

1 20
+ ,! ) ( ()"* ( " 6 ,)+ 7" * /"* 0") ! *" /
/ (" 6"*: " ) /") * /, (+ -" " / () . -3 "'" " ) . ( ()"* .
+ ( ( * ! " ,, 6+ 0 ( ()"* + ( ( 8" /" ( " 8 / ( !
* / /" "7" (* ) 8"* + " " + 9 * " ! ', () " " 1875.
! ". (, + ( " ) 0 , ( +, *" "8 6 70. ! 9 ! +" , ( 0, )" ,
(, " 6 /" "' ( ( " 8 / ( !* , (), " (" :"
" ()". ", , 6+ 0 / *" / 9 ,+" (" ()" + ( " ( 8" " *" "8 ,
+ ,# I. " ) 0 "7" . + ( ,
"* () ! ,) / " 6 () , 0 , () - 6 /" ) 0 , +" 0 ! , () / 8,
6*"7, ) 0 0 , "7 + 8 + ( ( . 6 ":" /" 0") )"! /",
) :
" , +" * + ( " ) 0 () ;
" , " 6 ! +" * ;
" , )". 0 ! +" * +" " ) 0 () ;
" , )". 0 ! +" * .
2.2. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY
! '( * "*" * "' 9, (" / + ( " - . ) 0 6"*: /

+ 9 " . . 6 " () +: 8" ":"' *") /( . / /" .
" "*" ) () ) ! '( * + * ) * . ! '( "*" -,.+ ) :
( () +: 8" * " " ) .) 0 ,0/ "*" (*" "8"* +" "
" 6 () );
# 6 8" ) 0 ") : , , :,0,/, ) 0 ") ! '( " + 9 (*" "8"*
* 8" " 6 () ( 8 8"* ) " ) 0 " /" "' 9, * )"* ) 0 ,
( +,).
! '( "*" , 6 + ( () 6*" " * " - ) :
, 6*" (1:1000 , /");
" 8" 6*" ( 1:2000 1:10 000),
) 6*" (( ) /" 1:20 000).
6 + ( () *" " ) ! '( . + ) " + 9 "*" ,
) ! '( "*" "* )" , * " 6 0 / + ) . 6 + ( () *"8" "
)". ! /" ) ! '( "*" (" * " " 6 + ) :
) ! *") /( * *") * ,
" "() 0 * *") * ;
() )" "() 0 * *") * (( )" )( " *") " - # , , );
*- + .
" " ( ) 6*" ! ( " 8" 6*" !) ! '( ! "*" 6+ (" *" *
' ) ! *") /( . *") . ( 0 " )" "() 0 " ( )" )( " *") " ()" (" ,! + * ,
, 6*" * ) ! '( * "*" , , ' ) ! *") /( * *") * /"
* /, "7" ! 0"8 , " + * !,()" +"!") /" (": * . + , " *") ,
- " ( " )" "() 0 " ( )" )( " *") " ( # *") "*" ).
2.3. 2 3 ROUTE SURVEYING
# "*" ( - / . *, / /"()" 9 / *. # 8 * (" /0"9 " 6,*"+

"*" / -"6-"7,/" ,( () +: 8" . 6 ) . +" ) . 6 .)"+ ) 0 ()
6! 8" ( - / . -/" ) . /0"9 ", -/" ) 6 ) ( ) ' * /, * " , -/" )
/ , :,0,/" ) ( ) :, - 6 0 ) * ) ( ) * ( ()"* * . # "*"
( - / . *, / ( ()"* 6+ (" , (+ * ' 6 * 6+ 7"8 /" ) (

1 21
8 "8 " ( ) /"). "8" /" ) /" ) / / "*"
, : (+" " . " ) " " . " 6 ,( () +: 8" - -" " + 8" -/" ) .
/ "( , :,0,/" , : 8" ' * / )" " , ) , ) "- 6"*: 9) ,
/ (, -/" ) , 0"*, (" "*" 6+ - (" ,)+ ) ! ' / )" "
,( () + " ) " ) 0 " (!" ")( * " -/" ) ) 6 ) "-" 8"! + ! -" " + 8 .
- !" ")( "8" - , () 8, ! + (+ * ) * 6 .)"+ * " . /":
6 /" !" *") /, . 6 ) . +" ) . + (" ()" ,
(), , -" " + 8 /" ) + ! -/" ) ;
6 /" *") " , : 8 )" " ( . ) / (, " . , (), ,
-" " + 8 /" ) + ! -/" ) ;
6 /" )". " " , " - " "6, ) ) *" "8 - ( 0,
0 " (6 "* ") 6"*: . + ;
6 /" "( () -, /" 6"*: .* ( .
") : /" "*" , ( - / . *, / - " + 9" "0 , + , " *") +"6 .

6 - () "8" ( " !" "6 /".
2.4. 4 5 3
CONSTRUCTION SURVEY
# "*" 6 ) "-" 6! 8" ! 7"+ ( . -/" ) -,.+ ) :

( () +: 8" "7" . 6 (* " ) )" " , ( +, / . (" *" "8"*
/ + ( ( "' 9, 6"*: + ;
( () +: 8" /" ! - + 9 0 *" (" " * 9" ) "- () +: 8
* " " )" " ( . * " ;
6+ 7"8" *" "8 " . . +" ' + 8 /" * ") . " +
() , ), " "7 + 8 0 " 6+" " . + , " "' ( *
+ "*" ( * " * ( *"(" ( .), 9) /" ( () + " )". ! /" )"
6+" " . + .
" ( " " -" " + 8 () , /" 6+ (" ) ! '( "*" )" " 6 7,/,
(" ! + /, " !" ")( " !" ( + )") /" " () +: /, ( +, 6
/" ) + 8" -/" ) . 5 * (" /" ) ,(+ / 6 0 8" "( " ( / /" / * ("
"9 + ) 8" * + ( - + . ( , / (, -/" ) . )" ) "-" " . /"
6+ ) * " , ) . ) 0 / " (" () ) , ) , -" " + 8 ! 7"8
-/" ) . " ")( "8" * - +"6, ) * + *) 6 / * " , ) .
) 0 ( , ) "- * "*" 6"*: 9) , "*" * " " ) .) 0
6! 8" -/" ) . ) / '6 , 6 / 8" ( ()"* "*" ) "- /" ,(*" "
)"! / (+ . ) "*" , . + /
/" ("- + "( * * 8 . ( + +" 6 0 / / . /" ) ,)
6! 8" " * , * () + , - , ( ()"* 6 + 8 + 8", , ()6+. *"! /" ) ).
, / * ( ,0 /"+ * , ( + "* 6 !" ")( ! () ,08 /"(, ( ()"*

) ) . () , # , "7 / , (" ( , "7 / , +" ( ., " (+ () ,*" )
( ()"* 0 /" (" " *" " *") " - " - 7,/, , + , " *") +"6 . 6
)". " *" "8 "*" .
") : /" "*" , ( - / . *, / - " + 9" "0 , + , " *") +"6 .

6 - () "8" ( " !" "6 /".

1 22
2.5. LAND SURVEY
# "*" 6"*: 9) - + (" 6 0 + 8"* *" "8"* , + / (! ) /"

' * /, ! " + ( 9) 6"*: 9 . " . # "*" 6"*: 9) (" 6+ 6 ( " " "
) "-":
-"6-"7 + 8 " . . ) 6 6 , + ! ( , "8 ( 0, 8 )
+ 9 " ! + ( 9)+ "' ( .+ : + * -/" ) * ;
# + ,( () +: 8" ! " 0 / /" "*" /" 6+ 9" 0 / /" (
, 7" "). * "*" *;
# " " " +" + 9" * 8 . /" ,( ,( * " /" / *
(, "' ( + 9 , - / + . " .
*"), 6"*: 9) , * " ( 6"*: 9) ( /" ! ,! ! + ( , + /"

+ 6 + ) () 8" /! + ( 9)+ , ! ) +, , " , "(" /,
" ,! -/" ) . , / !" ")( ! () ,08 6 ), + (), "*" (land surveyor) /"()"
6+ 9 )" " ( *" "8 , ( 0, *" 6 /" + 9 ,, "* / 6,/"
, " + "! 0 . / + 9 6"*: 9 . " 9" " ,)
/, /" * !, " /" 6 0 + "' ( ) . " ")( () ,08 6 ), + (), "*" (land
surveyor) * 6 + ) " ( * )". 0 " " , " +" + " (" )" , ( +
" ") () * . +" 6"* : , !" ")( () ,08 * - ) (" ) ' ) ( " ,)
/ * (" )+ 7,/" 8"! + + ' + () 6 +, + (), " ) () .
( ,( "+" " * ) "- * , "*" 6"*: 9) (" " :

! "*" 6"*: 9) ;
- +, "*" 6"*: 9) ,
# "*" 6 ) "-" " ( " 8 ) " .
# "*" 6"*: 9) 6+ (": ) ) * () * , # )". ! / *, )" ) * (

, "7 / * , ) * )" ) * *" *) * ): * . ( * +" " *
() ,*" ) * , , +" 6"* : , ( 9 /) "*" 6"*: 9) * " (" 6+ ) *" *
' ) ! *") /( . *") . ! /" * !, ", )" " ( " , (" - ) , "
,! + 6*"7, " * . ) 0 + ( 9)+ -, , " ) *" " . ( +, ) ! (" * "
6 :,0 ) (" 6 )" *" " 0"() ()" ! *") /", 0"*, " * "
) 0 " * /, )" ! ( .) 0 , ! " " (, () " ! . (,
! 0 " /" " + ! - , ) (" ! ( + 6+ / /, "6 + ( .
(" () # )". ! / , " . /" (+ , " * , ) 0 , " ) ("() ,
, (" ) * *"(), 6 " " , (" # )" * 9) - " () + ) .
" " , " 6 () "*" 6"*: 9) 6 + ( + " () 6"*: 9) . 0 ! " /" /"
! ( 6"*: 9)" + " /" , !. /" ! * !, ", ": - - " * "
) 0 " ! + ( 9)+ +"6 ) ( ) 0 * + " * " " ) . ) 0 .
9 "8"* ) + " /" /", (+ "*" (" )"! 9, , /" 6 /" 0
( ()"* ( +, /"! (" 9" * !, ,( () + ) 9)" " ! 0 (),- + 6+ 9 )
" ) ' / " ( 8 /, (" /" ()+" , ,) * ) 6 + , * /,)" (
, - 6, ) .
") : /" "*" , 6"*: 9) - " + 9" "0 , + , " *") +"6 . 6 - ()
) () ' * . ( ()"* .

1 23
2.6. PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SURVEY
) ! *") /( *") 6,*"+ ()+ + 8" ' * / -/" ) * " ) *

,)"*, *" "8"* ' ) ! '( ! ( * -/" ) . " 6 6 , ( 0 . *") ,
') ! *") /( " + ' ) ! ' 9, -/" ), 6 ) * (" , - , + 9 - ( ".
) ! *") /( , *") , )" 9, ( " " " " /":
# 8" ' ) ! *") /( ( * 8" -/" ) ;
- "* ' ) ! ' / ( " 6 :, , ) "-, , + ,
' ) ! *") /( . ( ()"* 6 "() ), /,;
) ! *") /( "() ), / ( ( +, 0"! (" 0, /, )" ) 0
" /, ,!" ( " ! ) 6+ .
") : /" ' ) ! *") /( * "*" , - " + 9" "0 , + , " *") +"6 . 6
' ) ! *") /" : ( " ")" /".
2.7. 3
2 ! '( "*" -,.+ ) , : 8" 6 + 8" (+ . " "+ ) . )

+"6 .6 () * , /"6" , 6 + , " , .2 ! '( * "*" *:
"' 9, (" ,- " + 8, / + " . " " , + .
,)"+ ;
"'
9, (" / * ( . )' * 6 , + . ,)"+ ;
6
/, (" (" *" ) " " 6 + " + 9 " , - . / ;
# (" 6 7,/, * " -/" ) 6 " " /,;
"7,/, (" / + . - + ,! . + + ;
"' 9, (" ,) / 6 /", ("- ( *+ * ,
) .
# * 6 .)"+ . ! '( ! "*" /"()" 6 ) ! '( " ' !, /"
+ . . +"9) 0 . -/" ) . ", 0 6+ ( 0 /"
) ! '( / ) . "7,) *, *") " , : 8 ) 6 0 / (" 6 ,/,.
. 6 ) / + , / + ! -/" ) ( /"! (" + 9 "*" (0 * - 6

"*" ) , ) , 6+ 7"8 "*" * - ) "' ( ( " + ) * ) 0 9 ,. ) 0 ()
/ + (0 * , - ( .) ,) 0, + "*" ( ,( + , ("- +") , ) (
* ! . "' ( 8" ,- " ( 0 * (( 8") 6 + ( + ( " ) ( * .
+ / / . 6) ! 6 ! , *" "8 ,- (" * /, " , + ) . ( * ) ! , 6- !
( " ' 0 () "*" ) "- * ) , + , (, ) 9 + . ! '( ! "*" 6 0 /
+ 9 ) ! '( !. " ")( * () ,08 , / 6+ ) ! '( "*" 6 0 / /"
9" , 0 -/" )" ( * 8 . ) (" 0"() "9 + (" " + . ! '(
( / /" () + 6 () +".
*" "8" ,- () (" " a (echo-sounder). . ( , " " ,

*" "8 + "*" ( ! " " . ! ,() 0 ( ! "7" ,) + " !
6 ("0 / - 6 1500 m/s. " ) ( (" 9 :, , 9"() (" / ,
(" , , 0"*, 9 ( 6 ( 30. - / ". ( , " + 9 ("
"7"8"* " ) . *" "8 , " "*:" * )"() ! * / * ("
() +: /, . 6 ) "* ( " 6 0 ) *, " 6 ) * +" ) * () / 8 * -
,- * .
"' ( 8" . 6 ) ! / + , . 6 ) / + * 6+ 7"8

*" "8 /"()" ', *" ) 6 .)"+ . ! '( ! "*" . ) + ") 8

1 24
+ , ) , "*" /"()" + 0 8" / (" * -"6-" ) - "*" -
(+ ( (. . ) * ! " ,, /+ 9" (" ()" ( " " " ) )". ":
," ;
" ) ( ;
GPS.
&" & 6,*"+ *" , ( 0 . () ,*" ) 9) (, )" ) , (" () )
( .
'$ & )". " 6,*"+ /, *" , ( ' () . , "7 / (

,) * ) 6 + * " , * * 8 * )" " ( * ( *.
GPS )". , :,0,/" *" , '" " / ! GPS (DGPS) / * (" () " ) 0 ()
1 m RTK GPS / -"6-"7,/" " ) *") ( , ) 0 (). ( " 8" + "*", GPS )". ! /
- / * ) , , !, , 6 8, + . !" +" " " (, ( ()+" "
DGPS ( ()"*" / (" ,/, ( " " " 9 : 0" " / . ) ,
"* ),/, '" " / " GPS " " /" " ! 0" * - /, ( , "0 ,
100 km 400 km. " ")( () ,08 / " + , * !, () ) ( ! "
, () * RTCM ' * ), ,)"* GPS /"* ) (+ / /( ) 0 9 ,
- : * 1 m " ) " ) + , - 6 , ") 8 0.1 0+ . )". 0
* ( / # * ( " , -" SAD 6+ /" 6 ) "-" DGPS "* ( /" )6+. RTCM SC104
' * ) RTK , ". "7,) *, / 9 ,+" *" " RTK ()" (" ()
6+ 7 0 GPS "*". , ' * TRIMBLE () 6 RTK ) "-" )6+. CMR 6 (.
" ,) RTK 9 : 0 * /, *")" 10 km 20 km. " +" )" ) /
6+ DGPS *") , 6+ 7 0 GPS "*" 0"() 6+ / /, )6+. - 6 " () " /" (, ,
() 8, 12 ) , 6+ " ' 6 *" "8 "6 , / 0.5 s, (
) 0 9 , 10 cm ( *" "8 ), ( 0.005 m (' 6 *" "8 ). 6 " () " (, ,
() 8, "* ),/, '" " / " + " ()" RTCM () " (6 *" "8 )
GPS /"* * , + ,. # " , "7 / 6 6 8", + ,- *" ,
+ " "*" ) /"()" ! *6 - , )"! /, (+ . +" " . (" 6 (+" ,!"
( " ' 0 " /" /" (, ( () + " ' * . ( ()"* 6 + ! /,.
2.8.
# "* 9 * !" ")( * ( * , "*" " ") () -,.+ ) :

# () +: 8" "7 + 8" ) ) 0 !" ")( " ( +" 6 ( * 8" ") : ;
)+ 7 + 8" ) () ( " )" ) / " /" ";
" "8", , : 8" ,)+ 7 + 8" () . ( . )
" ") () * :
# , : 8" ) ( , + " ") () , ( ,
" ") () ;
# ",6 * 8" ) ) 9 /+ " () " ") () ;
) () ( ( 8" - ) 8" 6"*: 9) ;
6 , ) () ( + ;
") 9 -"6-"7"8" !" ")( . + 8 . +, () 6 /,.
9 /" "*" , " ") () - " "0 , + , ! , " " *") 6 - ()

) () .

1 25
3. 6 7
3.1. ,
3.1.1. , &'$ 1& 3 '(

+ ) 0 6"*: / + 9 , ( 6 8", * " (" "' ( ) :
/, (, . 6 ) / + ),
+ ( (, +" ) / + ).
- ! () " " "*:" () *" 6 () ), /" /" ) 0

6"*: / + 9 "' ( ) ,
(( 3.1-1) ) * X,Y,Z. ( * + ,! *, / ) 0
(" * !, 6 ) ( ) ) * (), $ ()
( + h - , + , * " " ( . +" " ) ( ()"* (" ,! + *
() , !" ")( * "*" , ( /"! (" 6 +:" () "*:" * ,6") , -6 ).
3.1.1-1: $
3.1.2. , &'$ 1& 3 '(

"'" " ) ( + "*" , + /" )" "' 9" (" X,Y,Z
) * + ,! ! "( /" ) ( ! ) ! ( ()"* (( 3.1.2-1).
1
(. 9)" ( ()"* () (" ( " 9 ) 0 + 9 "*" . XY + /" ) !" )
"'" " ) " ( , (. 9 / ) 0 , ( Y /" ,(*" " (!" " ), + , ("+" .
# / ) 0 " P , 3 ( ()"*, "' 9" (":

X,Y,Z ) * ,
,! + * , * d.
! X,Y,Z ( ()"* Z ( ( + "* +" ) ".
1
XY (" , ( / * ! +: * "' 9" NE + , ! " ( X ! + ( E (Easting), ( Y ! +
( N (Northing). 6 0 + 8" ) . ( 6 * NE ,+" " /" 6- ! ',6 /" /, * " 6 6+ )
/ XY ( ) ! ( ()"* 9 " . , !" "6 / , * )"* ) , /" / ( .

1 26
3.1.2-1: +
3.1.3. , &'$ 1& 2 '(

"*" , , + , / ) 0 P (" , "d d /" ),/, (" , 2 (XY)
. 6 ) , + () 0 " P' '
). . 6 ) / + / ) 0 " P "' 9" (":
, * + "* ( 6 )" ) 0 " - d h ;
# + * ( 6 ) .) 0 ;
, * d d ( 6 ) .) 0 .
" " , ,! + *" "8 (" + 9" , +" + . 6 ) / +" ) /.
. 6 ) / + , ,! + (" *" " , (, :

6+ : + ,
) ( 6 ) , "'" " ) ) + .
+" ) / + , ,! + (" *" " , (, :

6" ) 6" ) ,! + ZOP,
. 6 ) , + +" ) ,! + - .

1 27
3.1.3-1: $ 2%
# ) "- 6 + / +: (" * 0, 8 ) " 6 ) .

) 0 , + * ) * ( ()"*,. /" ) / + 6,*"+ #
*" " . + / /" ( (")
$ X (N) .
" (, )" ) 0 " , %. ) 0 " " . /" ( * ) + : +" -/" )" 6+ 9 )

/" ) /, *" "8 + ( ) 0 " (( 3.1.3-2). # " , /" ( " " :
" ) ( 8 . 6 ) 8 () ,*" ) /, (" )" ) 0 " 0, /,

,! + 6 /" ) /,, ()" ( " " " 6 6"
O1 = 1 1
O 2 = 2 2
, (3.1.3-1)
...
O n = n n
! " (,: i *" " + , i " ,! + . / ,! + 6 /" ) /, /" /"
- /, ) . ) 0 /" /" ( 6 )" ) 0 " . " 8 + " ()
0, (" )*") 0 ( " (+ . *" "8 , ()" 6 6
-
n
Oi
O= i =1
. (3.1.3-2)
n
0, 8 ,! 6 /" ) /, ( /" ) ! ,! ) 0, /, ("
/" ) ( + ( +, 6 6 - ,
j = j O, j = 1, k . (3.1.3-3)

1 28
0, 8 /" ) ( . + , ") : . ) 0 , 0, /, ("

)" / " 6 ) .) 0 ") :
|| X
00000
O
1
2
1
2
A
2
1
3.1.3-2:
"*" , , + /0"9 " (" ()" + ,! ) ( ()"* . (" + ,! !

( ()"* (" , " "' 9,. 6 ) 0 . 6 ! , - 0 (" 6 + ( + ,! !
) ! ( ()"* ()" + (N- North, X ( + " "! + !
) ! ( ()"* , " ,- - / , ( Y ( " ()+" ! ( ()"* + ,! "
" ) +" "0 " /" /" 6 ) /" UTM) (E East, Y ( + " "!
+ ! ) ! ( ()"* , " ,- - / , ( X ( UTM /" /".
(. 9)" + ,! ! ( ()"* , 6 ) 0 . 6 ! ,- (" ) )" ,+" -, ,

6 ) + ". (" * " () + 0 :
6- * /8" /,! -6 ") 0 " + 9 "*" (. 9 ",
( - * "' ( 8"* ) / (. 9) .
X
Yp P
Xp
Y
3.1.3-3:

1 29
ekvator Y
3.1.3-4: % $ - 7.
+ ,! * ) * ( ()"*,, / ) 0 " "' ( /" + ,! * ) *

Xp (, + , ("+" ) Yp (, + , () ).
# 1.2.2-1: P(Xp Yp) = P(1100,00 1200,00) 6 0 /" Xp = 1100,00 m, Yp = 1200,00 m.
$0 )& $ ) "# $! & '& ' ( )" ) /" " ,- " - /" ":" /" , +"
6 " 9"(), (" *,. ) 0") ) ! ( ()"* 6. 6 (" ,
"(" , " ) ! *" / 6 " (*" / 18) " + ) , 7. , , "(" ,
" ) ! *" / 6 " (*" / 21) " + ) . -6 * " ) *" /
6 ( " * )" ) /" 6 ", - (" 6-"! " "! ) + " )", " ) *
*" / ,6 " ":" /" + " () )" Y = 500 000.00. - (" 6 / /6
/" "0, ( " + " () Y )" /" (" - / 6 " ( *" , Y =7 523 000.00
6 0 + (" ) 0 6 , (" * / 6 , 23 km () 0 o ( " 8"! *" / ).

1 30
3.1.4. , &'$ 1& $& $! & '& '(
"' ( /" ( (. 9)")
) ! ( ()"* . 0 P1 "7" /" !"0 & ( d1
) 0 " P1 "# ( 1 ! - 6,/" 0") + + ) 0 P1. /,( d1 /" ,+"
6 ) + +" 0 , ,! * " - ) 0 360 ()" , (*" , ") 8 6 : "
( ),, 0, /, 0") ! + . 0") + , /0"9 " (" - ) 0 () /" "
* " "( + ,6 0") , /" ) /, * /, (" ,6") /* 8" +" 6 )" ) 0 ").
/" /" 6 ) (" ,! + *" " , ()" " * , * . #, ,! ( 360

()" " . )" " (" " 60 ,0 . * ,) , (+ * ,) (" " 60 ,0 . (" , .
/" -"6 *" 6 +" 0 . " (1 rad) /"()" ,! 0 / /" , /"
8"! + * /,(,. " () ( ) "' 9" (" ( - * ,! ( ) 8"! + !
"0 d, ( ,
O
= , (3.1.4-1)
d
, O = d = 2r , ! " /" r , "0 ,! .
#, ,! ( 2 ( 6.28 / ).
O
= 2 rad . (3.1.4-2)
r
( ,
360 = 2 rad,
180 = rad.
:" /",

1 = = 0.0175 rad ,
180
180
1 rad = = 57.29578 = 571744.8 = 206 264.8.

" () 206264.8 6 0 + (" ( () 6 ")+ 8" ,! + 6 , (" , "
- ,) . # * ")+ 8 6 , (" , ", ,! (" * ( , *
+" 6 /" 6 (" , , ", ,! (" " ( * ( 1 / = 0.00000485.
) 0 * *" * " )" (" 0"() ()" * 0, 8

) 8 ") : . ) 0 * -" " + 8 /" ) + . -/" ) * ,
) ) . () . ) -" 3.1.4-1, 6 " (, + " () ,! + + ) * 6
)" , 6 + ( () + ) .
R
P1
d1
"'" " )
2
O d2 P2
3.1.4-1:

1 31
3.1.4-1:,
+ ) 6 6 N ( + " ()
,! , ()" " *
# + + + 0 90
,! + - 90 180
" - - 180 270
5")+ ) - + 270 360
3.1.5. + $ ) "# / $& / $! & '
( 3.1.5-1 ,() + (, + ( , ) " (d, ) 3 + ,! "

( YP , X P ) )" ) 0 " P . (, )" " )" (d, ) , + " () + ,! .
) 0, /, (" * , 6 6
3.1.5-1:
YP = d sin
, (3.1.5-1)
X P = d cos
,, (, 6 )" + ,! " )", " )" (" 0, /, * , 6 6
r = YP2 + X 2P
YP , (3.1.5-2)
tan =
XP
,
YP Y
= arctan = tan 1 P . (3.1.5-3)
XP XP
3
(" "'" " ) + ( 6 ) + * (*" * X (" / /" " ( " 8"* *" / ,
6 " /" /", ) (" ,! 6 0 + ( 6 + (" ! $ , & ( "# (.

1 32
/" +" /" () ,) , d /" ,+" 6 ) + , + ) ,! (" "7,/" ( +,
6 YP XP.
X
YP
P
d
XP
Y
3.1.5-2: " "
3.2. 6 , 5 7
3.2.1. "0 & +( 8" !) ' 1

(" +" 0, ( . " / " 6,/" ()" + ,! " )", ( 0 "
" /" * !, (" 6+"() ( * ) * . " 6 !6 , ) "-, + ,! .
) /"()" 8 . + 0"9 ) 0 a *" .
( 3.2.1-1 )" (, +" ) 0 " P1 P2, ( ) * Y1,X1 Y2,X2, "( " ) + .

()" # ) ! , )" "*, , ) ,! , P1P2P, , 6*"7, ) . ) 0 0, ("
( +, 6 6 - ,
= (Y2 Y1 ) + (X 2 X 1 ) ,
2 2 2
d 12 (3.2.1-1)
)/.
d 12 = (Y2 Y1 )2 + (X 2 X 1 )2 . (3.2.1-2)
3.2.1-1: %
3.2.2. $ , & "# &# $ ) +( 8" !) ' 1

$ , & "# +" /"()" ,! ! ' * + ( 6 ) + * (*" * X (N) ("
*" (" , (*" , ") 8 6 : " ( ),, 0"+ 6 ) + ! (*" X (". " * )
+ " () 0 360. ( 3.2.1-1, " ,! +" P1P2 , 6 12 * 8 /"
90. ,!" () " " ,! +" P2P1 , 6 21 +" /" 180. "6 6*"7,
+ " ,! ()" +" ! ( :

1 33
21 = 12 + 180 . (3.2.2-1)
" , ! 12 +" P1P2 0, (" ( +, 6 6 -
Y2 Y1
12 = a tan , (3.2.2-2)
X 2 X1
- ,) , " ,! +" P2P1 6 (
Y Y2
21 = a tan 1 . (3.2.3-3)
X1 X 2
# $ ) /" /" ) !" (, ,! / + ' * ( 6 ) + * (*" * Y (E) ("
-" " + (" ( m (( 3.2.1-1). ! - m12 +" P1P2 0, (" ( +, 6 6 -
X X1
m 12 = tan 12 = 2 , (3.2.2-4)
Y2 Y1
, ! - m21 +" P2P1, 6 (
X X2
m 21 = tan 21 = 1 . (3.2.2-5)
Y1 Y2
# 3.2.2-1: 0, ) + " () " ! ,! 6*"7, ) 0 A C, (, )"
8 . +" )": YA= 1023.25 m, XA= 2134.32 m YC = 1141.71 m, XC = 2012.89 m.
YC YA
= tan 1 = 4417 26
XC X A ( "6, ) ) , , ) ,)
# "* ) -" 3.2.2-1 ,! (" 6 , ,! * + ),, 0 + " () " !

,! - / (" A = 180 = 1354234 .
C
:
YC YA = d AC sin AC
X C X A = d AC cos AC
3.2.2-1: -

1 34
# 3.2.2-2:) (, , " ,! 6*"7, ) 0 F: dAF = 91.88 m
AF = 2952545 .0, ) )" ) 0 " F (, )" ) 0 " (Y,X) = (1932.76 m
, 770 m). 0, ) , , 6*"7, ) 0 F G (dFG) (, )" ) 0 " G /" "
G(Y,X) = (2016.29 m, 952.18 m).
$ 3 :
YAF = 91.88 sin 2952545 = 82.93 m
X AF = 91.88 cos 2952545 = +39.45 m
)" ) 0 " F 6 ("
YF = 1932.76 82.98 = 1849.78 m

X F = 770.47 + 39.45 = 809.92 m
) " 6 " , FG 6 ("
YFG = 2016.29 1849.78 = 166.51 m

X FG = 952.18 809.92 = 142.26 m
, dFG 6 (
d FG = Y 2
FG + X FG
2
= 166.51 2 + 142.26 2 = 219.01 m
3.3. 7 4 6
"9 " *" "8 + , ,) 0, ) 0 () " / ) 0 . " ()

(), 8 *" " " , " d + 6 (" d , "( " ) + . )" +
"( !, () " " / " " ) 0 " * " (" 6 6 ) " ( * 0 / /" " ) "7"
*" " * , * + "* ) " , ) 0 ,. + )") " " / " 6 )" ) 0 "
+ " ,/" (" +" 0 * , ( " ( , ( " ) + * ( * (), 8 *")
" (" , + , ( - ! ) ! ( ()"* . *", "( !, () *" "8 , "
* " (" 6 6 ) " ) + " 6 (), )/. ( $
$ . *", /" d = 0,1 m, d = 100 m, 6 ( 1:1000. 0
) *", 6 6+ ! "9 * + = 20 , 100
m 6 ( 0,01 m, )/. 6 ( 1:10 000. +" " *" , 6,/"
*" "8 + , , )/. " ) + " 6 ()
+ * - ) ( ! ( " ) + / " 6 () , d d (( 3.3-1).
) 0 / *" , " ( () (" () ! / /" () " ) + . " 6 () *" "8
+ , , +" (" 0" ,/" 6 " -, " 6 0 / . ) -" 3.3-1 6 6 0 )
() (), 8 ,! + . *" "8 )" (, + " () " ) + " " 6 ()
" (), 8 6 , " 100, 300 500 m.
# "* * 6 ) -" " 3.3-1, ,6 ") () + , , " ) "- *" ) ( " ) + *

" 6 9 , 1:10 000, "( " ) " 6 () *" "8 + 6 ( = 20. /"
, " 6 )" ) 0 " d = 400 m 6*" " ( d = 0.15 m, 6- ! 6 .)"+ . * !" ()
*" "8 , " 6 () *" "8 + ) "- 6 ( 1 ( (400 / 300) 0,87267 = 0,12 m).

1 35
3.3-1 : " "
100 m 300 m 500 m d d
10 0,29087 0,87267 1,45433 1/344
5 0,14543 0,43630 0,72717 1/688
1 0,02909 0,08726 0,14543 1/3440
30 0,01454 0,04363 0,07272 1/6880
20 0,00970 0,02291 0,04485 1/10300
10 0,00485 0,01454 0,02424 1/20600
5 0,00242 0,00727 0,01212 1/41200
1 0,00048 0,00145 0,00242 1/206300
# / + " " ) ( . , "7 / 6 *" "8" , ( Electronic Distance Measurement)

6 0 / /" ,) ) 0 () "*" . *", -"6 +" . ,( , " (" *" "
+" * " 6 . *" , *" "8" , " 3000 m ( () * (), 8"*
0.015 m "( " ) /" " ) + / " 6 () 1:200 000, ( " 6 () *" "8
,! + 1. /" "0 ) ! '( * "*" ,, 0 ! " ) + + " 6 () /"
, . "*" , + /" ) ! '( ) () ( , ,) ( * *" "8"* ): *
* " (" () " ) + " 6 () 1:1000, 9) /" "( " ) ,! + / " 6 ()
3.
# * " , /" , , 0"() (" ()" 6 6 / , ("- ( ") ! *") /( "

', /", /" (, 0"() +" * ("): +" , - 6 "7" . + " () ,! + . *",
) 0 () 0, 8 *"8 " (" ( *" * ,! . "7,) *, (, - 6 " *" " ( ,(
* . ,! + ( ,( ,! + - ( . 90 ) !"( ) !"( * . +"
,! + 6 0 / ", ()" " " 6 () *" "8 ,! + 6 + ( " +" 0 " ,!
', /" / (" () * 0, 8 . /" ) 0 (+ ,! *" ) ( () *
" 6 9 ,, ! ) +, " ( * ( * *. " ")( () ,08 * 6 + ) *" ,
"*" ( - " ) ! *") /( . ', / - -"6-" " + ) , " 6 ()
*" "8 ,! + . ( * 3.3-2 3.3-3 6 /" " ) + " 6 () "( " )
() * (), 8 * *" "8 ,! + 5 1, 6 ', /" ( ,( , ( ,( , ) !" (
) !"( .
( +, 6 .! ' * !, " /":

" ) " ) + , " 6 () , 6 + ( () ) ! ,! 8"! +" ! "9 ";
" ) * ( * * * ,! / - , /" ! "9 *" "8 6 )
-"6-" 6 .)"+ , " ) + , " 6 ();
" ) " 6 () ( / * ,! "7" " +" 0 " ) "- 6*" ) -
6 .)"+ " ) + " 6 () * 0, 8 - 0,+ ;
3.3-1: ( ( d=100m, =60, d=0.5 m, =30)

1 36
3.3-2: ( ) ( )
3.3-3:
" *" ,() + " (" 0 9 "8 ! ' (( " 3.3-2 3.3-3):
,) * )" ) * 6*" " /" ,! 32 00. /" "( !, () *" "8
,! 30 ( 0, ) " ) + , "( !, () 0, 8 , (" ()
', / ,! . ( 3.3-3 " ) + " 6 () / ! + "(" , +"
= 30 /" "( " ) " ,! , 32 6 ( 1:3000.
) ! *") /( / * " ,! + (, *" " ( 5 . # * 0, 8
() (" ', / 0"*, (" 6 .)"+ " ) + " 6 ()
1:20000 * - ) ( 0,+ . - (" 0,+ " . " 6 () ) "- /"
" ) * * ,! . ( 3.3-2 6 " ) + , " 6 () 1:20 000
= 5 * * ,! 6 ( = 26 .
" ) ( / * " 6 9 , ) "- *" ) ,! (" 6 .)"+ " ) +
" 6 () 1:10 000 (" , 0, 8 * () ', / ,! .
( 3.3-2 " ) + / " 6 () 1:10 000 ,! , 76, ! "9 *" "8
,! + " (*" - ) +" 5, 6 ,! 64 ! "9 *" "8 ,! + " (*" - )
+" 10 , ) .
1 37
3.4. 4
"*" ,, *" "8 (, 0 :. " " , ( +, "6, ) ) *" "8 0, /, ("

,!" +" 0 " 9) (, ,! + , , ", " ) + ( , + 9 ", 6 "* " ( .
"6" /" (" ,( () +: /, * ,( () +: 8 ( 6*"7, *" "8 " 6 ) .
*") (+ ( , ) ( .) " () +: /, * )"* ) 0 - " " / +". +,
/" , * )"* ) 0 , ' *, /, 6 + * . " "8 (" 0"() "
,+ " , * " " ) , +" (" "). + ! + /, "7" * 6 * ("
+: /, 6 6 ) ( ()"* )( ,) /, ( (+ " (" "'" " ) , ( +, 6 /,
* " + ". *" , /" ) + ( ) 0 " " ) "- " ) + ( ") 0 B
C. -6 * (" + ( " " "7,/, " ) , *" "8"* (" "7,/, + ( ( " 6 " ;h1,
;h2 ;h3 (( 3.4-1).
C
;h2
;h3
;h1
3.4-1:
" /" /" () + ) "- " ) + ( " HB HC ) 0 B C, (, + ( ,

+ 9 "' ( , + ( * )" ) 0 " . - * " - 6 ()" ) , " . /"
6*" ) +" + ( ( " 6 ". -6 * (, *" "8 )" " " ( ,0 / * ! "9 * ,
- / *" "8 /" +" " . ! (, 9"* *" , * * ) *" "8 ). ) + ( (HA),
) "6, ) ) *" "8 (;h1, ;h2 ;h3) 8 . + () (), 8 + " 6 )
*") (+ ( " HB HC) () ), 9, . - ( 0, *") "
(+ ( " HA HC) " . /" ( ) +"6, 6*"7, " "*" ) * )"* ) 0 ! * " , )/.
H A + h1 = H B
H B + h 2 = H C . (3.4-1)
H A + h 3 = H C
-6 * (, +" +" 0 " " 6 )", 6 ( + 8" ', ! * " (,

" . " (+" ) /" 0 " ( + : " (, - /" +"). "7,) *, ,( " ! "9 *" "8 ,
(+ /" 0 - ,! 0 / "6, ) ). *", 6- " + ) ! /" 0 /"
/" () + /" " () /" 6 )": / - 6 + / " "9"8 . ) + *
( ,0 /"+ * , , (" ( " + 9 * *" "8 ( " , ) ()) " . /"
) + ! ) * / - -"6-" " 6 ) . *") , 6 ()" ) ,
* )"* ) 0 * * " ,. + (), 6 + (" (data adjustment). 6 6
6 + 8" () (" - , 6 (), *"8 8 + " () 8 - -
6 ()" ) ( * " * / + /" ()+" . " " 6 ) . *") .
(), , 6 + 8 " , ) . *" "8 () (" " )". . /() /

8 . / (" /0"9 " () /"()" " (least squares method). "
)". 6 + 8 / (" , ( 0"() () , 6 (6 )+ 8
' !, "). ( +, ( " 3.4-1, * " (" () 6 6 -
h1 + h 2 + h 3 = fh ,

1 38
! " /" f h - ! "9 6 )+ 8 ' !, ". (, (+ *" "8 /" ! + )") ( ()"
)" ") (+ 8" ) "- + ) 6 + " () ( f h ) . /",
3
f f f
(h 1 + v 1 ) + (h 2 + v 2 ) + (h 3 + v 3 ) = (h 1 h ) + (h 2 h ) + (h 3 h ) = h 1 + h 2 + h 3 = 0 , (3.4-2)
3 3 3
! " (,: v 1 , v 2 , v 3 ( , , 9 / )" ), (" () 6 6 ),
(, h 1 , h 2 , h 3 6 + )" + " () 8 ( " " "6, ) ) *" "8 ). (, h i
6 ()" ) " ( * " *, 6- - /" +" 6 + )" + " () 8 " ()"
+ " () *") (+ ( " HB HC).

1 39
4. 5 4 6 7
4.1. 5 4 6 7 3
# /) 0
,. 6 ) / + * " (" " ) + 9" 0 , ) :
! ( /* " ;
# "(" 8"* + ;
,0 * "(" *;
+ , , + /;
# )". ! / *;
!, / *;
)" / *, .
( (, 0"() ()" 8 . +" *- /". # * " 6 /" "*" , 6 + / /,
(" +" ( + " ' 6":
# + - ,( () +: 8" !" ")( " ( +" "*" (* " ) . ) 0 ,
* )"* ) 0 ( + "*" );
,! - "*" (( * 8 ) ) 0 ") : .
+ * ! +:, ") : /" " - ) -/ 98" + ' 6 , , ") * 9"() * -/ ( " ("
"*" ) 0 ") : .
4.1.1. #& ($ 0
# ! *") / /"()" "' ( /" () + *") ,( () +: 8 * " " ) .

) 0 ,. 6 ) / + / /" +" * ( , !,() (":" * ( " * 6 ( *
)" " * ! " (, ) " + 6, " "* + " ! " *" ) !, /"
) )" /" /" "( , ( ,( " +"9) 0 . . " " # /"
*" : +a.
# ! ( * " /" *"8" :

* 8, ! (" ;
( () +: 8, * )"* ) 0 " ( +" 6 6+ 7"8" ) ! '( ! "*" ;
8, -" " + 8, /" ) + . ") : "8" ( . -/" ) ;
8, ) .) 0 6 " 6 /, ' ) ! *") /( ! "*" .
# ! ( ,* " ,0 " ! ( + .# ! ( + " () +: ( , 6 * 9:" .

+ . / ! ( . () /" !" ")( * *" "8 * , ,! + +"6,/,
) / () - 6 + " !" ")( " ) 0 " )" ) / 6+ 7"8 "*" . 0 " +"6 "
! ( * () * 6 + /, (" #& ( '1 ( .
, " ! ( . () *" " (":

" ) (" " ) ( * : *" * , *" *) * ): * );
" ) ( *" * ) . *") /( . *") ).
# " !"0 & , (+ / ! ( /) 0 6*"7, +" (,(" " () " )" ) * (" *"
"# .
# ! ( + * "- ) "' ( ,:
+ *" 6 / + (. 6 ) + );
*" 6 / + ( () ).

1 40
& '$"( &' $ ( + ( $ - !"0 & "# ) " #& ( ) "
() ,*" )" "*, 6 *" "8" , ,! + 0 :
()"* ) ) " () "( )" )( *" *) *);
6, " * ";
"' " ) 6*" ( *- / * " "' " ) );
"! () ) ) ( )" " ( 6 ( );
# * "* (() ) + , + ( , ): , "* 6 *" "8" *")
)* ('" ",...).
(" ()" ) . *") /( () ,*" ) , ,*"() () (" ) . *") (

/, * . 6 ) * +" ) * ")+ *.
#& '1
0 a ! ( "* " " / / (" " ) 9" () ,*" ) 0 /" )" /" " .
" ) *" "8"* , ,! + 6 + (" #& ' 1 (() ). # /
! ( .) 0 ,)+ 7,/" (" "* ( " " * 6 .)"+ * :
" . /" *"7,( - + : + () 6*"7, ! ( .) 0 ;
! ( .) 0 " . /" ( * ) -" " ) 9) + 9" ") : ;
"() 6 ! ( , ) 0 , (" - ) -"6-"7,/" ) / () -" "!" ! () 6
*" "8" , , ,! + ) 0 ") : .
# "* ) / () , ! ( " ) 0 " * !, - ) :

) / " () C D),
+ "*" ".
# "* * )" / , /" (, +:" ", ! ( " ) 0 " * !, - ) :

+" ",
" * 0 ",
() 0 ",
*") ",
*" ",
-") ( ".
-6 * 0 () - 6 /" ! ( " ) 0 " * !, - ) :

-"6 6"* ! " ) ,
( 6"* * " ) *.
" "! * ) C -"6 6"* ! " ) () - 6,/, (" ! ( " ) 0 " , (' ), -") ,.
)" ) + , * !, (" , ) "- ) , " *") " 0" "0 10 cm ( ('" *
) *,( " , * "0 2 mm 6 * + "*" (( 4.1.1-4).
" "! * ) D ( 6"* * " ) * () - 6,/, (" ! ( " ) 0 " () - /

0+ () / 6"*: / 6 . ) - 6 / ! ( . ) 0 * " (" + 9 ) *" *
-" "! * ( - 7" * ! + * ,! 7" * - * (( 4.1.1-1).
" "!" /" (" () - 6,/, , - + * 6"*: 9), , + /, (" /* 8" 50 cm ( + 9

)" " 6"* " -") ( " *" " -" "!", ( 6"* * " ) * (( 4.1.1-2).
()" + ) * )" " * ! ( " ) 0 " (" * !, () - 6 + ) +" ) ,! 7"

" " ( !+ 6 " * - * )+ * "0 2 mm.

1 41
4.1.1-1: -
4.1.1-2: )
4.1.1-3: . C D
1 42
4.1.1-4: $ . 27
" ( " () - 6 /" (" ( / ! ( . ) 0 ,

) ! *") /( * - ( , - . 27- 27 (( 4.1.1-4).
# "* + " * ( * ( $ ,
- 1997) !" ")( ( + 6 ( * 8" ") : (* " ) . ) 0 6 ) "-"
( * 8 ") : $ , $ , $ $
" ) 6 7,/" (":
6+ / 8"* * " ",
" () , / * * " ".
) ! ( * " (" " :
! ( , * " , 1. " ,
! ( , * " , 2. " .
' *9 ! ( * " (" " :
( + ,,
, ( ,.
( + ,* " ,0 "+ I " , , ( , II, III IV " .
"
" (
4.1.1-5: * $

1 43
6 !" ")( " ( +" 6 ( * 8" ") : + 9 (" , (+"*, "* "9"8 * 6 "/ !
! + ! /" ) , -"6 -6 (" + /* " " () , / () ".
# /" ) ! ( " * " " 6 7,/" (" + * 6*" 1:2500, 1:5000 1:10 000
) ) / * . 0 " () /" " "'" " ) " * " " ( ) + /, (" ,$) & (,
+ /" ) + " ) 0 " ! ( " * " " 1. 2. " ,$& ( ),9"*. # /" ) + " () "
! ( " * " " 1. " ( ) + /, (" ,$& ( ),9"* "-: * /" 0.6 mm, () "
! ( " * " " 2. " 0.2 mm.
(+ , ) () ( , 9) , 6 7,/" (" , ! ( " * " " , 6*" 1:5000

1:10000, / ( :
) ,* " ,( ( ( * ) * 6+ + () ;
")" () /" " ) 0 " +" * + "7" " ) 0 " * ),9"*;
, ) () ( " 9) " "), 6" " * ),9"* "-: " 0.8 mm;
, ! 7"+ ( ! " "), ,) * ),9"* "-: " 0.5 mm;
# " , () +" ( "), " " * / * :,- 0 () * ),9"* "-: " 0.5
mm) ( " ") : ( "), " " * / * :,- 0 () * ),9"* "-: " 0.2
mm) ( 0 !( * 8 , ( * " , () +" ' ) ! *") /( " *") "
( * 8 ;
" ) *" " " () " ( ) " " " * / *, 0, ( " ( " *
/ *( * ),9"* "-: " 0.2 mm).
(": ( +" + 9" ) () ( . 9) , / * (" ,*" / ! ( .) 0

+ 9 " " , 6 7,/" (" /" ()+" ( * " " 6 " (":". ,*" /
! ( .) 0 * " " 1. 2. " + 9 (" ) () ( * 9) * , - / 1
:". ! +" ! ( (": , ,*" / ! ( .) 0 + 9 (" " " -"6
-6 ! " ) () ( . 9) .
! ( " * " " 6 7,/" (" /" * + 9" () + ' * ) 100 cm ( 70 cm

70 cm ( 50 cm, 6 + ( +" 0 " ) () ( " 9) " 6 - " 6*" ".
) # !' & ) 6 7,/" (":

(" "). * () + 8 * ,)+ /" ,0/, ) () ( " 9) "
, 9)" () "', + : - / ) 0 -"6 / . /" * !,
6 + 8" ) () 6"*: 9) 6 ) () " ") () ;
) "-" + 8 "*" ,0/ * ! " /" "*" 6+ 9"
" ' ) ! *") /( * *") *.
( "! ( .) 0 "7,/, (":

" *") /( * "+" * * (!" " +" * ),
! *") /( * +" * *,
# *" "8 * .
( ") 0 , + / ! ( /* " "7,/, (" !" " * +" * *, ,
,0/, "*" () / +" * ( * " . ) + *, *"8,/" (" ) ! *") /(
+" * (" + ( 6 # *" "8 * ) (' * / * ( 0 () .
& '$" , * () /" " !" ")( " ( +" + 9 (" , ( " " * ( ,0 /"+ * :
6- ! 9)" "8 , 9)"8 ) 0 , +" "* - *,,
6- ! 8" " "', () ,
6- ! 9 "8 ! 7"+ ( ! " (": ,
6- ! ". * !" () *" " 6 0 ) . *") ! / *" "8 - " ,
() /" / * " ,

1 44
() /" * " /" , ,(- !" + / /" / *") ( * ( ()"*,.
" () , / () /" " * " " + 9 (" ,0/, /"* /" 6+" " ( 0 "*" .
# " () , / * (" 6,*"+ :
+ 6 + 8" () /" " * " ",
, 9 "8" () /" " * " " (,( " . * !" 6 /" ) 0 " ,! "
(" " () ,(- !" + /" / *") ( ( ()"*).
+ , ( *" "8 * " () , /" () /" . * " 6+ " ("
( " ' / * /" + " 6 6+ / 8" *" "8 , & ) * # & *($ 0 1. 2. $ ! .
!$0 ) - !" ")( " ( +" + 9 (" , (+ ., + 8 "*" . 6 ,/"* + 8"

' *9 !" ")( " ( +" & ) !" ")( " ( +". + 8" !" ")( " ( +" -,.+ ) :
"8" ,)+ 7 + 8" *" ) 0 * ,
- +, () - 6 /" 9)" " . , 9)" . ) 0 ,
,8 + 8" () /" " !" ")( " ( +" + * ) 0 * ,
) 8 8" ! "9 + 7"8" () . *" , " - ) * * " .
$ ' # & /) )
+ (, ( + ) ! ( .+ + ( ! ):
)+ " (( " )
6 )+ " .
') $ & ! (( " + , opened traverse)) 6 6 )" ) 0 " 6 + 9 +

" 6 ) /. )+ " . ! /" * !, 0, ( ) *" "8 ,! + ,
, + , ! . " 0 ) " *" "8 /"()" +: 8"* *" "8 () .
+" 0 . 6 ) ! 6 ! + + () ! (" ") *"8,/", 0"*, (" 6+ : +
* ( * +" ( " " () ". "7,) *, , " * ( + * , *" , "*" , , .
- (" , + / - ! /" /" * !, .
') $ & ! ( + (closed traverse) 6 6 )" ) 0 " 6 + 9 + ("

6 ) / ) 0 . 2 6 ) / )" ) 0 " * " - ) "' ( !" ! '( *
+ ,! * ) * . ( 4.1.1-6 ,() + /" *" ! ( ! +
PQ1234RS / 0 8" )" ) 0 " Q ( 6 ) * 6 *,) * () " QP, 6 + 9 + ("
) 0 R 6 *,) * () " RS. + / ) ! (" , ( /0"9 " / +: * !, ,/"
) , 0, 8 ) + 8" ( ()"* )( . ! "9 *" "8 , ,! + .
6, ! / 0 8" /" / 6 + 9 + ,! / 6 ) / ) 0 , !
/ 0 8" 6 + 9 + () / ) / ) 0 , 6 + (" + ') $ & # & (closed loop
traverse). ( 4.1.1-7 ,() + /" *" 6 )+ " ! ! ( !+ / 0 8"
6 + 9 + () / ) 0 .
P 3
4
1
Q R
2
S
4.1.1-6:

1 45
)+ " ! * !, ,/" ) , , ,) 98, ) , ,! + , " ) + 8"
( ()"* )( . ! "9 *" "8 , ! "9 /" ) /" ! . )+ "
! " ) "- () ) /" ) +" . *" 6 / . - (" 6 )+ " .
! / + ! "9 * * 6 + , "*, 6 *" "8" , ) "- : + ( ) )
- ( ) .
Q
P
2
4 3
4.1.1-7:
1"& - " #& ( ) "

! ( * + , (" )" " , *" " . ( +, *" "8 +
0, /, (" 6*"7, ! ( . () + 9 $
! . ) ! , 0, /, (" + " - . + " () " . ,! +
"' ) + " + " () () . "6, ) ) *" "8 , ("
+: /, 6 ( ()"* )( " ,) /" (+ " , + /" /" - ! ) !
( ()"* ( ! + !). # * , , () "' ) + . " .
,! + 0, /, (" ) 0 . /,,
$ $ ,
. *" * " ! ( .+ + , ,() + " (" (),
"9 + 8 ! ( !+ .
#& ) "( '&"' +( 8" !) ! ' ' 1

( 4.1.1-8 6 /" ! ( + ,*") ,) 6*"7, ) . ) 0 B. " "8
,! + , ) (, , ) -" 4.1.1-1. ) -" 4.1.1-2 6 (, 0, 8
" . ,! + ! ( . () .
P
P
z
5
1 3
A
B
2
3 4
2 Q
4
4.1.1-8:

1 46
# * 0, 8 " . ,! + ! ( . () *"8,/, (" ( " " + :
1. " " * ,! , () /" (" " ,! "). " ! ( "
() ";
2. /" 6- * 8 180 /" (" 180, , /" 6- +" 180,
,6 * (" 180.
X
A2
3
2 23
2
A2
4.1.1-9: - "
) " 6 " 6*"7, ) 0 ! ( . () 0, /, (" ( +, 6 6 - ,

Yij = d ij sin ij
. (4.1.1-1)
X ij = d ij cos ij
X
Yj
Yij
j jk
i
ij dij djk
Xij
Xj k
i
Yi i
Xi Xk
Y
Yk
4.1.1-10: ) "
X
IV I
sin - sin +
cos + cos +
Y
III II
sin - sin +
cos - cos -
4.1.1-11:

1 47
!"- ( 6 ) . 6 ! ( . () 6 + ( ( ,( ( ,(
" . ,! + () . ( 4.1.1-11 6 (, !"- ( 6 ', /
( ,( ( ,( , (+ * + ) .
# 4.1.1-1: ( +, ) . ) "6, ) ) *" "8 ,! + , ,

! ( * + ,, ( 0, ) + " () " . ,! + ! ( . ()
+ " () ,! + ! (), 8 ( "6 )+ 8 ) ! .
$ 3 :
4.1.1-1: % (Anderson and Mikhail, 1998)
# ! ( " "8 )
() , !
A2 305.41 1=104 0030 P = 433130
23 359.61 2= 632 Z = 1061730
000
34 612.15 3= 2581100 d = 0.01 m
4B 485.12 4= 1204500 = 30
5= 2363030
4.1.1-2:- " "

# ! ( " 6 + ) # + " 6 + )
() " ,! + "
,! +
AP ': 433130
1 1040030
12 1473200 -10 1473150
2 632000
32 2105200
23 -180 = 305200 -20 305140
3 2581100
43 2890300
34 -180 = 1090300 -30 1090230
4 1204500
B4 2294800
4B -180 = 494800 - 45 494715
5 2363030
2861830
- 1800000
BQ 1061830 - 01 00 1061730
': 1061730
! + - 0100
"6 )+ 8"
f

1 48
4.1.1-2: " (, 6 *,) () ij ik ij = 433000 jk = 1532540 , "
() dij = 432.182 m djk = 385.151 m. 0, ) ) " 6 " " 6 ) .
! ( . () ij ik.
$ 3 :
) ij: Yij = 432.182 sin 433000 = 297.494m; X ij = 432.182 cos 433000 = 313.494m .
) ik:
Yik = 385.151 sin 1532540 = 172.288m; X ik = 385.151 cos 1532540 = 344.468m .
(, 6 )" )" ) 0 " i, (Xi,Yi) )" " 6 )" ) 0 " j 0, /, ("
* , 6 6
Yj = Yi + Yij
. (4.1.1-2)
X j = X i + X ij
4.1.1-3: (, )" )" 0") " ) 0 " i, Yi = 7 470450.100 m;

Xi = 4 850 340.400 m, ( +, ) 6 "). ! *" , ( 0, ) )"
" 6 ) .) 0 j k.
$ 3 :
Yj = 7470450.100 + 297.494 = 7470747.594 m
X j = 4850340.400 + 313.494 = 4850653.894 m
Yk = 7470747.594 + 172.288 = 7470919.882 m
Xk = 4850653.894 344.468 = 4850309.426 m
0, 8 (+ . . 6 , + , + 9 (" +" ) 0 () ) 8 ,
( " + )") . + , ,*") ,) * 6*"7, +" 6 )" ) 0 ",
! %
% % $
. /" ! 6 )+ " , % .
+ / ( i=1,2,,n () / 0 8" () " i = 1 6 + 9 + (" i = n,
,( + (" ' *, 9, ( " " 0 :
n 1
Yn Y1 = Yi ,i +1
i =1
n 1
. (4.1.1-3)
X n X1 = X i , i +1
i =1
# * 8 , ,( " / +" ( ,0 / . ! "9 , "* " + . ( ()"* )( . ,) /
"( !, () 6 + 8 ) ) . ) 0 , ,( + (4.1.1-3) /" ") , (
()+ ) . " () 6 /" ,( + (4.1.1-3) (, 6 + :" , 6 + /, ("
$ $ .# / (), 8 Y X ( * fY ,fX ,
0, /, (" ( +, 6 6
n 1
f Y = ( Yn Y1 ) Yi ,i +1
i =1
n 1
, (4.1.1-4)
f X = (Xn X1 ) X i , i +1
i =1
, $ f X ,Y , 0, ("
f x ,y = f X2 + f Y2 . (4.1.1-5)
0, 8 +" " + " () "6 )+ 8 ! , + 9 (" 6 + 8" + .

1 49
( " ,! + ! "6 )+ 8 + 6+ 9" /" + *" ") () , 9) 6 (

12 ,! ,. -6 * /" () *" "8 ,! 30, + " (, 6 , " " -10 (6
) ,! () " 1, 2 3) -15 (6 + ,! () " 4 B).
4.1.1-3: - "
'& , "0 & $ , & $! & '& $ + $! & ' ' 1
"# Yij Xij Y X
A 64 321.404 66 240.562
305.41 1473150 163.959 - 257.668
2 64 485.363 65 982.894
359.61 305140 184.465 308.694
3 64 669.828 66 291.588
612.15 1090230 578.654 - 199.717
4 65 248.482 66 091.871
485.12 494715 370.464 313.205
B 65 618.946 66 405.076
S=1762.29 S=1297.542 S=164.514 [65 619.243] [66 405.272]
Y5 Y1 = 1297.839 X5 X1 = 164.710
fY = + 0.297 fX = + 0.196 Y = 0.297 X = 0.196
f Y , X = (f + f = 0.297 + 0.196 = 0.36 m
2
Y
2
X
2 2
, ", 6 + ) " ,! + , ' ( " )" 0") " 6 + 9 ") 0 "+

/ (), 8 + 6 (, , ) -" 4.1.1-3.
# + " "6 )+ 8 ! (,*") ,) ! + ) () " B 6 (" Y = 0.297 m

X = 0.196 m. +" " " + " () ( 0, )" (, ( +, 6 6 4.1.1-4. ( 4.1.1-12
6 " (, " " * " )" / ! (), 8 ! . ( +, 6 6 4.1.1-5
* " (" ( 0, ) $ ( f Y , X = 0.36 m ). ,*") ,) ! ! ( !
+ ,, , " (), 8" ( " /":
,0 / . ! "9 *" "8 ;
"* " + .( ()"* )( . ,) / * " , /" , .
( , , ! " ! (), 8 f Y , X , , " , " + 6 + ("

$ " () +: ( $" ) '' ! , (
. # "* " ) + * " * (), 8, 0"() (" ( ' ,/" (
" 6 () ! (1:1000, 1:5000 ( .) , (, 8 6 0 / )" " "
"* " + * ( ()"* )( * ,) / * , ("- ( " ! ,-" ! "9 ", + " ()
" ) + ! (), 8 /" 6 0 / . " ) + " 6 () + ( /" *"7,( - !
"7"8 + 9" 6 0 ) . + + , " ) "- /" () ) /, ( ,) "
) 0 () / ) 0 ! . 9"* *" , " ) + " 6 () + 6 (
0.36 / 1762 = 1 / 4894 ( ( 1/4800 /" (" 6 , ,/" , () ) ,).

1 50
fY 5 )" )"
fX fx,y
5' ( 0, )" )"
4
4.1.1-12: +
') $ & #& * 1 - + )$. ) & ' *' 1,

+ 6 0 8" 6 + 9 + , () / ) 0 , !"- ( 6- ) . 6
* - ) /" , . ( 4.1.1-13 6 /" 6 )+ " ! ( + ,
*" "8 ) (, , ) -" 4.1.1-4.
# 4.1.1-3: # "* ) * * *" "8 , ( 0, ) )" ! ( .) 0 .
1 7 4.1.1-4: $
# . ) ! ,
6
1 7 6 12 1 = 941000 103.40
23 2 = 1781900 157.25
2
2 34 3 = 1182145 143.36
45 4 = 944225 169.08
5 5 56 5 = 1580730 176.74
56 6 = 890355 110.60
3 4 67 7 = 1671550 140.83
3
4 " ,! () " 12 6 ( 12 = 1872220
4.1.1-13: )+ " !
4.1.1-5: - " , " "

'$ & "0 & Yij Xij
+ - +
-
12 103.40 941000 940957 1872220 13.27 102.55
23 157.25 1781900 1781857 1854117 15.59 156.48
34 143.36 1182145 1182141 1240258 118.78 80.27
45 169.08 944225 944221 384520 105.85 131.85
56 176.74 1580730 1580726 165246 51.32 169.13
67 110.60 890355 890352 2855638 106.35 30.37
140.83 1671550 1671546 2731224 140.61 7.88
1001.26 9000025 9000000 275.95 275.82 339.23 339.30
275.82 339.23
+0.13 -0.07
, 6- , ,) 98 . ,! + , 6 )+ " * ! , 6 (
( 2n 4) 90 = ( 2 7 2) 90 = 9000000 . "7,) *, ( -6 * , 9"* *" ,, ,( "

1 51
! "9 *" "8 , 6- 6 ( 9000025 , 6 0 /" ,! + "6 )+ 8" ! /"
f = 25 ) "- ! ( " ) - /, *" " . ,! + (3 ,) 3 4 ,)
4, ) -" 4.1.1-5).
, , + , (, ) * + ") 8 6 : " 0 ( + 9),/, +" "

+ , , ) -" 4.1.1-6 ( 0, ) (, " ,! + () .
4.1.1-6: - "
= 1872220
2
1
2 = 1781857
6- 3654117 - " 6 180
- 180
23 = 1854117
3 = 1182141
6- 3040258 - " 6 180
- 180
34 = 1240258
4 = 944222
6- 2184520 - " 6 180
- 180
45 = 384520
5 = 15807 26
6- 1965246 - " 6 180
- 180
56 = 165246
6 = 890352
6- 1055638 - * 8" 180
+ 180
67 = 2855638
7 = 1671546
6- 4531224 - " 6 180
- 180
71 = 2731224
1 = 940956
3672220 - " 6 180
- 180
12 = 1872220
) " 6 " ! ( . ) 0 ( 0, )" (, (" ( +, 6 6 4.1.1-1.

) . 6 ( " (, 6 ) ! *") /( . ', / ( ,( ( ,(
" . ,! + () , /" (, , " () ,+" 6 ) + ". 0, )" + " ()
) . 6 6 " (, , ) -" 4.1.1-5. -6 * (" 6 )+ " *
! ,, !"- ( 6- (+ . ) . 6 ) "- - ) /" , . ( "
! "9 *" "8 ) " 6 " (, ) 7" )" " " " ! "9 * , ) "
(), 8 ) * ( * 6 (" fY = + 0.13 m, fX = - 0.07 m. -
! + /, " ) " 6 " (+ " ! ( " () " ! ' 0 " () + ,) 0

1 52
- - - ( ) 0 , 6 0.07 m /, 0.13 m () 0 8". " () / 8"
AA " () +: " "6 )+ 8" ! /" 6 ( f X ,Y = 0.13 2 + 0.07 2 = 0.15 m
+ 0.13
,(*" " /" , + ,0 / " ,! 6 11818 .
( f X , Y = arctan
0.07
f X,Y 0.15 1
" ) + " (), 8 + 6 ( = (6 , ,/" (" ,
d 1001.26 6700
() ) ,).
# * 0, 8 ) . 6 , ( (" /0"9 " ()" + 0 . #

+ *, + " (" 0, /, , () , ,! /
+" 0 ) " 6 ". ( (" *"8,/" + 0 .
# + 0 6 ") () + " ! "9 + ! ( " () " () /"

( " ! "9 ,! + . " . *" "8 6 6 + * /" ! / () " ,
(, ,! , + , , + ! ( , () ,. " ! "9 () "
/" d i . ( 4.1.1-14, ,() + /" *" " () ) 0 " 2 , (,
) 0 , 1 ,( " " ! (2 ) ,! + ! (), 8 (2B) 0"*, /" 2 "6, ),/, /
) 0 " 2, ) , , ! "9 6 ( ( 2 A ) 2 + ( 2B ) 2 .
2 2
4.1.1-14: - "
'$ ) - #$ . & $& /( $ - #& / '$ &

" 0 ! "9 " " ! "6 )+ 8 + * " , 6 ) (,()+ 6 0 / .
! "9 *" "8 /" ) "- " ) ' + ) ) ) . # * ) + 8 ) + .
! "9 " . /" , " ) " ,! " ! "6 )+ 8 ! (
" * ,! * (+ " ! ( " () ". /" " (), 8" 6 0 / ,
, /" 6 6+ ! "9 * *" "8 /" " ! ( " () ", ) " " ,!
" ! (), 8 + - ) ( ! ( (( 0 ) " * ,! , ! ( " () " /
/" 6 6+ +" 6 ( " ! (), 8 .
# )& ! '" - $ ' )& $ , +& ' # & /) )

0 () "*" /, "' 9"* " ) + * " 6 9 , ! ( ! + /" ,+"
,6 6 )": + )") . *", *") ", * !, " /" 6 0 / " ! "9 " , ) ,
0, 8 -, , " * ( " 9) " ) .+ ): +, " " ! "9 " 6 )+ 8 "
6 0 / . ! "9 *" "8 . 6 )+ " ! ! , " ) +" ( ()"* )( ,) / - "
+ *" ( "7" * 0, 8 ) . 6 . , *" ,
, /" ! + ,! ! - , ( ()"* )( ,) / ( *" , (, , "
" , ") " " - ) ) +" . 6) ! 6 ! , - (" - ,6 "6, ) ) ,
) )" " ( . *" "8 /" (,9) ( "+ () .

1 53
(" , ( ") * " ( "() ( ,0 / *" "8 , ! ( . () ): *,
/" ( :,0" *") *" "8 , )" ), (" 0"() /, ( " ' /" ) 0 ()
*" "8 , ): * 6 , " 6 ), + " () "6 )+ 8" ! . ) -"
4.1.1-7 )" (, ( " ' /" *" "8 , ): * 6 6 .)"+ , " ) + , " 6 ()
1:5000:
4.1.1-7: ! $ 1:5000
&( & % '
+) $ #$ . $ !& ' *!& *!"0 & &':
!"0 & 30 m
0 () 6 + 8 )"* " ), " 4 C 0.0014 m
0 () () 6 8 6 .)"+ " * " 20 N 0.0018 m
( " ()"6 8
0 () 6 + 8 ! - )" " 0.30 m/30 m 0.0015 m
0 () ,+ 7"8 ): " , + 0.15 m/30 m 0.0004 m
0 () / /"+ ): " - 0.0046 m/30 m 0.0046 m
" ) ( 8
0 () 6 + 8 )," " , " 0.0015 m 0.0015 m
): "
. =' $ 0.000031 = 0.0056 m
/ $ =
0.0056 1
=
30 5400
( 4.1.1-15 ,() + /" ,( + 6 ()" ) () ,! + . " . *" "8 .

*", "*" * - ) ) * ( * 6+ :" (), 8" /,
6 6+ "( !, 9 , *" "8 ,! + - E * - ) /" * ( * 6+ :" *
(), 8, /, () * ( " "( !, () *" "8 , - Ed .
/" 6+ :" " ) + " (), 8" 1:5000, ! + /, ! "9 ,! "

(*" - ) +" = 000'41" ( 1 : 5000 = tan ). ) -" 4.1.1-8 6 /" (
" 6 () " . ,! + . *" "8 ,( + 8 . +" 6 ()" ) () . ,
6+ :" ,! + (), 8" ! ( !+ n () 6 ( = E n .
/" ") () , + , ( ") ,! + . *" "8 ) , /" 6 .)"+ " ) + " 6 ()
1:3000, * ( * 6+ :" ,! + (), 8" 6 ( = 1' 5 = 2' () 0 () ,!
6 , " * ,)). /" 6 .)"+ " ) + " 6 () 1:5000, * ( *
6+ :" ,! + (), 8" 6 ( = 30" 5 = 1' () 0 () ,! 6 , " 30).
E Ed B
E d E

A
4.1.1-15: $

1 54
4.1.1-8: $
' )& ( & #$ . *( - ! (
#$ . "# -E ' ! '
1:1000 3 26 1
1:3000 1 09 1
1:5000 41 30
1:7500 28 20
1:10000 21 20
1:20000 10 10
+$ )& - #& #)
6 + 8" ! ( ! + 6 ( + (" 6 + :"8, * )"* ) 0 ! ,( + ' !, "
-"6-"7,/, /- :, " ,. 6 ) ! / ! ( . ) 0 . 6 + ( ()
6 .)"+ "*" , 6 + 8" ! ( !+ * "- ) :
( * ) + ( () , - ),
() ! .
- ! (+ /" + () * ( + " *" " , "*" ,, , + , 0") ! , ( + " ("
( ) () *") 6 + 8 .
" - " *") " 6 + 8 6 ( + " (, . * !" / " 6 ()

,! + . " . *" "8 . (, )" () 0 " ( ), /" /" " ":,/, *" ,
"7" " *") " 0, 8 , ! ( * + ,, ) :
# $ . +
*- / /" (,) ) . *") /( . ( ()"* / * !, ,/, ,! + ,
" 6 () 30, " ) + " 6 () *" "8 , " " 6 1:300
1:400.
# $ $ . +
)"! / /" *" "8 +"6,/" (" 6 *" , )" ) *" .) ( ): ) ,
+ *" * )" " * 0"*, (, *" " " , " ( - 7" " (+ . ( ()"* )( .
,) / .
# $ $ . +
*- / (" ("- () , (, + , , 0"*, (" ,! + *" "
" 6 * )" ) * , , " () ,*" ) * ) ) * () * .
6 + ( () 0, 80 + ) . 6 , , ( (" ()
" *") -
! 6 + 8 ! ( ! + . + * ( ,0 /,, /"
" 6 () ,!
+ . *" "8 +" " 6 () " ., + " (" 0, /,
( 0, ) * ) * 6 * (transit rule). + *") /" - "
"6, ) )" ( * (, ! ( + " ( ) * ( * . 6 ,
*" ,)" *") ", 6 ( ,0 / /" " 6 () *" "8 , ,! + ,( ! 9" , ()
(" ,! *") (compass rule) / 6,*"+ 0, 8" + ) . 6
+ 0 : $) - , ) 0 " 0") " () " + !$"#
, () ". ( (" () + + / ) " (" ") :
6 ) , :"* )" (),.
6 , - ., *") /* 8 . + ) /" () ! "9"8" -"6-"7,/"

/- :" " " . 6 ) . / ) 0 .

1 55
$ 0& ( ' ! +$ )& - # & #)
9) /" " *" ,) , ("- " (" ( ) - *") 6 + 8 /
6,*"+ 0, 8" + ) . 6 : -
, :" () ! ( ") 0 " 0") " ) 0 " + , - ,
! ( " () ".
" ( " " " 6 ":

vYi + ) " 6 ") 0 "i, + , Y o(",
vXi - + ) " 6 ") 0 "i, + , X (",
fY , , " (), 8" + , + , Y o(" ( 6 6 4.1.1-5),
fX - , , " (), 8" + , + , X (" ( 6 6 4.1.1-5),
di , ! ( " () " ) 0 "i 0") " ) 0 " + ,
D, , , + .
- ' *, " ! (":

d
v Yi = f Y i ,
D (4.1.1-6)
d
v Xi = f X i .
D
% - ' *, " ! (":
d ij
v Yij = f Y ,
D
(4.1.1-7)
d ij
v X ij = f X .
D
4.1.1-9:
1 "0 & $ ) +$ )& '
v Yi v Xi $! & '
Y X
1 61 000.00 62 000.00
2 103.40 -0.013 0.007 60 986.72 61 897.46
3 157.25 -0.033 0.018 60 971.11 61 740.99
4 143.36 -0.052 0.028 61 089.87 61 660.73
5 169.08 -0.074 0.040 61 195.70 61 792.59
6 176.74 -0.097 0.052 61 247.00 61 961.73
7 110.60 -0.112 0.060 61 140.63 61 992.11
1 140.83 -0.130 0.070 61 000.00 62 000.00
4.1.1-10:
'$ & VY Y VX X 1 Y (m) X (m)
12 - 0.01 - 13.28 + 0.01 - 102.54 1 61 000.00 62 000.00
23 - 0.02 - 15.61 + 0.01 - 156.47 2 60 986.72 61 897.46
34 - 0.02 + 118.76 + 0.01 - 80.26 3 60 971.11 61 740.99
45 - 0.02 + 105.83 + 0.01 + 131.86 4 61 089.87 61 660.73
56 - 0.02 + 51.30 + 0.01 + 169.14 5 61 195.70 61 792.59
67 - 0.02 - 106.37 + 0.01 + 30.38 6 61 247.00 61 961.73
71 - 0.02 - 140.63 + 0.01 + 7.89 7 61 140.63 61 992.11
) 1 61 000.00 62 000.00
- 0.13 + 0.07

1 56
) -" 4.1.1-9 6 (, "6, ) ) 0, 8 ! ( . ) 0 6 *" 4.1.1-3
()" 6 6 4.1.1-6 ( + 0 ) , ) -" 4.1.1-10 ()" 6 6 4.1.1-7 ( ,!
0 ).
"- () - (), (' *, " 4.1.1-6 4.1.1-7) /, ()" + " () )

! ( .) 0 .
0, 8 ) ! ( . ) 0 , 6 8 /"()" 0, 8" ,
" . ,! + 6 6 + ) . ) ( 6 6 4.1.1-3).
( +, ) 6 ) -" " 4.1.1-10, 6 () , 4-5, + :
d 45 = 169.077
45 = 384501 .
() 0 ) "- ( 0, ) (+" "' ) + " , " " " ,! +".
3 $ + &' & ' 1& ' , % , *( $ - " #& ( ($ 0 (

.)"+ ) 0 () ( " ' /" 6 " 6 /, & ) #& ($ 0 ) (, ,
) -" * 4.1.1-11 4.1.1-12.
4.1.4-11: ! " $ (- ,1997)

! 1. $ ! 2. $ !
# )& ! '" - $ $
*) 9 $ ' )& #$ .
!"0 & '$ & + +$ )& - 1:20 000 1:10 000
& *) 9 $ ' )& #$ . )

1 57
4.1.1-12: ! " $ (- ,1997)
! $) $"#
( '$ * ($ 0
< 20 km < 20 km
$ 4 km 4 km
$ 9) +" 9) +"
$ " ( ) 1:3 1:3
% $ 50 500 m 50 500 m
%
% " "
& '$"( &'

. , 1 6
!, $ () ) () )
"* ) "* )
$ , !"$ ' $ & /( $ -
#
/ /* 8" 2 2
$
- # /" ) # /" )
- # /" ) # /" )
! # /" ) # /" )

0 - () - ()
0 mm mm
1 1
cm cm
" ( () ) ( () )
& $ %
$
/ 1 1
#' $
, 1 1, 2 1 1, 2
% 7 7
15 15
("+" ("+"
/ 3 ,) 3 ,)
15 s 15 s
$ $ 15 * ,) 15 * ,)
!$ 8 ) - $! & ' #& /' 1
% "'" " ) "'" " )

* " * "
* " + !
"
.)"+ ) 0 () ( " ' /" , (), , + 8 ' *9 # ! ' &) )
(, , ) -" * 4.1.1-13 4.1.1-14.

1 58
4.1.1-13: ! " $ *
$ (- ,1997)
+$ !
# )& ! '" -
# ) () ,*" ) 1
$ 10 n
% $ 20 n
# ) () ,*" ) 6
$ 30 n
% $ 30 n
1& '($ 0 - )
$ 1:10000
% $ 1:6000
$ 1:5000
% $ 1:3500
= 0.0035 d + 0.0002 d + 0.05

$ -
( !
1. I 4
2. II
5
3.
III 6
4
I = 0.0035 d + 0.0002 d + 0.05
5
II = 0.0045 d + 0.0003 d + 0.05
6
III = 0.0060 d + 0.0004 d + 0.05

1 59
4.1.1-14: ! " $ *
$ (- ,1997)
+$ !
& '$"( &'
. , 1 6
!, 1, 2 1, 2
$ , !"$ ' $ & /( $ -

#
/ 2 2 2 2
% #
1 10 10
6 30 30
1 10 10
6 30 30

0 - () . - () . - () . - () .
0 mm mm mm mm
2 2 2 2
cm cm cm cm
"
% 3 3 3 3
$

% -
1. 0.007 d 0.007 d 0.007 d 0.007 d
2.
3. 0.009 d 0.009 d 0.009 d 0.009 d
0.012 d 0.012 d 0.012 d 0.012 d
0 - () . - () . - () . - () .

% $ 100 m
0 - () .
2
% - I
mm
7
#' $
.)"+ ) 0 () ( " ' /" , (), , " ' ): - # & /) ) $) #,

!$"# # '$ 9 #$ ! "* () , !$ & # ! ( '' + &'$ " # ! ' /
$ !) (Federal geodetic Control Subcommittee FGCS) 6 1984. ) (, , ) -" * 4.1.4-
15 4.1.4-16.
7
" ()" " -" 6 +, ! ( ,* " ,

1 60
4.1.1-15: % $ FGCS(1984)
! $) $"# $ 9
I II I II
# )& 1.7 n 3.0 n 4.5 n 10.0 n 12.0 n
! '" -
0 *& 0.04 D 8 0.08 D 0.20 D 0.40 D 0.80 D
! '" -
1:100 000 1:50 000 1:20 000 1:10 000 1:5 000
4.1.1-16: ! " $ FGCS(1984)

! $) $"# $ 9
I II I II
( '$ * ($ 0
$ ( ) 10 4 2 0.5 0.5
20 20 25 30 40
2 2 2 2 2
"
6 8 10 15 20
6 12 20 25 40
, ? 4 3 2 2 2
) ?
"
$
& '$"( &'
. , 0.2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
$ & $ , !"$ ( $ -
# +
/ 16 8-129 6-810 4 2
0.4 0.5 0.8 1.2 2.0
4 5 5 5 5
- () +" ) ,! + ()
/ " - 3 3 2 2 2
10 10 10 10 20
1 1 1 1 1
# ( )
() *( 6 *,)
/ $ * 16 16 12 8 4
/ * " 2 2 1 1 1
0.45 0.45 0.60 1.0 1.7
5 5 5 6 6
8
D /" , , , + , *") * , n /" - / () .
9
"6 , /, 0.2 + 8, 6 "6 , /, 1.0 + 12.
10
"6 , /, 0.2 + 6, 6 "6 , /, 1.0 + 8.

1 61
"0 & ( $ &
( &%$ ,$) & )
1 1 1 1 1
10 10 10 # /" ) # /" )
( )
10 10 10 10 10
/ $
# /" ) # /" ) # /" ) # /" ) # /" )
"0 & ( $ & ( $ ' &(
- 1 1 1 1
- 150 150 200 200
( )
- 20 20 10 10
/ $ -
# /" ) # /" ) # /" ) # /" )
$ ' $ - #$ . " #& ( ) , (

/ (), 8" ( "6 )+ 8" ! ) , 6,/" + )") ! ()
(" * ( ' /" ! ( . + + (* " "). :"* )" (), -/ ( " ("
6 ( " + / / 0 ' * 8 + / " * ) " (+ " ) 0 "
! ( !+ .
( 4.1.1-16 (* ) /* ) 0 , 2 6 *,) ! ( " () "( ) 0 "1 ) 0 , 2,
12 = P + 1 180 , (4.1.1-8)
! " /" p 0") 6 *,). ") () + * (, )" ) 0 " ( - 7" " ,) /
! "9 , )/. ) /" = 0 , = .
p
2
1
1
X
X n
X
p n 1
12 2 23 dn
M
1
X2-X1 2 3 n -1
d1 d2
1 dn-1
Y2-Y1 3
4.1.1-16: $
" /" () (), 8" d1 *" "8 , " d1 " (, 1 d1 " " (
( 1d1 = 0 ), )

1 62
21 0
= , (4.1.1-9)
m1
0 d21
" () +: + / , * ) , (, ") * ( ,0 /, (" * ) + / ( )
*" "8 +" ! ( " () ".
:", )" ) 0 " 2 0, /, (" ( +, 6 6 -
Y2 = Y1 + d 1 sin 12 = Y1 + d 1 sin( P + 1 180 )

, (4.1.1-10)
X 2 = X 1 + d 1 cos 12 = X 1 + d 1 cos( P + 1 180 )
! " (, Y1, X1 )" ) 0 " 1 6 /, (" ") () +: /" "7" -"6 ! "9 ".
# *" *6 () 8 ! "9 - / (" ( " " 6 6,
Y2 Y X
= 2 2 2
=J J' , (4.1.1-11)
c2
Y X 2 2
X2 2
m1
! " /" C2
+ / * ) ) ) 0 " 2, /" - / * ) / .
6+ - ,
Y2 Y2
1 d 1 d 1 cos 12 sin 12
J= = , (4.1.1-12)
X 2 X 2 d 1 sin 12 cos 12
1 d 1
,
Y2 Y1
X 2 X1
d1
J= (4.1.1-13)
X 2 X1
( Y2 Y1 )
d1
0"*, /" , ,! * 6 6, ,0 8" 6 *" /" . + " () , *" ,

( X 2 X 1 ) / d 1 = cos 1
2
( Y2 Y1 ) / d 1 = sin 1 . *"
2
* 6 6 4.1.1-13 , 6 6 4.1.1-11
* "8"* * ) , + / * ) ) ) 0 "2! ( ,
(d 12 21 cos 2 12 + d21 sin 2 12 ( d21 d 12 21 ) sin 12 cos 12

= =
C2
( d21 d 12 21 ) sin 12 cos 12 (d 12 21 sin 2 12 + d21 cos 2 12
( Y2 Y1 ) 2 2 ( Y2 Y1 )( X 2 X 1 ) 2 (4.1.1-14)
( X 2 X 1 ) 21 + d1 ( Y2 Y1 )( X 2 X 1 ) 21 + d1
d 12 d 12
(X X )2
simetricno ( Y2 Y1 ) 21 + 2 2 1 d21
d1
# * 0, 8 , 6 6 4.1.4-14 - 0 (" " *"8,/" , (+ / / 6+ /" / ' * . ) *

( ,0 /,, * ) " (" *, ) + ) ,() /" ( ,0 / ( +" ) 0 ", 0"*,
) "- () ( " " ":

1 63
1. (, ! *" "8 1 d1 " " ( , 0 "6, ) ) /" " (
(6 8 6 6),
2. - + / 0 ,* ) (4.1.1-14) - /" , " . /" + "
( " " " " /"
d1 = d 1 1
2 2 2
. (4.1.1-15)
d1 = d 1 1
"- () ! "9 () 8 /" "0 ) 0 2 , 9"* *" ,, " () +:
( " / ( ,0 /, /" /" ") () +:" /" ) 0 1 ( - 7" (,()+ ! "9 .
(* ) * ) 0 , 3, 8" " )" 0, /, ("

Y3 = Y2 + d 2 sin 23
. (4.1.1-16)
X 3 = X 2 + d 2 cos 23
5") +" 0 " , 6 8"* 6 6, (, ( ,0 / " *" : +" (X2, Y2, d2 2). + /
* ) " 6 ) . ( ,0 / . *" + . ! ( ,
Y2 2
Y X 2 2
Y2 2
Yd 2 2
Y X X2 X X d
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= C2 C 2m 2
(4.1.1-17)
Y 2 2
X 2 2
22
d 2 2 C 2m 2 m2
Yd 2 2
X d 2 2
d
2 2
d2 2
! " /" C2
+ / * ) ) ) 0 "2 - /" ( +, 6 6 4.1.1-14,
m2
/" + / * ) "6, ) ) *" "8 ( d 2 , 2 ) / /" - 0 / ! (
d2 , 2 0
2 2
+ * / ! . ) C 2m 2
" "6" ),/" " /, 6*"7,
) ) 0 " 2 + . *" "8 d 2 , 2 . + ! " * " (" 6 :,0 ) "*
" /", *"7,) * /" ) , (" ) *" " "* :" 6 + ) , + , + !
" *") . () , , 6 6 4.1.1-16 6+ /"* , ( "
Y3 = Y1 + d 1 sin 12 + d 2 sin 23
4.1.1-18)
X 3 = X 1 + d 1 cos 12 + d 2 cos 23
Y3 = Y1 + d 1 sin( p + 1 180) + d 2 sin ( p + 1 + 2 ( 2)(180) [ ]

. (4.1.1-19)
X 3 = X 1 + d 1 cos( p + 1 180) + d 2 cos ( p + 1 + 2 ( 2)(180) [ ]
- / * ) ( ()"* (4.1.1-19) ! (
Y3 Y3 Y3 Y3
1 d 1 2 d 2
J= =
X 3 X 3 X 3 X 3
1 d 1 2 d 2
(d 1 cos 12 + d 2 cos 23 ) sin 12 d 2 cos 23 sin 23
= (4.1.1-20)
(d 1 sin 12 + d 2 sin 23 ) cos 12 d 2 sin 23 cos 23
Y2 Y1 Y3 Y2
X 3 X1 X3 X2
d1 d2
X 2 X1 X3 X2
( Y3 Y1 ) ( Y3 Y2 )
d1 d2

1 64
5") "6, ) ) *" "8 ( 1 , d 1 , 2 , d 2 ) (* ) "* " " ( *, ) /" 8 . +
+ / * ) / ! 6! " ,
m 12
= diag ( 21 d21 22 d22 ) . (4.1.1-21)
# 6" (4.1.1-20) (4.1.1-21) * " (" 6+"() 6 6 6 0, 8" + / "* ) "
) 0 " 3 / " () +: ( " / ( ,0 / + ( ( * +" () ". 9)"*
( ,0 /, * * n ! ( .) 0 , )+ " * ! ( * + , / 6 0 8"
) 0 "1 6 + 9 + ) 0 n, )" ) 0 " n 0, /, (" ( +, 6 6 -
Yn = Y1 + d 1 sin( p + 1 180) + d 2 sin ( p + 1 + 2 ( 2)(180) + ... [ ]

[
+ d n sin ( p + 1 + 2 + ... + n 1 (n 1)(180) ]
(4.1.1-22)
X n = X 1 + d 1 cos( p + 1 180) + d 2 cos ( p + 1 + 2 ( 2)(180) + ... [ ]
[
+ d n cos ( p + 1 + 2 + ... + n 1 (n 1)(180) ]
(, *" "8 ,! + , *"7,( - "6 + ( , (, ! "9 " ) .
) ) 0 " 1 /" " , , *" * 6 () 8 ! "9 - " ("
+ / * ) 6 ) 0 ,n / ! (
Y2 Y X
= J 2n , 2 J'1n , 2 = n n n
. (4.1.1-23)
Cn m ( n 1) 2 n , 2 n
Y X
n n
X2 n
(" "). 6 6 6+ /" - / /, (" ) 0 " ' *, " 6 0, 8" () .

(), 8 ) 0 ! ( !+ (, 6 )" + " () () *" "8 ,! +
, d2i , 2i /" ! ("
2
n 1 n 1
Yi +1 Yi
2
Yn = (X n X i ) i + 2 2
d2
i =1 i =1 di i
2
n 1 n 1
X i +1 X i
2
Xn = ( Yn Yi ) i + 2 2
d2 (4.1.1-24)
i =1 i =1 di i
n 1 n 1
( Yi +1 Yi )( X i + 1 X i ) 2
X Y = ( X n X 1 )( Yn Y1 ) 2i + di
n n
i =1 i =1 d i2
# 4.1.1-4: ( +, ) *" "8 , ( 0, ) + / ,* ) ,) 0 "B

( (" )+ " *-( " * + ,) ( 0, ) *") " () "" ("
! "9 6 (), ) 0 ,.
# "0 & d
1 = 1725334 2 d 1 = 281.832 0.016 m
2 = 1852214 2 d 2 = 271.300 0.016 m p
3 = 2082619 2 d 3 = 274.100 0.016 m z
P
4 = 2051351 2 Q
' + ("' X Y 1
B
p = 681520.7 P 68478.139 62483.826 4
2
z = 30011 30.5 Q 67709.336 62263.411 3

1 65
$ 3 :
) 0, 8" + " () " . ,! + () ) . 6 :
) , i
j
Y X Y X
P 68478.139 62483.826
281.832 2410857.7 -246.851 -135.993
A 68231.288 62347.833
271.300 2463114.6 -248.838 -108.091
B 67982.450 62239.742
) 0, 8" + / (" + / (" 6 ) 0 , B
- ) (), 8" *" "8 ,! 6 ( :

i
= ( 2" )(4.8481368)(10 ) = 9.6962736 10 6 rad , +
6
/ ( 6 (
= 9.401772 10
2
i
11 2
rad .
- / ( *" "8 , 6 ( : d2i = 0.016 2 = 2.56 10 4 m 2 .
- . 6 6, (4.1.4-24) + / (" + / / ) ) 0 "B 6 (":
2
2 2
Yi +1 Yi
Yn
2
= ( X 3 X i ) 2i + d2 = 4.18457 10 4 m 2
i =1 i =1 di i
2
2 2
X i +1 X i
2
Xn = ( Y3 Yi ) i + 2
d2 = 1.29166 10 4 m 2
i =1 i =1 di i
2
2 2
( Yi +1 Yi )( X i +1 X i )
Y X = ( X 3 X i )( Y3 Yi ) i + 2
2
d2i = 1.87843 10 4 m 2
n n
i =1 i =1 di
+ / * ) ! ( :
4
4.18457 10 1.87843 10 4
4 4
m2
BB
1.87843 10 1.29166 10
%) 0, 8" *") " (" ! "9
( +, + / "* ) " "' 9" (" )" () 0 * ,! ! ()" "

-
2 ( Y2 + X2 ) + ( Y2 X2 YX
2
)=0
" 1 , 2 / " () +: /, "9"8 )" () 0 " /" 0 " (/" 0 "
+ " () ) "' 9, +" , * , , (, " (", /" ) /, " (" 0, *
2
tan 2 = 2 YX 2 . + ) 2 "7,/" (" ( +, 0 8" " /" 6 ', /"
Y X
sin 2 () 6 YX , 6 cos 2 () 6 Y2 X2 . 9"* *" , ( "
/":
- +" , ( : a = 0.023 m
-* , ( : b = 0.0006 m
- ,! /" ) /": = 2612 (, (, 6 ) + (*" X (").
:# 6 (), () (" ( * , ' 6 8 !" *") /" + ,

("- )+ " . ! . " + (), - / 8 () ! ! ,6 !
"9"8 () *") /* 8 . + ) .

1 66
#& ) " '$ ! ( &+ & & ( $ ' $"
(" ) * *" "8 , ! ( * + , 6 .)"+ 0, 8" + ( ! ( .) 0
) *" *" " +" ) (6" ) ) ,! + , ) ! + * ! ( * + , , 3
() ,. + / (), ("- 6 6 / / + * ( + "*" . , "7 / () )
() , ( .).
" .
"* 6 " 6 /, ! ( .+ + ,3 () , ( :
) , () , ( * * * "6 , / * *" "8 . 6 ) .
+" ) . ,! + 10,
"' " ) " ( - ( 6 /" ( ) ) * () *),
+" *" " * ",
() ) + ,
# * - ( () : , )" , - )" /", ...).
) -" 4.1.1-17 6 (, "6, ) ) *" "8 ) ) * () * , 3 ! ( *
+ ,. ) -" 4.1.1-18 6 (, "6, ) ) 0, 8 ) + ( ) 0
! ( !+ ,3 () ,.
4.1.1-17: % $ 3%
'& , +"$ & '& "# 3 $ + &' & 3 $. "0 & & $ ( !
"# m $ + ,m
= _____ p = _____, . .=_____, mm/km=_____. " ) :
1725334 "*":
% 910955 281.832 -5.688
...
% 1852214
884518 271.300 +6.197
%
2082619
871548 274.100 +13.161
2051351
4.1.1-18: - ,
). , .,! #
- " )" H 6 + )" )" H "'.
m Y X m Y X m
B 68478.139 62483.826 185.132 68478.139 62483.826 185.132
281.832 2410858
C 68231.288 62347.835 179.444 68231.274 62347.824 179.437
271.300 2463115
D 67982.450 62239.744 185.641 67982.423 62239.722 185.626
274.100 2745737
E 67709.377 62263.444 198.802 67709.336 62263.422 198.780
(67709.336) (62263.411) (198.780)
fY = - 0.011 fX = - 0.033 fH = + 0.041

fYXH = 0.053 m 1:15 300

1 67
.' $ # '$ $ # '$ # & #)
6 + 8 ! ( ! + ' * (" 9) "! () (4.1.1-17) "! ()
! ( ! + (4.1.1-18) , / * (, 6 " ( + " ' * /" ) 0 *
! ( !+ () ! ,) / ) 0 () . # " +" " . "! () , , ) ! *") /( *
- ( , 25 6 " (, )" + ( " ) . + "7" . ) 0 (( 4.1.1-
19).
4.1.1-17:

1 68
4.1.1-18: - "
1 69
4.1.1-19: . 25
4.1.2. ' ( ' ! / $ + &' & # +, &$ -
9) /" 0") , + ! ! +: () ,) , ( * ! *") / *, /) 0 ("

* " " ) ,!" 0 ". :"* )" (), -/ ( "* ( + " " "
0 "' ( 8 / ) 0 , ) :
# "(" 8"* + ;
+ / , + ), +,;
,0 * "(" *;
# *" * # )". ! /".
!$ 8 ) - 0 * & +& ' ' 1 $ , - ( +& ' !"0 & !$ , &

"# ) & +& ' *' 1
)" " 6 )" ) 0 " * !, (" ( 0, ) , (, * 6 )" )" /" "

) 0 " " ,! , " 6 ) / ) 0 . - ! ) ", 6 "' ( 8"

1 70
/ " 6 )" ) 0 ", , ( (" ()" /* 8" +" 6 )" ) 0 ". ( 4.1.2-1
6 /" ( ), / / (,/" +" " ( ,0 /.
B
a
c

C
b
4.1.2-1:
) .) 0 C "7 + 8 / " 6 )" ) 0 " B *" " (, ,! + .
, b " ,! AC 0, /, (" 6 ) ) .) 0 ,
b= [(YC YA ) + ( X C X A ) 2
2
]
YC YA . (4.1.2-1)
AC = arctan
XC X A
, " a c 0, /, (" ()" ( ,( , )" "*, , ) ,! , ABC, ( +, 6 6
b sin
a=
sin
, (4.1.2-2)
b sin
c=
sin
, ,! 0, (" = 180 ( + ) .
( +, ) 0, 8 ) *" "8 ,! + , 0, /, (" " ,! +

() AB CB, )" ) 0 " B "7,/, (" ( -" )" ) 0 ", "6 + (
YB' = YA + c sin AB
, (4.1.2-3 )
X B' = X A + c cos AB
,
YB" = YC + a sin CB
(4.1.2-3-)
X B" = X C + a cos CB
"' ) + " )" " 6 )" ) 0 " 0, /, (" )*") 0 ( " + "9"8 .
6 + "9"8 * - ) ,( , ( 6 .)"+ * ) 0 9 , "*" / /" "' (
! + /, * )". 0 * () * ) 0 () .
1"& - $! & ' & +& ' ' 1 $ , - ( $ $ ) , !) ! ' ' 1

( +)
)" " 6 )" ) 0 " B * !, (" ( 0, ) " ) ( +, *" "8 ,! +

( 0, )" + " () , " - 6" C 6*"7, +" )" ) 0 " (( 4.1.2-1), ( " " 0 .
( +, (4.1.2-3 -) ( "

1 71
b sin b sin
X B = X C + a cos CB = X C +
sin
(
cos CA + = X C + )
sin( + )
cos( CA + ) . (4.1.2-4)
-6 * /" cos( CA + ) = cos CA cos sin CA sin (6 ,! "' 9" (" ( +,

") " ( ), /"), /"
Y Y
sin CA = A C
,
b
(4.1.2-5)
X A XC
cos C =
A
b
( " (,
X XC Y YC
cos( CA + ) = A cos A sin . (4.1.2-6)
b b
(" 6 6 (4.1.2-6) ,+ () , (4.1.2-4) - / ("
sin cos sin sin
XB = XC + (X A XC ) ( YA YC )
sin( + ) sin( + )
( X A X C )ctg ( YA YC )
= XC + = . (4.1.2-7)
ctg + ctg ctg + ctg
( Y YA ) + X C ctg + X A ctg
= C
ctg + ctg
() 0 * " (" 6+"() 6 6 6 Y ),, (
( X A X C ) + YC ctg + YA ctg
YB = . (4.1.2-8)
ctg + ctg
# *" 6 6 (4.1.1-7) (4.1.1-8) "). 6 + :"8" ,( + 6- ,! + , ) ,! ,

( + + = 180 )11.
6 6 (4.1.2-7) (4.1.2-8) (, 0, ( "' ( , , () "* , ( " ) "

0, 8 . 6 ) ! 6 ! , /" ! * !, ", ) "- , :,0 ) / 9 /" , 6 ), ) 0 , )
' * ) / 9 /" "6 + ( "9"8". 0 "9"8" ) "- ( 0, ) )*") 0 ,
( " , + "9"8 , 0"*, + ) 0, 6 + "9"8 " (*" - ) +"
6+ :" " + " () "' ( " () * ) 0 () "*" ( ( 6 .)"+ *
/" ) ).
1"& - $! & ' & +& ' ' 1 $ , - ( $ $ *&' &/ $ ) ,
(, /" ) ( + () B CB 6 )" )" ) 0 C,

/" 0 " + . AB CB ( " " " ) 6 ) 0 " !" *") /". ) ,! , 1, * " ("
( ) ( " " 6 6
X B X C = ( YB YC )ctg CB
. (4.1.2-9 )
X B YB ctg CB + YC ctg CB X C = 0
0 ,,) ,! , 2 + ( " " 6 (
11
6- ,! + ,) ,! , /" /" 180, (), 8" ) "- /" ( " ) (+ * ,! ,.

1 72
X B X A = ( YB YA )ctg AB
. (4.1.2-9-)
X B YB ctg AB + YA ctg AB X A = 0
,6 * 8"* (4.1.2-9-) (4.1.2-9 ) - / ("

( X C X A ) YC ctg CB + YA ctg AB
YB = . (4.1.2-10)
ctg AB ctg CB
"9"8" XB " (4.1.2-9 ) (4.1.2-9-) 6! "
X B' = X C + ( YB YC )ctg CB
. (4.1.2-11)
X B" = X A + ( YB YA )ctg AB
"). " *") ", "* ) " )*") 0 . " / . ) , 0, 8

* !, (" () ) 6 6 (4.1.2-3 ) (4.1.2-3-). 6 ( 0, ) . ) " 6 )"
) 0 " ()" 6 6 (4.1.2-11) * - ) ,! * 6 .)"+ " ) 0 () .
YB - YA B YB - YC
2 1
XB - XC
XB - XA
AB C
CB
Y
4.1.2-2: - "
# 4.1.2-1: ( +, ( ), /" ( 4.1.2-1, ) . ) ) *" "8 ,

( 0, ) / " 6 )" ) 0 " B (Anderson and Mikhail, 1997).
) : YA= 63 369.287 m, XA = 62 890.836 m, YC = 63 300.259 m, XC = 63 082.183 m.
" "8 : = 811738, = 643228.
$ 3 :
) ( +, , " " ! ,! ( 6 6 4.1.2-3 4.1.2-3-)
- , AC: b = 203.41716 m ( 6 6 4.1.2-1)
- " ,! () " AC: AC = 34009'47" ( 6 6 4.1.2-1)
- " ,! + () AB CB: AB = 25852'09" CB = 22442'15"
- 0, 8" ,! : = 25852'09"22442'15" = 3409'54"
- ) ,( + 6- ,! + , ) ,! ,: + + = 18000'00"
- 0, 8" , () AB = c, CB = a: a = 327.050 m , c = 358.051 m , ( 6 6 4.1.2-2)

1 73
- 0, 8" ) " 6 )" ) 0 ": YB' = 63048.389 m, XB' = 62827.699 m (( ) 0 " )
YB" = 63048.389 m, XB" = 62827.699 m (( ) 0 " B)
) # "(" * + ( +" )" ) 0 " ( 6 6 4.1.2-7 4.1.2-8)
X B = 62827.700 m
YB = 63048.389 m
# 4.1.2-2: ( +, ( ), /" ( 4.1.2-1 , ) . ) ) *" "8 ,

( 0, ) / " 6 )" ) 0 " B " " . ,! + ( 6 6 4.1.2-10 4.1.2-11).
) : YA= 63 300.259 m, XA = 63 082.183 m, YC= 63 047.954 m, XC = 63 048.344 m.
" "8 : = 373928, = 973131.
$ 3 :
- " ,! () " CA: CA = 8221'40" ( 6 6 4.1.2-1)
- " ,! + () AB CB: CB = 17953'11" , AB = 22442'12"
- 0, 8" ,! : = 22442'12"17953'11" = 4449'01"
- ) ,( + 6- ,! + , ) ,! ,: + + = 18000'00"
- 0, 8" ) " 6 )" ) 0 ":
YB = 63048.392 m ( 6 6 4.1.2-10)
X B = 62827.694 m ( 6 6 4.1.2-11, " ) 0 " ).
# 1: # * 0, 8 ) " 6 ) .) 0 , ()" - /,
) +" " (), , 0, 8" (" - +: ( /" *6 0 / * ' * + 9" - /
6 0 / . ' ) ) .) 0 .
# 2: # " 0") 0, 8 ") , ( ), /, /" ) ( ) 0

( 4.1.2-1. 6+" " " ' *, " (, "' ( ",( ,( 6 * " ) + *
( * ) 0 *" "8 * , ) ,! ,.
!$ 8 ) - 0 * & +& ' /' 1 & !"0 +( 8" !) ! ' ' 1 & " $ )& *
12
( 4.1.2-3, )" / " 6 )" ) 0 " i, / (" 6 / 6*"7,
+" )" ) 0 " AB ( *" , ! ( / () ), 0, /, (" ( +, 6 ) . 6 6 6
) 0 " !" *") /" / ! ("
d
X i = X A + Ai ( X B X A )
d AB
. (4.1.2-12)
d Ai
Yi = YA + ( YB YA )
d AB
# * "' ( 8 / ) 0 " / , " . /" , , dAi 6*" )
- () . 6 *" "8 , " " 6 * - ) , 6+ :" * ! *
) 0 () *" "8 . ( * ) ! , 6 ) , ) 0 () , *" (" , ) 0 " i /8"
) 0 " , ( ! ( " () "). 6 6- /" . ( ) 0 " B *" " .
" 6 * - ) , 6+ :" * ! * "' ( *+ " * ( * .13
(" " 6 ) ) 0 " 6 / ( ! ( / () ), 8" " )" ("

0, /, ( " " 0 . # + (" ( ,() , + ( " 6 )" ) 0 " , B (, +
(" ( ,9) )" ) *, ) () * ") () * 6*" ( .), 6 ) * 6*" " , "
12
/ " 6 ) .) 0 / /" ! 0" 6 + ( /" ) "- "*" .
13
# + " * ( * , 6+ :" (), 8" 6 + ( , " () ", )"! /" )" " " 6 ()
*" "8 , .

1 74
d AD 0") " ) 0 " / , + " () 0 D, ( 4.1.2-4) 8" " 6 )"
) 0 " i - di .
X YB YA B (YB,XB)
XB XA
i (Yi,Xi)
dAi
A (YA,XA) Y
4.1.2-3: 0 #
# * 0, 8 ) ) 0 , + . ), () , 6 ,/, (" + ( ,0 / :
- ) 0 i (" 6 ( "( " () " , AB:

X i = X D d i sin AB =
d AD ( Y YA )
XA + (X B X A ) d i B
d AB d AB
. (4.1.2-13 )
Yi = YD + d i cos AB =
d AD (XB X A )
= YA + ( YB YA ) + d i
d AB d AB
% -) 0 i (" 6 ( "+" () " , AB:
X i = X D + d i sin AB =
d AD ( Y YA )
XA + (XB X A ) + d i B
d AB d AB
. (4.1.2-13-)
Yi = YD d i cos AB =
d AD (XB X A )
= YA + ( YB YA ) d i
d AB d AB
X YB YA B (YB,XB)
XB XA D

dAD di
i
A (YA,XA) Y
4.1.2-4: 0

1 75
1"& - $! & ' 0 * & +& ' ' 1 & & )" ( $ - !"0 &
)" / " 6 )" ) 0 " * !, (" " ) *" "8"* , /* 8" )
6 )" ) 0 ". ( 4.1.2-5 ,() + /" ) + ( ,0 /. ) . ) 0 A, B C
- () (, *" " " , " " 6 )" ) 0 " P. # - "* (" (+ "9 + 8" ) ,! ,
0"*, /" " . " ) , ,) 98" ,! +" *" * ( ,( " )" "*".
+ * , -" " (" /" ) ,! ( 0, " ,! , () " /

( / +" )" ) 0 " (, ) * ( ,0 /, ) 0 " A,B)
YB YA
AB = arctan , . (4.1.2-14)
XB XA
d AB = ( YB YA ) 2 + ( X B X A ) 2
) * (" *" * ( ,( " )" "*" 0, ,! BAP =
d 2AB + d 2AP d BP
2
cos = , (4.1.2-15)
2d AB d AP
" ,! () " AP
AP = AB + . (4.1.2-16)

B
A

dBP
dAP
P
dCP
4.1.2-5: $
0 , )" " 6 )" ) 0 " 0, /, (" ( +, +" 6 ) . 6 6
YP' = YA + d AP sin AP
. (4.1.2-17)
X P ' = X A + d AP sin AP
)" " 6 )" ) 0 " P 0, /, (" " ) ) 0 " B, 0"*, ("

"). ( 0, , ,) 98 ,! , ) ,! , ABP )"*" B,
d 2AB + d BP
2
d 2AP
cos = , (4.1.2-18)
2d AB d BP
" ,!
BP = BA . (4.1.2-19)

1 76
0 , )" ) 0 " P ! ("
YP" = YB + d BP sin BP
. (4.1.2-20)
X P" = X B + d BP sin BP
"' ) + " )" ) 0 " P 0, /, (" )*") 0 ( " + "9"8 ,

YP ' + YP"
YP =
2 . (4.1.2-21)
X P' + X P"
XP =
2
6 + "9"8 " (*" - ) +" 6+ :" " / (" "' 9" ! + /, *
( * /" ) * 6 .)"+ * 14.
)" " 6 )" ) 0" * !, (" " ) 0, 8"* , + * ) ,! , / (" * "

' * ) "* ( 4.1.2-5 ( *" , APC). ) * ( ,0 /,, "' ) + " )"
0, /, (" )*") 0 ( " "9"8 + ) ,! . 6 + "9"8 * - ) ,
! * ) 0 () ) ) .) 0 ! "9 *" "8 , " 6 )" ) 0 ".
) , 0, 8 , ()" (" ( " " 6 6 () ,! BP)
d AP cos + d BP cos = d AB , (4.1.2-22)

( ,
d AP sin = d BP sin . (4.1.2-23)
6 /" () " (*" - ) +" + () , " + " () 6 0 / " '" 0, 8 .
# 4.1.2-3: ) * () * / /" () +:" " 6 ), ) 0 , P 6*" " " (,

, " ) .) 0 A, B C. ( +, ) ) .) 0 "6, ) ) *" "8
, " ) )" / " 6 )" ) 0 ".
)" )":
Y = 61275.129 m XA = 60793.216 m
YB = 61421.831 m XB = 60781.472 m
YC = 61312.714 m XC = 60621.201 m
" "8 :
dAP = 63.177 m
dBP = 97.710 m
dCP = 136.930 m
$ 3 :
)) ,! ABP
0, 8" " ! ,! () " AB: AB = 9434'38" ,
0, 8" , " () " AB: d AB = 147.171 m ,
0, 8" , ,) 98"! ,! )"*" : = 3000'20" ,
0, 8" " ! ,! () " P: AP = 12434'58" ,
YP = 61327.143 m
0, 8" ) ) 0 " P:
X P = 60757.357 m
* () ( 0, ) )" " 6 )" ) 0 " P, 6" ) ) 0 " .
14
# "* + " * ( * 6+ :" 6 ) + "9"8 " (*" - ) +" 6+ :" "
+ " () , , ! " ! (), 8 6 1. )"! /, )" " * " , ' ) * 1.5.

1 77
4.1.3. ' &! $! ' 1& ' 0 * '1 $ ( 8"& $ !& * $# & + , * +
' &! $! + , *" ISO4463
& )& ( $ ( $& ) ($ 0 &'$ & /' 1 # !' &)

6+ :" " + " () (), 8 *" "8 ( 0, 8 ) , ,! + * " $
) 0 !" ")( " ( +" 6 ("
-6 , ": 0.75 L mm ,
0.045
- 6 ,! +": ,
L
! " /" L , 6*"7, * .) 0 , *") * ( ,! + , L /" () + ).
6+ :" " + " () (), 8 *" "8 , ,! + * /

* .) 0 6 ("
-6 , ": 2 L mm ,
0.135
- 6 ,! +": .
L
! + (" *" " /" (" , * )" ) * - /* 8" + ! ,( . , " (" *" "
(% () ,*" ) *. * - / *" "8 , " (*" - ) * 8
+ . " "8 0" 0 * ): * * /, (" + ) 6 ,) /: 1) , 2)
, 3) " 4) . # * *" "8 0" 0 *
): * * (" () ) )"! 6 6 )"6 8" ): ". () ,*" ) * - )
( ) - ( - 6 * 6 - /,.
"& ( "&! $& ) ($ 0 &'$ & /' 1 # !' &)

6+ :" + " () (), 8 *" "8 , *
( 0, )" , " )" ) 0 " *" " * " " ) 0 " (" , "* " " 6 (
2 L mm .
6+ :" + " () (), 8 * 6*"7, +"

) 0 " (" , "* " " 6 ( ,6 , "
2 L mm ,
! " /" L , , *") * (6 L " 10 m, 6+ :" (), 8" 6 ( 6 mm ) 6

,! +"
0.135
,
L
( ,! + , L /" () + ).

1 78
! + (" *" " )" ) *( /* 8 * " * 1 * ,)", /* 8" , /" * ! ,(,.
, " (" *" " 0" 0 * ): * () ,*" ) *, ( /* 8" + *" "8 , -
/ * *") *. " "8 0" 0 * ): * * /, - ) +:" 6 ,) /: 1)
, 2) , 3) " 4) . # * *" "8
0" 0 * ): * * (" () ) )"! 6 6 )"6 8" ): ". () ,*" ) *
- ) " 0 ( ) - ( - 6 * 6 - /,.
+) : & ! '" - ! 0 ) - $ * ' ) & /' 1

6+ :" (), 8" , " 6*"7, ) 0 " (" , " * " " -" " " " ) 0 "
6*"7, +" -" " " " ) 0 " 6 (
K L mm ,
! " /" L , , *") * , /" () ) / 6 + ( + () ") : " ) 0 " () -"
4.1.3-1). L * 8" 5 m 6+ :" (), 8" 6 ( 2K mm .
6+ :" (), 8" ,! 6*"7, + + (*"7,( - 6 + ( ) +" (,(" " ") : "
) 0 " 6 ( :
0.0675
K ,
L
! " /" L , , *") * " () " + + , /" /" "' ( () )
() -" 4.1.3-1).
4.1.3-1: , "
$ (ISO 4463).
$ ( &
10 " "
5 " ( ,
, # .)
2 /
1 1 - ( , , .)
4.1.4. 1"& - )$. & + ') $ & % #"$ ( 9" $! & ' $ (& /' 1
(, 6 )" )" ) 0 6 )+ " ! ! (( 4.1.4-1) 6 0, 8"

+ 9 " ' !, " + ( " " " +
% % Y
X , )/.
2P = Y1 ( X 2 X 4 ) + Y2 ( X 3 X 1 ) + Y3 ( X 4 X 2 ) + Y4 ( X 1 X 3 ) . (4.1.4-1)
6 + ( () (*" 0, 8 , - /" + " () + 9 " * " - ) 6 ) +

"! ) + , 0"*, (", ! 0 , ,(+ / 6 ) + + " ().

1 79
4
X4
3
X3
X1
1
X2
2
Y1 Y4 Y3
Y2
4.1.4-1: -
# 4.1.4-1: ( +, ) . ) ) 0 6 )+ " ! ! ( 0, )
+ 9 , ' !, " (Kavanagh, 2003).
X Y
1 1089.981 935.049
2 1000.000 1000.000
3 1078.754 1068.139
4 1046.635 1205.498
5 1154.366 1030.252
P = 150.3 ha
4.1.5. ( '$ * $ ) "# / $! & '

(, 6 )" )" ) 0 A B, * !, (" ( ) ( " " 6 6 :
d AB = (YB YA )2 + (XB X A )2 ,
YB YA
tan AB = ,
XB X A
YB YA (4.1.5-1)
d AB = ,
sin AB
XB X A
d AB = .
cos AB
" 0")+ ) 6 6 , ' *, (4.1.5-1) ()" (" 6 + ( +" 0 " ) "

6 ", 0"*, (" +" ()+ /" 6 6, ( +" * ) * 6 *.
# 6" + ) " !" *") /", /" 0 +" /" 6*"7, ) .) 0

B! ( :

1 80
X X1 Y Y1
= , (4.1.5-2)
X 2 X 1 Y2 Y1
( , 6" 0")+ )" /" 0 " , (4.1.5-4), ( "
X 2 X1
X 2 X1 = (X X1 ) , (4.1.5-3)
Y2 Y1
! " /" ( X 2 X 1 ) /( Y2 Y1 ) = ctg AB = m - ! - , B. (, 6 )" )"

) 0 " " ,! () " B, /" 0 +" ! (
X X1 = ctg AB ( Y Y1 ) , (4.1.5-4)
, /" 0 +" , + " B! (
1
X X1 = ( Y Y1 ) . (4.1.5-5)
ctg AB
" 0 ' !, " , ! - , "! (
(Y H) 2 + (X K ) 2 = r 2 , (4.1.5-6)
! " /" r - , "0 ( /,() , "( ) * " ) (K,H), (( 4.1.5-6),
(X,Y) (, )" " 6 )" ) 0 " P / (" 6 , . /" " )
, ", ) * 0") , ) ! ( ()"* , ) /" 0 , "! (
Y 2 X2 = r 2 . (4.1.5-7)
PC (K,H)
(K,0)
P (X,Y)
(0,H)
4.1.5-1: ) $

1 81
# 4.1.5-1: # "* ( ), / ( ) . ) " * .) 0 ( 0, )
)" ) 0 " "(" , EC DB (K1) .
X Y
A 1000.00 1000.00
B 1250.73 1313.61 C
C 1302.96 1692.14 B
D 934.77 1684.54
E 688.69 1160.27 1
D
$ 3 : ( +, (4.1.5-2),
EC: X = 1.1549250 Y 651.3355
DB: X = - 0.8518049 Y + 2369.669
2
2.0067299 Y = 3021.004
)" ) 0 " K1
Y = 1505.436
E
X = 1087.331
# 4.1.5-2: ( +, ) ) ., *" , 4.1.5-1, ( 0, ) )" ) 0 "

K2 "(" , ED +" , + " 8, / 6 6 ) 0 " B, 6 ) * ( 0, ) , "
K2D K2E.
$ 3 :
) 0, 8" ) ) 0 " K2
( +, (4.1.5-2), /" 0 ED ! (
X 688.69 Y 1160.27
=
934.77 688.69 1684.54 1160.27
242.08
X 688.69 = ( Y 1160.27 )
524.27
( +, 6 6 (4.1.5-3) * " (" () + ) /" 0 , BK2
524.27
X 1250.73 = ( Y 1313.61)
246.08
, ", "7"8 ! 8 . 6 6 - / ("
: 0.46938Y X = 144.09
BK2: 2.13049Y + X = 4049.36
:" /"
2.59987Y = 3905.27
Y = 1502.102
6 *" * ( 0, )" + " () Y , ! 8, /" () ( 6 6 6 ), - / ("
X = 849.15
) 0, 8" , K2D K2E

d K 2 D = 201.53
d K 2E = 377.62
) : d K 2 D + d K 2 E = 579.15
d ED = 579.15

1 82
4.2. 5 4 6 7
" ) , 6 + 8" )" " 6 .)"+ " / ! + ( ( 6.

( ( , )" " (" (,/" * ,: " "
( ).
( ( " 6 " * !, (" *" ) ( " " * *") * :

" ) !" *") /( * +" * * " ) * *" "8"* +" ) . ,
( / " 6 / *") );
" ) ) ! *") /( * +" * * *" "8"* 6" ) . ,! + ( .
, ;
. *") /( +" ) " , " (" "7,/, ) . *") /( * *") *;
*") /( * +" * * *" "8"* 6 )* ('" ( ! ) (
6 0 ) * () * ;
+ *") /( * +" * * *" "8"* 6 ! + ) " ( " ,6 *
! + *") ;
" / * ( ()"* * 6 8 () (" " / )' * ( )
*"7,( - , + " (". " ) ) 0 () (" " " 15 50 cm, , *
60 km 100 km;
# )". ! / * + ( " (" (" "'" " ) " ( . + 7"8" " ( .
+ ( + 9 +" ) ! ,* + 9 (" ( +, 6 + 8 ( 6*"7, !"
" ( (, , /" !" ).
+ , + ! ! +: ") : /" " (" ( ) *") " !" *") /( ! ) ! *") /( !

+" * .
4.2.1. ( '$ * &) ( &- # & $ & &) ( &
( '$ * ( & ) ( & ( (, )" ), (" * " ( "() 6 + '" " /

+" * ) (" 6 + " / "7 + 8 + ( ( . 6 6*"7, ) 0 6"*: /
+ 9 ( " " ) *" * ("- . () ,*" ) ( +" ) . 6 ) / + 6, .
" *") /( +" * (" " :

#& $ & +" * ( () (" 6 "7 + 8" + ( " " ),
& ) ( &'1 ! ' : (! ' :& & ) ( & - () (" 6 "7 + 8" + (
") : . ) 0 ) ! '( " + 9 )" " , ,6 , . "0 . '
)" " ).
" ")( " 6 "

' 6 0 / + 9 "*:" ( 6 ) * ( ,) *+ ( * 6 + /, ("
. " " * !, - ) . " / )" " ( .
*" "8 / * (" ,6 * +" 6 ( ,) . + ( " " 6 + ("
. +" 8" , !" " * +" * , ,+" (" 6+ 6 , )/.
( - /" * , :" 9 , +" 6 8" " 8" ")+". () / 8" 6*"7,
+ " " 6 + (" . 9" +" * ( . () ' *
.
+" * ( + * "- ) :
6*"7, + ) " " ,
,
(( " ).
9" +" * ( .+ + *"7,( - +"6 .0 " .

1 83
) ( & $ $
# * 6- / +" * ( . ) 0 ( " " ) " . /" ( , ) ( " " "
6 .)"+":
)" " * - ) 0+ () () - , -/" ) , /" (" " " ,! 7,/,,
" " * - ) () +:" ) (" 8"! * " () + ) 0 ) ) ")+ ,
+" * ( + " (*"/, - ) "+ 9" ,! .
" " (" 6 7,/, +" ! !+ 7 6 0 ) . - *" 6 / / 6 + (" : 1)

" 2) , /, (" " " () +: . " " (" , -/" )
() +: /,: 1) " (, -/" )") 2) ((),-, ()" ). 2 6 )
" " * !, - ) + / + " 6+ + -/" ) ( ,! ) ) (" 8 . * "
() + ) ")+ (, , + -/" ) ) (" + 6 * )+ (2 mm) / ("
6 , ( " 0" ! " " " . 2 6 ) " " /" (" () +: ")+ ,
() +: /, (" , () - " -/" )" ) / ! )" , /* 8" 0.5 m 6 ) ! '( "
+ 9 .2 6 ) " " + ( 6 * () +: /, (" + ( , 1.5 m - 1.8 m.
40 140
30
1.5 1.8 m
30 50 cm
4.2.1-1: 2
2 6 ) " " " " ) "- () + ) /* 8" 30 " +" 8 . , +

+" * "* -/" ) ! . 6 () +: 8" " " , " " (" * !, () + ) ,
" + ) ', " -") ( " (),- +" ()" ". 8 + 9 " " + 6 (),-
(()" ") ) (" 8"! * " () + ) ")+ . () - 6 /" " " ,6 * (" (
/ / !" " ( : , "
, $ .
) ( & )
(" +" ) 0 " 0 /, + ( ( , 6 , ) "- " ) ) + * *"7,( - *
() / 8, (" "* " " ) ( * ( /" " () ", ) (" + ( ( " 6 "
6 *" "8"* + 9" () ( - 8"* /" 0 . *" "8 + ( ( . 6 .
0 " 0 /" + ( " () * ( * + "*" - ( 0, + ( " ) / . " "

6 + /, (" ) 0 * . "6 ) 0 ( -" " + /, (" , -, ...) /"()" *"() / / ("
+ 9 0 ) 8" ")+" * " ( ( /" " ,!, () ,. 5 ) 8" ( + () )
")+" / (" 6 (, ) (*" ") 8 6 + (" , ( *, ")+,
6 + * . 5 ) 8" ")+" , (*" , ") 8 (+"6 ) 0 ) 6 + ("
, ( *, ")+, 6 + * . ) , *" "8 , +"6 " ) 0 " ("
() +: /, +" * ( " ,0" *") 0 .

1 84
151.993
6, 152.725
0,652
1,120
1,205 0,852
). 2
R100 ). 1
151.993 151.341
152.725
151.873
151,520
" ) ),*
4.2.1-2:
# ") () + * (" "7,/" + ( ( 6 6*"7, ) 0 B. ( +, )

*" "8 () * ( 6 8, " 8, ")+,), ( 0, )" (, + ( ( " 6 " (+ /
() ,
h 1' = l Z1 l P1
h '2 = l Z l P
2 2
... . (4.2.1-1)
...
h 'n = l Z l P
n n
) 0, 8 6+ (" ( - 8"* ( -" () " /" () , )/.
[h ] = [l ] [l ] .
'
Z P (4.2.1-2)
" 6 ) + ( ( 6 +" * ( " () " ( 6*"7, " " A B) - / (" ( - 8"*

+ ( ( . 6 (+ / () ,
H AB = [h'] . (4.2.1-3)
/" 6 ) + ( ) 0 " ,+ ( ) 0 " B 0, ("
H B = H A + [h'] .
- ! 6 .)"+ ,6 () " + ( ) 0 , +" 8" (" 0"() + 9 , (, ) * (*" ,.
"' ) + + " () + ( ( " 6 " - / (" )*") 0 ( " +" 8
" 6 . " (" +" ) ( * , /" * - (*" , 6 + ( + ()"
!" " ! +" * 6 .)"+ ") ! /" ) .
) ( & ) "( '&"' +( 8" !) ! ' $ $

" (, RA RB + " " 0 /" ( ,) " + ( " 6 (" HA HB. 6*"7, ) . " "
() +:" /" n " 6 ) . ) 0 ( " " , ! ( . ) 0 ( .), 0 /" + ( " /"
" . " ) !" " * +" * *. " (, *" " " + ( ( " 6 "
+" * ( . () h 1 , h 2 ,...h n ,
' ' '
, " +" * ( . () d 1 , d 2 ,..., d n .
" . /" ( 0, ) + ( " " 6 ) . ) 0 H1 , H 2 ,..., H n .

1 85
R
h1
R1
d1 R2
h2
Rn
hn+1
d2
RB
dn+1
4.2.1-3: , #
) :
" # "
, )/.
[h ] = H
'
i B HA , (4.2.1-4)
( " ! "9 *" "8 , ! "9 ) .+ ( ( ., ,( + " ") - ) 6 + :" , )

/" () (4.2.1-4) /0"9 " " " - ) 6 + :" . *", / + " (" 6 fH / ("
0,
( H B H A ) h'i = f H ,[ ] (4.2.1-5)
15
" () +: $ (,*") ,) ! + ). /" f H ,
6+ :" * ! * , , , $ fH ( " " ("
+ ( ( * 6 * +" * ( . () , )" () .
" () 6+ :" ! (), 8 6 + ( :

,
,
$ .
# (), 0, 8 + *" "8 + ( ( . 6 (,( + 4.2.1-5 * - )

6 + :" ), 0, 8" "' ) + . + ( ( . 6 "' ) + . + ( " "
6 + (" .
0, 8" + *" "8 + ( ( . 6 !" *") /( * +" * * + 9 ("

( +, 6 6 - ,
fH 1
v h' = , (4.2.1-6)
1 pi
p
! " /" p i ! + /, )" *" "8 +" * ( " () " / 6 + ( :
15
/" +" * ( + 6 )+ " ! ,) /" HB HA = 0.

1 86
( + : " + : ),
(!" *") /( ) ! *") /( ).
!" *") /( * +" * ,, * 0, 8 )" +" * ( " () " ( + )

6 ,/, (" + ( ,0 / :
)" " (" 0, /, ,

1
pi = ,
di
)" " (" 0, /, ,
1
pi = ,
i2
1
pi = ,
ni
1
pi = ,
2H
! " (,: i - () (), 8" *" "8 + ( ( " 6 " +" * ( " () " (+ ), n i -
- / +" * ( . () , () (+ ,) H /" 6+ :" (), 8" *" "8 + ( ( "
6 " +" * ( " () " (+ ) )" + " () .
" () 6+ :" ! (), 8 H 6 + ( :

,
) -" 4.2.1-1 )" (, + " () 6+ :" ! (), 8 "* 9 *+ " * ( * .
!" *") /( * +" * , + : * )" " ,, , + , ,*") ,) * 6*"7, + ) " " ,

* 0, 8 + *" "8 + ( ( . 6 () (" ( " " 6 6
fH
v h' =
d , (4.2.1-7)
[D] i
! " (,: d i , " +" * ( . () , D , , , + . /" )" "
, 6 )" " (" ,(+ / /, " 0 "+ " () + ) 6+ :" . (), 8 .
"'
) + "+ ( ( " 6 " 0, /, ("
h i = h'i + v h' , (4.2.1-8)
, "' ) + " + ( " " " ,
H 1 = H A + h1
H 2 = H 1 + h 2
... (4.2.1-9)
H n = H n 1 + h n
) , 0, 8 () (" 6 6
H B = H n + h n +1 . (4.2.1-10)

1 87
# 4.2.1-1: )" (, + ( " " " R100 (H100 = 151,520 m) R200 (H200 = 161,761 m).
( +, *" "8 + ( ( . 6 ( 0, ) + ( " " 6 ) . ) 0 1,2 3.
$ 3 :
/ Rn h 'i di vi h i Hi
+
1 R100 151.520
1.915 0.20 +0.003 1.918
R1 153.438
4.429 0.26 +0.004 4.433
R2 157.871
5.576 0.16 +0.003 5.579
R3 163.450
-1.694 0.29 +0.005 -1.689
R200 161.761
[h ] =
'
i
10.226 0.91 +0.015 10.241 10.241
( H 200 H 100 ) = 10.241
fH = +0.015 (0.025)
9" *"7,( - +"6 . +" * ( .+ + 0 +" * ( , * " ,.
6 + ( () 6 .)"+ " ) 0 () +" * , !" " +" * (* " ) (" "

0") )"! /":
,
,
" * ,
" .
4.2.1-1: )
$ ' $ ) '& ' * - " k( 1 && ) -
&) ( & "1 *&
#$ . #& $ $ & '& , & ). '$ &
km
0 2
1 mm 250 78
2 mm 75 250 4 2
." 5 mm 2 &
25 75 2
*
." 8 mm 25 1 &
$ & . - #$ . " # ( '$ * ( & ) ( &"

( +, 6 ! 8 , "). * ! +:, * " (" 6 :,0 ) "( *" "8 *") *
!" *") /( ! +" * ) 6 0 / - / 6+ ! "9 . /" ) () ,*" ) /
+ , " * 8" + (, ,( + *" "8, ( ,()+ +"9) " ) .

1 88
()"* )( ,) / * !, (" ) ) 9) + 8"* " , " *" "8 . "9 " ( ,0 / !
)" " * !, (" ) , ( :,0 ) , (" 8 . + ,) / * " 6 0 / " , + )
: + * , + 8"* ( ) * () ,*" ) * + 8"* " . . ( .
,( + *" "8,. 6 /" . 6+ ( ,0 / . ,) / ("- (, 6 0 / "
! "9 ":
(" ),
,
.
+ ! " (" " 6 .)"+ + ( " 6 (), () 8" ! "9 *" "8 ) ") (" ,
6 + ( () :
$ ,
, + ,.
+" " " ) /" ) , () !, 8"! + () ) () 0 + () " + (" ,

) 8" ()" *") " 6 + 8 + / /" ( , *" , 4.2.1-1.
! 6 6 () 8 ! "9 *" "8 !" *") /( * +" * * 6+ ("

( " " 0 . - *" 6 () 8 ! "9 , + ,, ( ,0 / " ! "9 "
() (" *- ,/, , /" , + " (), ! "9 " /" (" (" " 8, 6 8, ")+,
*"7,( - (" 6/" 0 + /,. " /": s - $ $ ( /" "
() " /" , " + 6, ", l - , + 6, " h - + ( ( 6 (/" /"
6 0 ) 8 6 8" " 8" ")+").
' $ () 0, (" ( +, ( " " "!

6 6
h = l s 2 . (4.2.1-11)
' $ , " d , 6 H ( n () ,
+ ,, 0, (" ( +, ( " " "! 6 6
H = h n , (4.2.1-12)
, ( -6 * /" n = d / 2l , ( " 0 6 66 0, 8" H .
d
H = h = s ld . (4.2.1-13)
2l
6 6 (4.2.1-12) (4.2.1-13) 6,/, /" () (), 8" + ( ( " 6 " +

" , " , 6+ $ $
. " ( " ' / , + 0 + +" " * 6 )": * 6 +
6+ :" (), 8 , ', / , , " , "+ * ( * " , " + 6, ".
4.2.1-2: % $
- H
$ ' &) ( & $ & ) : & $ && ) : &
'$ & ) '$ & )
/& 1 & ) ( & 20 d + 0.04 d 2 10 d + 0.04 d 2 25 d + 0.04 d 2 15 d + 0.04 d 2
) 9 & ' 1& '
/& 1 & ) ( & 32 d + 0.06 d 2 16 d + 0.06 d 2 40 d + 0.06 d 2 24 d + 0.06 d 2

1 89
4.2.1-3: ! # " (- ,1997)
+ * " + 8" () /" "
'! ( $ - ) & /$ +
" *") /( +" *
! *") /( +" *
#
. *") /(
& '$"( &'
-" # /" ) 30
")+" # /" ) " ) 0 * -" *
$ & $ , !"$
" *") /( +" *
$ # /" ) 120 m
$ # /" )
# /" ) 3m
# /" ) mm
# /" ) 30 d km
% (mm) # /" )
! *") /( +" *
" , ,
5 # /" )
# /" ) 6
, mm cm
% (mm) # /" ) 4d 0 n + K
16
# # /" ) # /" )
' (Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee

FGCS), (Bossler, 1984), () +" ) . ) . * " 6 ( + ) 0 ()
+ ( ( " 6 " - b , )/.
s
b= , (4.2.1-14)
d
! " /": d - - . 6 ) , 6*"7, " " , km, s - () (), 8e

+ ( ( " 6 " (, mm) , +" * ( / * " - /" / " * *") /* 8 .
+ ) .
" 6 b /"()" mm / km . " () ) 0 () + ( ( . 6 - b "' ( /" 6

(+ " * " " ("- () -" 4.2.2-1).
" /( , )" /,* ) 0 () + ( ( " 6 " *"8,/" (" (+" +" ) 0 ,

* " .# ) 0 ,+ " () b (" 0, 6 "7" ,6 , /+" + " () b () ("
)" /,* 6 ( ' /, ) 0 () .
16
d0 ("0 , () " , ." ) *") * ,n- / () ,+ ,, K () ) (2 *, 5 * 8 *).

1 90
4.2.2-1: ! " (FGCS84)
! $) $"# $ 9
I II I II
" *") / * " "
3 3 3 3 3
# (km)
# (km) 1.6 1.6 1.6 3.0 3.0

#
" $ (km) 300 100 50 50 25
() ,*" )
+" * ( () ,*" )
0.25 0.25 0.50 0.50 1.00
+ #17 # #18/ # # + /*")
"6 , / () ,*" ) ")+"
(mm) 0.1 0.1 0.5-1.019 1.0 1.0
- /
+" * ( () ,*" )
0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10
, , mm/m
- , 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.04
, mm/m
# 7 7 7 7 7
( ),
( )
1 1 1 1 1
,
")+
20
) #21 #
# 1 1 - - -
( )
% 10 10 10 10 10
" " ( " ,
mm22 mm mm 3 " 8
23
0
24
25 26
# # #
17
# +
+ () , # "
18
("
() ) 0 * *")
19
0.5 mm , (" () ) 0 * *") , 1.0 mm (" () () ,*" ) ( )
20
- )
21
# ) # 6+ 7 0
22
- ")
23
- " ( +" ( " () ,*" )
24
- " - 6
25
6+ :" , /" * + ,, /" () / 8" 6*"7, ) .) 0 " 25 km
26
6+ :" , /" * + ,, /" () / 8" 6*"7, ) .) 0 " 10 km

1 91
+ $ !- + !- ') &
$ +
(m) 2 5 5 10 10
( ), (m) 4 10 10 10 10
$ (m) 50 60 60 70 90
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
(m)
0 -
*
# - -
3 D 4 D 6 D 8 D 12 D
(+ ) (mm)
( * ! "9 "6 )+ 8
4 D 5 D 6 D 8 D 12 D
! (mm)
+" 8" , /" * (*" ,
" "+" 6 +"
") ( )
")+ ( + () , * " *
4.2.2. !$ 8 ) - ) & '1 ( ' ! ( '$ # & ( '$ * #& ) ( &

9) /" /" 6 ) , /" () + ( ( 6 6*"7, +" ) 0 " *")
) ! *") /( ! +" * 0, (" ( +, 6 6 -
H AB = d k cos z + i l + k 12 , (4.2.2-1)
! " (,: i - + ( () ,*" ) , l - + ( ( ! , dk - *" " ( , , k12 - +

,( " ,) / "' /" 6 +:" () / ! (
d 2H
k 12 = (1 k ) , (4.2.2-2)
2R
! " /" dH - *" " , (+" " , + . 6 ) (, km), k "' /" ) "' /" (,
) 0 * *" * ,(+ /" /" + " () "' /" ) k = 0.13), R = 6377 km.
(, + ( ( " 6 " "7" " - () ,) (" 0 + ( ( 6 0,
H AB + H AB
H AB = Z1 Z2
=
2 . (4.2.2-3)
d1k cos z 1 d 2k cos z 2 (i A l B ) + (i B l A )
= +
2 2

1 92
" " + ( ( " 6 " +" * ( " () " ( + ) ) ! *") /( ! +" *
, " () " (+ ) d, , ) ! *") /( / * " , "7,/, (" ( " " 0 :
+" * ( () - /" () 8
1
pi = 2
2d i
+" * ( () - - () 8
1
pi = 2
di
+" * ( + - - () 8
1 1 1 1 1
p= = + + ... + = 2 .
1 p1 p 2 pn d [ ]
p
0, 8" + *" "8 + ( ( . 6 ) ! *") /( * +" * * ,
'$ # & ( '$ * *($ 0 + 9 (" ( +, 6 6 ( - () "7" " + ( ( " 6 ")
f
v h' = H2 d i2 .
d[ ] (4.2.2-4)
0, 8" + *" "8 + ( ( . 6 ) ! *") /( * +" * * ,

# & * ($ 0 + 9 (" ( +, () . 6 6 , !" *") /( * +" * ,
( - () "7" " + ( ( " 6 "), )/.
f
v h' = H d i , (4.2.2-5)
[d]
, (), 0, 8 + ( ) 0 () /" !" *") /( ! +" * ( *" 4.2.1-
1).
# + " * ( * , 6+ :" 6 + ( ( . 6 *" "8 " 6

) ! *") /( * +" * * *!& & ) ( & '$ & " #& ( ) " 6 (
( cm ) = 0.00075(1 + ctg 2 z ) d h ( m ) , (4.2.2-6)
, 6+ :" (), 8" + ( ( " 6 " *" " " " 6 , ) ! *") /( *
+" * * *!& & ) ( & '$ & " '$ # & ( '$ * *($ 0 6 (
( cm ) = 4(1.8 + 4.05 d h ( km ) ) . (4.2.2-7)
6+ :" (), 8" 6- + ( ( . 6 6 )" + ( ( " 6 " *" "8

'$ # & ( '$ * ( & ) ( & ( " #& ( ) ", 0, ("
( cm ) = 4 d 0 n + K , (4.2.2-8)
! " /": () ) (2 cm -" ) 0 " " " , 5 cm /" ) ! *") /( , ,! " "
8 cm -" ) ! *") /( " ) 0 "), d 0 - ("0 , ! ( " () " (hm), n - - /
() ,+ ,

1 93
$ & . - #$ . " '$ # & ( '$ * ( & ) ( &"
# " 9"8" ! "9 , ) ! *") /( * +" * , /"()" ") 6 / 9)"! ( ,0 /
6 () 8 ! "9 , *"8" ! 6 6 * 6 0, 8" + ( ( . 6
( +, *" "8 , 6" ) . ,! + ( 6 6 4.2.2-1).
# 4.2.2-1. " (, d = 0,020 m , z = 4 , i = l = 0,005 m , k 12 = 0,002 m .

# 6" 6 6 6 0, 8" + ( ( " 6 ", " () ! (), 8 + ( ( "
6 " H AB ( ,( + * *" "8 (, " ( ) 6 (
2 2 2 2 2
H H H H H
2H AB = i2 + l2 + d2 + z2 + k212 =
i l d z k 12
2
[
= 2(0,005)2 + (sin z )2 (0,02)2 + [(332,791) cos z ] (4 )(4,848 ) 10 6 + (0,002 ) = ]2 2
= 0,000050 + 0,000012 + 0,000043 + 0,000004 = 0,000109 m 2

( ,
H AB
= 0,010 m = 10 mm .
4.2.3. !$ 8 ) - ) & '1 ! ' : - ! ' :& & ) ( &
") : * +" * * (" "7,/, + ( " )" () 0 . ) 0 ") : ()" " , -/" )
.), " . " * 6 ) ! ' /" )" " 6 6 0 )" *" ". +" (, + ()"
") : ! +" * :
") : +" * + 9 ,
") : +" * / .
# * 6+ 7"8 ") : ! +" * , +" * ( + ,+" * 0") 6 + 9 )
6 ) * " " ,. ") : +" * " () +: *- /, +" 8 6 ( " " ( / .
+" 8, ") : . ) 0 "). 8 . + / "' ( 8", ( -"6 () - 6 /"
( )" () 0 " ) 0 " )" " ( .). ") : * +" * , " " * +"6 * ) 0 *
")+ (" 0 ) * *") , ) 0 * ") : " ) *") ( ( * , /" ) *
/" ,! 0 /" "' ( ). ") : " ) 0 " (" ,*" 9, 1 999. (+ / ()
0 ) (" 6 8 " 8 ")+ , ) * (" (, "( + (" /, ") : " ) 0 " 0 ) ")+
(+ / 8 .. # " 8 ")+ (" 0 ) + ,) , 0") , /, *" "8 /" /
() (+"6 ) 0 ). 6 + 0 ) 8 " (*" - ) +" 2 mm 3 mm. , " + 6,
+"6 . ") : . ) 0 "' ( " (, + " * ( * .
") : +" * + 9 " (" :

+" * (,) . ) 0 ;
+" * + * ;
+" * + . ' !, .
") : +" * / " (" :

+" * , . ' ;
+" * "0 . ' .

1 94
4.2.3-1:
) ( & )$. $ "' /' 1

* 8"* )" " ) ! * *") * "7,/" (" . 6 ) / ) 0 .
") : * +" * * "7,/, (" 8 . +" + ( ". /" " . (+ * ) 0 *
( *:" * ) ! * *") * " ) + ( ". ( " (" "7,/, ( * 6 ") 0 "
/" + ( ( " "6" ),/, )" " . /" " . + * ) 0 * " () + ) + ( ,
" ! " )" " , /, ) 0 " , : /, (" , ' 6 6+ 7"8 ") : !
+" * ( ( *" 8 + , 6*"7, +" ( *:" " ) 0 " *" "8"* , )
( *:" ") : , ( .). + . 6 ) *" 8 6+ " (" ( ) 0 9 , 1 dm.
+ ! "*" , ! 6 6+ 7"8" ") : ! +" * () (" () /" (

( * 8 ") : . # ") : ! +" * "! () ,/, (" ( ( * 8
),9"*. (" , + , ! ()" (" .
/" )" " ( *:" ' ) ! *") /( * *") *, ! 6 6+ 7"8" ") : ! +" *
()" (" .
( + " " ") : ! +" * + 9 (,) . ) 0 /"(,:
6+ (" ( " ( * 8 ) ! * *") *;

* /, (" ( * ) 0 " /" )" 9, )" " ;
( + ()" (" ( " ( * 8 ") : ) ! * *") *, /"
) () ( ! ') ( ";
+ (" "! () ,/, + * ),9"* ( ' ) ( * ),9"*);
, ! , , 0 " + () ,08 + ) ' !, ) ;
, + + ( ,, * /" 6 () ,*" ) *;
# - 6 ( : +" , +" ")+", +" ,0", (, - , ,0 ): ,
6 ( ( 1) !" (( ").
( +, 6 6+ 7"8" ") : ! +" * 0 () /" +" * ( * " ( +" * (

" " ).
+" 8 * " 6 /" ") : ! +" * 6+ (" ( " " / " , :
# 0 8" (" " " ;

1 95
# * () +: () ,*" ), - +"6 " ) 0 ", () " , (,/" ( *
- /"+ * , +"6 " ) 0 " * * ( + * ;
() / 8 +"6 . ) 0 (" *" " * ;
" " " +"6 " ) 0 " ")+ (" 0 ) * *") ;
() / 8 6*"7, ") : . ) 0 + * )" " , 6 6*" " + 1:500
1:1000 6 ( 30 m;
") : * ) 0 * ")+ (" 0 ) " ) *") ;
") : " ) 0 " (" ,*" 9, 1 999 , (,/, (" ( , " ") : " ) 0 "
+ * ),9"*;
( * + 6, ) 0 )" " 130 m (150 m + ! ), +"6 . ) 0
100 m (120 m);
/, ( * 8 40 50 ) 0 ,6 * (" 6 + 9 + 6, " 8, +"6 ,
, (,/" (" , 6 ! 6 ( " 8" ( *:" " ") : " ) 0 " ( 6+ :" 6
6 ( 3-4 mm);
") : +" * (" 6 + 9 + (,(" * () * " " ,;
+" 8" (" 6+ 6( " " (6 +"6 " ) 0 ") ( / ( ") : " ) 0 ");
# " +" 8 (" 6+ " " , () - / +"6 / ) 0 .
) ( & )$. ! % & & $ ), (

") : +" * + 9 "' ( " + * *"8,/" (" /" "7" , /"
( *:" , " , , . 6 ) / + " . " () + ) , +" ) / + .
# ( ". 6 ) ! ( * 8 , -" " + (" " + () / 8, " +" "* 50
mm x M ( *" 6*" "). -" " " + /0"9 " (" /, ( / *
/+" "! )" " , + * )" " , () +: /, (" " " / ! 0 . /
" ".
( + " " ") : ! +" * + * /"(,:

# + (" () +: /, () / 8, 30 50 m;
# + (" /, ( * )" " ;
# + (, " ! " ";
( () / 8 (" *" " " *") ;
/8 * ) 0 * + () +: /, (" 6 0 ";
") : " ) 0 " (" 0 ) ")+ " ) *") , , " 6*"7, ") : .) 0 ("
*" " dm;
, + + ( , *" ( () / 8 , * *" +
6 ( .

1 96
4.2.3-2: %
) ( & )$. ! % & & $ ) & ( % #"$ (

") : +" * + 9 "' ( " + * ' !, * " 6,/" (" * , "7"8
)" " 6 ) "-" 6! 8" ( )( . )" " , " * ( . # + " ' !, "
" () +:" " (, * " * + ) ( () * 10 m, 15 m 20 m. (+ * )"*" ,
' !, " - / (" . " ) * (" -" " + /, )"*" + ) , -" " + 8,
' * (" ( )" " . # +" 8 () /" +" * (,) . ) 0 . +"
) 0 " /" (, )" () 0 " , +" ) * (* ( , " /, )"*" * ' !, , * /,
(" " ) / + ( ( 6 ) . ( +, ) *" "8 ,
0, /, (" + ( " ) 0 )" " . 6 ) /" ) + ! () 8 "7,/, (" + " ()
( 8 ( + 8 () /" . 6"*: . * ( + 7"8 + 9 )" " ,
/" ) + + . ) /" ) "- " (+ ! - ) /" , +" , ) - , / /
(" ( (,/" + " () ( 8 ( 6 * + (+ 0.15) + " () ( + 8 ( (- 0.20).
# (), -" " + 8 *" "8 * " (" , ) ( ) ( " " 0 :
# + AB - (" () +: " ! ( / () ;
"*" + ) (" -" " + /, () ,*" ) *;
() " ) 0 " (" -" " + /, *, *"7,( - () / 8" 6*"7, ) 0
(" *" dm
0 " (" () - 6,/, 0 * ;
# " 0 () +: (" 90 / / (" , (,/" + 0,07 - 0,05 9)
" () +: ) "- (,) ( ) 6"*:" , (, /" );
6+ 7 0 + * 0,+ ) 0 ".

1 97
4.2.3-3: % "
) ( & "+!"0& # $ %
6 , ' )" " /( ! -/" ) /"()" "(" )" " +" ) * + /
( (, /( ! -/" ) . ( /( ! -/" ) ( ,) , ,!" ( .) -" " " )" " ,
6 , 6 + (" . # /" ) + 8" -" " + 8" ("
/( ! -/" ) " *") (, "8" ( " !" "6 /". (, *, /" 0 " + / ("
(" , , )"*" * . ( *, /" ( () / (" 6 , . +
) ( * (+ / , + , . +" )" () 0 "
) 0 " (" , 6 0 + /, (, :" () 0") ) (",
*" 1+030 6 0 + /" ) 0 0") ) (" , : 1 km 30 m). # "
)" () 0 . ) 0 ) (", , (" 6,/, ." ) *") . (+" )" () 0 "
) 0 " * /, (" ( 0, ) )" " ) " "*" ) ( +, / . (" ) (
)" " , -" " + . - (" /" ) + ) ( " " )" " ( -" " ) , - 6
-, , " ) (" /0"9 " (" () +: (
% ). ) 0 !" ")( " * " " -/" ) -" " + /, (" ) / () - 6,/,
)"*" + , ( )"*" + /0"9 " " ) , () " ) 0 " -/" ) . # "
(+ " ) / -" " " " ) 0 " () +: (" +" ) - ( 6 * () *
)" () 0 " ) 0 ". 7", , 6 .+ ), ) (", -" " + /, (" (+" ) 0 " "(" ) (" (
() /" * -/" ) * ( ,), ,! , , 9,* ( .) "7,/" 8 . + () . (+ ,
) (, + (" ( () " (( " 4.2.3-4 4.2.3-6) / / (" ( ) + ) ( (+
) 0 6 0 + 6 + * () *.
( ( / ) (" "' 9" (" +" * *. +" * (" ( 8 () /" " " " ".
# 6 + 9" * +" * , 0, /, (" + ( " ,6 , ! ' (+ . )" () 0 .
) 0 , (" /( ! -/" ) . ( +, ( 0, ) . + ( ( () +: ("
() -" 4.2.3-2) ( +, 0"! (" ) ) (".
( + + * -" " + 8 ) (" " 6 /" +" * , /( !

-/" ) ) (" *, /" (,6 , ' ) ! (":
# " ) (" (" () - 6,/, " " +"6,/, ( ) * " " * *") *
!" *") /( ! !" " ! +" * , , ( , ( 6 .)"+ * /" ) ;
"*" + (" () - 6,/, ) / * *" * -" "! * , () " ) 0 " , ( ,(
/" ) *;
# " (+ " ) 0 " () +: (" 0 / / /" 6 0" 6 () ;
) ( (" -" " + /, ,!" )" () 0 " ) 0 " "(" ;
( ( (" ( * /, (+" )" () 0 " ) 0 " ) (" ( 0") ) (", 0") + "
-# ,( " + "- , / + " , ." ) *") , ( .);

1 98
) (, + (" ( () "( 6 * ) 0 8 . + * () * ;
")+ (" ) 0 * () "0 ) ") *") , " " * mm (,
/" ) * /" ,! 0 /" " + 7" );
*"() - /"+ ) 0 , , 6 ( (" /0"9 " , ( )" () 0 6 ) 0 "
) ( , *" , # 3 0+120.68;
( +, () " + ( ) 0 ( () +: ("
/ ( , 6 ) 8" ' .
4.2.3-4: ' $
3
l3
l2
2
l1
z2 p3 p3
z2
z1 p1
.2
.3
.1
100 HV
Ha
H100
4.2.3-5 : 0 $
1 99
4.2.3-1 : - $
Stanica Vizura d l dh H = HV - l HV Primedba
1 100 50 0,451 109,752 110,20

a 50 2,471 - 2,020 107,735
(+ 0,003) n H V = 330,60
1 0,70 109,50 [ h] = 2,13

Ima = - 0,686
2 0,52 109,68 [H ] = 327,47 treba = - 0,680
3 0,91 109,29 fn = +0,006 m
a (2,470) Dozvoljeno
36 d = 0,016 m
2 a 60 2,541 107,735 110,27
H101 = 109,072
101 62 1,207 + 1,334 109,072
(+ 0,003) n H V = 330,81 H100 = 109,752
4 222 1,51 108,76 [ h] = 4,04 H101-100 = - 0,680

5 1,24 109,03 [H ] = 326,77
6 1,29 108,98
101 (1,208)
1
!
0+090,40
2
"- 3
"- 4
"" - 5
0+410,20
4.2.3-6: ! $
4.2.3-2 : $
+ ") 0 " / ' ) (
# 1 0+000.00 140.32
# 2 0+090.40 141.32
# # 3 0+180.10 144.32
# 4 0+310.30 146.21
# 5 0+410.20 156.21
) ( & $ 1& / $ %
# " ,6 , ! ' ) (", 6 + /" ) + 8" /( ! -/" ) " . /"
)" " ( * ) + (" -/" ) () / 8, /" 6 + ( + ()" *, /" ! -
)" " . # "0 ' )" " "' 9" (" "(" )" " +" ) . +

1 100
, + . + ) (" /" (" () +: /, "7" * *"7,( - * () / 8,. # "0
' "' 9, ) 0 " )" " , /" , + " ) (, , ) 0 * ! " (" )" " * .
0 " (" ( * /, (" )" " , " -" " + /,. + () "0 ! ' +
) (" () " (" 6* * () ,*" ) *. # "0 ' ( * /, (" (+ *
() * ) 0 * ) (". +" (" () + - 6, ) (", ): (" 6 )"! " ,
"0 ! ' , +" 8" 0 8" 0 ) 8"* ")+" () * 0 , ( cm,
mm, 6 + ( 6 .)"+ /" ) ). , ' , " 6 )"! ,)" ): " 6 - "
) 0 " () +: (" ")+ 0 ) 8" " cm ( mm, ) /" ) 6 .)"+ ).
() + "*" , , ): " *" (" , :" () ) 0 ' ) (".
0 " ' , ,*" 9, (" ' * , "6 + ( 1 :". ' , - /

) 0 * "- ) 6 0 ) - 0 6 ( 5 15. + "0 ' /" "7"
() *, , , , + , () () " 6 ,/, (" "+ "( () .
)" " ( * - ( , (" , *" ) ( "0 ! ' + " 0,
/" ) / (( 4.2.3-7). ( +, 6 )" + ( " () ! ( ) 0 "
" ) + ! ! ) 0, /, (" + ( " ) 0 "0 ! ' . )" "
! - *, ( * +" *, ' (" * !, + ( ( "' ( ) ) ) * () *
(4.2.3-8).
( + + "' ( 8, "0 ! ' ! (":

$ / ( 6 + ( ! ,) () )" " 9 " *, / ;
* /, (" " * " ) 0 ";
0 " (" " -" " + /,;
+ () (" () " * , 6* () ,*" ) *;
# ' (" ( * /, (+ * () *) 0 * .
15,5
10,10
5,0
0,0
6
5
5,0
4
10,2
15,3
1
2
3
0+090,40
4.2.3-7: !
6 1
5
1
2
2
4.2.3-8: !

1 101
4.2.3-3: -
. # . d l h H = Hv -l Hv SITUACIJA
proba
PROFIL 1, 0+000,00
15,30
10,20
0,00
PR1 1,10 150,30 151,40
1 2,20 149,20 n Hv = 605 ,60 1

4
3 2
2 3,15 148,25 [ l ] = 6 ,87
10,20
15,5
3 0,90 150,50 [H ] = 598 ,73
4 0,62 150,78
6,87 598,73
PROFIL 2: 0+060,20
PR2
1"& - ) & ! ' :& /' 1
0, 8" + ( ") : .) 0 6+ (" ( " " *'6 * :
0, 8" + ( +"6 . ) 0 (+"6 " ) 0 " * /, , !, " " );

0, 8" + ( + 6, ;
0, 8" + ( ") : . ) 0 .
+ 6,
l l
A Ha
HV
HA
4.2.3-9: ,
# (), 0, 8 + ( ") : .) 0 " 6,/" (" ( " " 0 :
1. - " :
h 1 = z 1 p 1
h 2 = z 2 p 2
...
h n = z n p n

1 102
2. :
f h = (H b H a ) [h ]
3. % :
h (mm ) = 36 d km
4. ( +:
fh h
5. - :
fh
vi = d
[d] i
6. ) :
[v ] = fh
7. - " " :
h1' = h1 + v 1
h'2 = h 2 + v 2
...
h'n = h n + v n
8. ) :
[h'] = H b H a
9. - " :
H a = H A + h1'
H b = H a + h '2
H c = H b + h '3
...
H B = H n + h 'n
10. - " :
HV = HA + lA
11. - :
H1 = H V l1
H2 = HV l2
...
Hn = HV ln

1 103
12. ) :
[H ] = n H V [l]
4.3. 5 4 (3 ) 6 7
4.3.1. ( ' ! !$ 8 ) - $ ' $& # 0 *

*( &( &
- ( ()"* 6 8 (Global Positioning Service - GPS) " () +: , * /,
, 6+ /, " () )" "() 0 . ( ()"* 6 8 . /"* 1950.
! " ! * 6 + * Navigation Satellite Time and Ranging Sistem (NAVSTAR).
()"* /" *"8" "7 + 8, / - 6 " -/" ) , - * " , (+") , (+ *
+ "*" ( * * , 8, ,. # -"6-"7,/" !" ") * , "8" * , " *
!" ! ' * ) 0 " ' * /" ) " % ") 8 .
( + " )" () " GPS (,:

" ) + + ( ) 0 () 6 8 / (" " " " * *")
" *") ;
GPS * !, ,/" "7 + 8" - 6 " ") 8 ) 0 ! + "*" , ( ! ( ) 0 ()
6 8 ;
! GPS ( )" ) (, (,) , - * " , (+") , ,, * , , + 6 ,.,;
"* ") )" 8"! + 9 "8", ( * 9) /" " . * ) GPS /"* ;
()"* ) , , -"6 " ;
' * /" /, "' ( " (, , () , () *" 6 /") - . 6 )
+" ) .
()"* /" ) () , ( 6 *" +" - / () /" . + ! . ( ()"* , ("-

8 /" 8" 8"! + / 6 9) ) ,6 () .
( + " ) 6 / 8 GPS ( ()"* (,:

()"* /" /" (*" , )/. ( )" ) "* ),/, ( ! " ( * , -"6 ( 6 8
8 * ;
)" )( ( ()"* () ) *( " 0 ( + " * ) ( , )". ! /, " (
' * / 6 ( + / )". " ( ) (spread
spectrum techniques);
"6, ) ) *" "8 (, $ ( (", , ") ( )" ) /"* / ("
- / /, * , (", ( ,0 / . - . + * , ( . (" *
) ( * ;
)" )( ( ! (, ) ,) / + "*" ( . , )* ('" ;
()"* 0 + 9" ( )" ) 9) * !, ,/" (" + : - / 8 . ,+" * "
() ) , - * " , (+") ;
()"* (" ,/" * !, () *" " "! /" ) 0 () 6 8 .
( & &' GPS

# 0 " ) ("!*" ) :
(* 0 ,
) ,
( 0 .

1 104
( 1 '( 0 21 " ) + 3 "6" + ( )" ) . )" ) (" 6"
+ ( * 20200 km ( "7" (, , 6 - ) . + /" (" , (,
" + ) 6" ,! * 55. )" ) (, ( "7" ) /" , (+ * ) " ,) ,
+ : + /* 8" 0") ( )" ) , - * " , "*:".
+ ( )" ) "* ),/" ( ! " +" ' " +" /" , L ' " +" ) * ("!,. L1 ("
' " +" / 6 ( 1575.42 MHz, 8" ) ( , 24 cm. L2 (" ' " +" /
6 ( 1227.60 MHz, ) ( , 19 cm. L1 (" "* ) (, * , ( (,
CA P , /" L2 (" "* ) (, * , ( ( * P . ( * + (" *
' " +" / * * , ( /" )6+. / ( : 1)
, 2) $ ("'"*" "), 3)
, 4) , 5) .
( + " ', /" ( )" ) (,:

# , : /, . + /, ) " - /" " ) ! ("!*" ) ;
+ /, ) 0 + "*" ,6 * " + () ) . ) *( . 0 ( + ;
" "() 9 :, ' * /" ( ! " ( * +" ' " +" /" L
,0/ ;
-"6-"7,/, () - , )' *, - ), 6 9 : 0" ' * / .
)" )( ( ! ( ( " " " * " )":

+ (" ) ( ' " +" / 1.5 GHz 1.2 GHz;
+ 6 *" "8" , ( )" ) , P CA + ;
+ ! , , ,.
# * , ! + /"()" -"6-" " ' * /, $ (

( )" ) /"* ). ( +, " ,) + 8 - 6 " ") 8 ( ! 0, ("
() / 8" ( )" ) /"* .
4.3.1-1: ) GPS
&'$ & #( &' 0 " 6"* :( " () ". ( "7" " (, 9 * (+") ( :"*
" * " ) ! "8 , : 8 ) ( ( )" ) , 0, 8 ) /
( )" ) ,) 8 ( 8 " . . ' * / ( ) , *") 0 ( +
( )" ) , 6 +()+" () ),( ( )" ) .) 6 , ( )" )". + ) ()
6 (" , + 6 ,. + /- 6 , !(, ( ) (, () " ( "7" " ,
6 0 ) * " + * 6"*: " ,! " (( 4.3.1-2).

1 105
4.3.1-2: $ "
( + " ', /" ) ! ( ()"* (,:

# ) , : ) " ( ( )" ) ((+" () " (+ . "));
" ") () (Colorado Springs) /"()" ! + ) () ! " (" (+
- 7,/, 0, /, "'"*" " ( /, ( )" ) - ) )
' * /" () 8, ( )" )( . 0 ( + ( + ");
() " (Ascension Is., Diego Garcia, Kwajlein) (, () "( / . (" ( 0, )
( - ) * , + "0 ( + , ...) 9 :, , ( )" )" .
+ ( )" ) (, , ) ), ( +" " " ) () ") ,) "+ , ) (" * !,

( ) (+ . 8 ( ) . 0, 8" ( )" )( . - ) ("'"*" ) + 0 ( +
! + (, 6 ) ! ("!*" ) .
)" )( " "'"*" " * !, - ) 6 " " + 9" 0 , ) :

() 3 ) - 6 , "7" * + "*" ( * )" + * ;
" " + *" "*" ) * +"6 * 6 "7" , " .,, , :,0,/, - 6 " *" ;
# *") * * / * (" (,/" ,) 8 , ! + /, "* "'" " ) *
( ()"*,;
/ - 6 ( )" ) , "7" / " . + "*" 0"*, (" /
- 6 , " / ,! / ":" / " . "7,/" )"! / * /" 0 ") 8
( )" ) .
# /, ( )" ) " * " ) (" "* ),/,, * (" " 6 /" ' * /"
/ * ( )" ) ( ) "- ) * !, - ) . * ),/, " "'"*" " 6 " "
(, , "'" " ) * ( ()"*, / /" ! 6 6 8" ) 0 , )/.
' ( * 6 "*:, 6 ) /"* 6 + * ' (
* 0 * *") * "' ( * 6 " ., 1984 (World Geodetic System 1984
WGS84). + , ) ("!*" ) , (,9) , " + ! " , " "* ),/"
( )" )( ),*.
# 9 8" (+ ! 0 ( + , ( )" ), /"()" /" :,0 . ', / ) !

("!*" ) . "*" /" /" /6 0 / / . ' ) ) 0 () ( ()"* . ( ) ("
"7,/, * , - 6 ,- 6 8" *" ( )" )( ! 0 ( + , (, "'" " ) ,
GPS + "*" ( , ( ,. "7" *") 0 ( + (" ) 7" " + ! " , "
() +: /, ( * ,' * *") * . "7,) *, ( -6 * GPS ( ()"*
-"6-"7,/" 6 8" , " * + "*" ,, * (" * ) , + , (, "'"*" "
*") () 8 0 ( + , 6 + 8 . +" ! 6 " + " () "7" ! ()" "
+" "8 . 0 () " /" 0 ( + " " (" "! " 20 (" , (1
(" , "( " ) /" , 30 cm)

1 106
$ &1 ' ( 0 " (+ / (" ,/, " GPS /"* . ( 0
("!*" ) /"()" " ( ()"* 6 / (, ( /+ 9" 6 )" "( + . ("- !6 0 /
/"()":
# *" GPS;
GPS "* ;
) )"! / 6 8 .
(+ ! , , 0 (" " + * !, () 9 "8 GPS. # *" GPS (" * ",

,( + , ( ' + ) ( " " " ! , ":
+ ! / ;
# "*" 6 ) + ;
/ " *" ";
# *" " " " !( / ;
() " *" " () ('" + "*" , () + 8" )* ('" " ( .).
(" " GPS "* , * ( (" :

() ,*" )" (. +" );
# ! *";
# " , " ()". ") , ) "-".
GPS /"* (" " " "* - /, ' " +" / : .

# "* *" " " (" : .
( + " ) GPS 6 8 /"()" (" / ) 0 , () , 6

( +, *" "8 , ( )" ) /"* ( ) )" /"). , " (" * !,
*" ) * , (" . ) ( . 0 () *" "8 , * , +
" " (" 3-5 m ( CA * 0.3-0.5 m ( P *. # *" * *") " *" "8
, , , (" 6 "* " )" 6+ ! "9" , * !, " /" () ) 0 () *" "8
, .
4.3.2. +, & $ - '1 GPS ' /& # *(
# 6 8" ) 0 GPS )". ! / ** "- ) :

( ,) ;
" ) + .
"'& GPS + , & $ -

( ,) 6 8" 6,*"+ "7 + 8" ( ,) . ) " 6 )" ) 0 "
*" "8"* /" * + 9" *"7,( - "6 + ( . /"* . " *" / . GPS
/"* 6,/, ( ,) " ) " /, ( ) 0 9 , 10 m 30 m. + + ()
/"* ,! + * (" () , + ! / . # /"* * " - ) ,
. # () /" + (" + ( ( ,) ! 6 8 : 1) 2) .
' () CA + ! , , , L1 ( ! , -"6-"7,/"
) 0 () 10 m 30 m. # ( ,) ! 6 8 6 .)"+
,) 6 /, & ' $ ') ! $ & , ) 0 () 3 / - : /" 10 m.
# " 6 (" + ( 6 .)"+ 9 "8" /"* .

1 107
4.3.2-1: 1 ,! $
4.3.2-2 : 1 , $
% $ &, * & $ ' )& ' /& GPS + , & $ -

'" " / GPS (DGPS) " () +: "( "7 + 8
+ /"* 0"*, (+ /*" () / 8 ( '6 )
( )" ) . 0 /" "0" , "( 6,*"+ *" "8" $ 6*"7, ( )" )
+ + 9" GPS /"* / (" 6" !" ")( * ) 0 * . - 0 /" /" GPS
/"* 6 ) / ( "'" " ) /) ) 0 ,! GPS /"* /" ()
") . - /"* ( *, ) "! () ,/, ) " / (" - 7,/,
"'" " ) /"* "* ),/" ) " ") * / , 0, (+ /

1 108
/.
" "8" , ( )" ) 6+ (" * , + * , '6 (" .
) ( . ( + DGPS 6,*"+ (, ! "9 " ( ,) ! 6 8 +"
) 0 " ()" , "7" * + "*" ( * )" + ,. 6 ) ! 6 ! , "6, ),/, ) 0 ()
) . 6 6 ( 1 m . 8 , ( 1 cm *" "
' 6 . *" "8 , ( )" ) ( (", , ). '" " / GPS ) 7" * " - ) :
( ).
# ") /"*
"'" " ) /"*
4.3.2-3: -
4.3.3. GPS $ % $ &'& '(
# / GPS ( )" ) "' ( /" , (, " ( ' -

WGS84. ( " 6 .)"+ "*" , )" (" 6 !" " ) 0 ! - WGS84 * /,
) (' * ( ) , ) ( ()"*, ( /" /,. '" " /
6 8" +, + (), ) (' * /" " 6,/" 8"* /* 8" /" !
/"* 6 ), ) 0 , "'" " ) ! ),* .
!' $! & '& '(

( ,) / " ) - /" GPS *" "8 * (", , (" (" 3
!" " ) 0 WGS84 " ( . ( , )" (, + ,! " (X,Y,Z) " ) + " ,
(, )6+ ECEF (Earth Centered Earth Fixed) + ,! ) ( ()"* ( () *
(. 9)"* WGS84 " ( . " " ) 0 " XYZ )" ) "- 6 + )
XY ) * , + " /" /" / /" ( (+ * ,! 0 /" "' ( ,
/" ) ( ) /" " . ,( () + ) ( 6*"7, + ( ()"* () (' * / ).
"6 6*"7, XYZ !" " ) 0 . ) WGS84 + /( . , )
/" () + /" "!6 ) "' ( . GPS - 6 " /" 0, /, (" , !" " ) 0 *
) * ( ()"*,, " , " ( *. "- ! ( ) , (" WGS84 " (
+ ( 6 ,/" ) *") /( " ( ( (" !" ). ( () +: 8" (+ . " . .
) (' * / ( 6 ) /" site calibration) 6 WGS84 , "'" " ) ( ()"* /"()"
:,0 " " () +: +" * * + " GPS *" .

1 109
4.3.3-1 :
WGS84 $ % $ &'& !
(. 9)" WGS84 + ,! ! ( ()"* 6 (" , " ) , * (" "*:". Z ( /" "
+ , (CTP) ! ") 8 "' ( !
() " ! " % (BIH) (" ( ( * ) /" " ( WGS84.
X ( " () +: "(" WGS84 + "'" " ) ! *" / CTP " + ) , Y (
"' 9" "( !" " ) 0 + ,! ) ( ()"* , + CTP " + ) 6 90
()" " () 0 + X (".
4.3.4. GPS ( $ -
GPS *" , " 6*"7, /"* ( )" ) . 6 + ( () ) ! (" 6 *" "8"

, ()" + ' 6" (" .) ( , , " * !, - ) :
",
6 ".
" "8" , ) 6 6 ) . 6+ ! "9 . 6 + ( () " , " " ("

" /" ) 0, :
# () ! ("!*" ) ( "( + 9" () () , /" ( )" ) , ) 0 () 0, 8
6 / ( )" ) , ( .);
" / 6 /" (" ) ( () ,;
"( + 9" () () , /" /"* ;
) / ".
( " "( + 9" () *" "8 , ( )" ) 6 0 ) . ,) / , GPS , " ("

6 + /, .
( , /0"9 " (" ()" ( " " " " ) + " )". " ' 6 . # *" "8 :
) ) 0 ;
6 () ) 0 ;
"* ) 0 - ) , ;
"* ) 0 - ( 6 ,() +: 8"* , ) , *" "8 (stop&go);

1 110
#(", "* ) 0 ;
"* ) 0 , " * + "*" , .
4.3.5. GPS $ ( &
GPS )". ! / * !, ,/" 6 8" ) 0 ( ) 0 9 , " * *")

" "(") *") . 0 () 6 8 6 + ( ) /"* .
! + * *" GPS, " (+"! * ( * 8"! +, *" , - () !" ")( !
"*" . ) * ! " , GPS (" () ,:
( () +: 8, !" ")( . * " ;

! '( * "*" ,;
) () ( * "*" ,;
# "*" , ( - / . -/" ) ;
-" " + 8, -/" ) , ) , ! 8";
2 ! '( * "*" ,;
, .
( * 4.3.5-1 4.3.5-3 ,() + (, *" *" " GPS.
# * ,( () +: 8 !" ")( .
* " *"8,/" ("
% /( + "*" / GPS
/"* ( ' " +" /".
) , *" "8 () (" + + 9"
/"* / /" + "*" , : /,
) " ( ( )" ) . 0 ()
6 8 6 ( 0.5-1.0 cm
4.3.5-1: $ /, 1-2 cm + ( .
. ! '( * "*" ,, ( 0 ,
) ! '( *, ) () ( * . /0"9 "
(" ()
.
' !, /, 0 %
. 6 () 0,
" /" *" "8 (, , ,)"*
9 :" ") * /"* ,
/ 0, (+ / / , " *
+ "*" ,. 0 () 6 8 6 ( 2
cm /, 3-4 cm + ( . 4.3.5-2: 2
! GPS , ' ) ! *") /( * "*" ,

/"()" -"6-" ) 0 " 6 /" *" "
, + , , ) " ,) , " ( ".
# *"8,/" (" *")
"* ) ( * - *.
# *" * GPS, 6 0 / (" (* 8,/,
)" " ( + ,( () +: 8, * " "
/" ) . ) 0 9 +
4.3.5-3: (), - "( ".

1 111
( * 4.3.5-4 4.3.5-6, 6 (, " ) + GPS /"* "*".
GPS /"* + / " *" " 6+ 7 0

Rockwell Collins 0 / /" ( + *"
6 ) "-" + ! /", "7 + 8
- 6 " ") 8 + "*" .
4.3.5-4: 0
Trimble Navigation 4000 GPS + ' " +" )

/"* !" ")( ! ) .
4.3.5-5: !
4.3.5.6: ! *

1 112
5.
) 8" (mapping) ) + 8" (drafting) -"6-"7,/, 9 ("! ! ' 0 .

) ! '( . 6+ 6
0 ) . 6*" *" . - 6 * 6+ /"*
( ), )e + () /, ( * /" 6+ )
() , " . . -,. " " , ) + 8" /" ( * 6 ) 8". - 0 (" +"6,/"
6 +" ( "*" , + , "8" ( "*"
, - 6 *. ) 8" (mapping) /" 9) 6 6 / (" - 0 +"6,/" 6
! ' ,,' * ) /" ( ") ! '( " ") :" ! 0 " /" " ) +
+" . " + 6"*: " + 9 . (" ) ! '( "*" " 6,/" ) ) *
() * , ) + 8" (drafting) /" - +"6 )" " ( ! !" ")( ! () ,08 / "*
) " 6 ) + 8" ()" ( " ' " +" - ) ! '( " 6 ", / - 0
( + ) , 6,/, )" () 0 " ) ! '( " ( - " ") : .
# () /" +" ( + " + ()" ) ( + ): 1) 2) ( ) ') ,

( + "). 6+ /"* )". ! / , +" 6+ , -" )"! /" !" " 9" (" ! ) *
0 *, 9) * 6 0 / ,) / () 6+ /
/ -"6-"7,/, 8 . + : 1) " , 2) * ( ) 3)
( $ ).
5.1.
5.1.1. '"( $' $ -

6 )" " ( !" ")( *" "8 , 6- * ),* (" , + , !" ")( . "'" " ) .
( ()"* -"6-"7,/" *"7,( - +"6 () () . " "*" ) . # +"6 () *" "8
) ) 0 , "7" * ),*, * !, ,/, 6 ()" ) () "*" 9 /
)" ) / . + + , !" " , () (+ / ( " ' 0 !" ")( ),*. 0"() ,
" " +" * /, + 9" ),* . ( * ) ! , () /" "! 0 ) " )
),*, 9) 6,*"+ " . ( ) 8 . + ! +"6 + 8 . + ),* (
. 6 ) , +" ) , * " ),.
2 6 ) !" ")( ),* 0 ":
% "7" . *" 6 / / ( * 6"*: , + 9,

( ,( + / * (" ( " ' , $
" ( .
+" () )" "' 9, *" 6 /" (+" 0 ,) " ( , ) : 1) 2)

. # / " ( (" "' 9" (": 1)
$ " , 2) "
, 3)
( ) " 4) 0 /"*
/" * /, (" 6 (. 9 ) 0 .
9 ),* "' ( /" *") * "(" + ! " ( ( *e) * "' ( *

1841 /"* /" ) / * "' ( * , ) 0 ( ,() / )
/" ) ( * 6 *,) * () " , ) / ) 0 ( ),* / (" () , - / / 9 1924
! ").
( " 8" + "*", ),* (" "' 9, , (, " ) * (" "*:". 6 ,

., (. 9)" !" " ) 0 . ),* /"()" , " ) , * (" "*:", /" ) + .

1 113
/" (+ WGS84 / " () +: ( , *" " GPS )". ! /" / /" "' (
*") * " ( GRS80.
$' & # !' ! '"( " () +: "'" " ) , + 9 + ( ( ,- )) 0 .

9 / 6"*: , +" ) ),* () (" $ * / /"
"' ( /"* 19. +" , 9 ( * 6 +,, ( +, 8 + ( !*
, ( * /" /! . + + 0 "' ( 8 +" ) ! ),* /" " ) , (" ,
" () ) , - :"! / 9 ,+" 6+ 0 () .
5.1.2. % $ &'& $! & '& '( $' $ -

) ( ()"* "' ( !" ")( * ),* * " . /" * /" ) + 8
) 0 ( " ( ( - , ) , + ) ! '( " /" /"
( - X,Y - northing (N) easting (E)). )
( ()"* /" + - (" )" + 6 7,/, , ! * ! ) * - ,,
( , ' * !" ! '( ! ' * ! ( ()"* , / +
6 8" + /( * ) * , / 9 ,+" "'" + ,! " )".
9) /" " +" "0" , 9 - + + ,! ) ( ()"* - 6 /"
),*, "' ( * *") * "(" + ! " ( 8"! + * /"*
/" ) / *,) 0 () *( " (" + ), /" , " ( " /- 6 "0 ( ,() / ).
) "' ( * ) * ( ()"*,, * 6 " + " 8 6
!" "'" " 8" " "*" ) () , + , () (" ,(- !" + "0
0 /" / . ( * + " "! ) ! ( ()"* , , "* /" ,(+ / 8"
+ ! ),* + ! "'" " ) ! ) ! ( ()"* - 6 ! /" / .
5.1.3. #$ % $' &)

! '( ) * , ( *- 6,/":
# () " )" () " 6"*: " + 9 ( (+ * 8" * *

)" () * , +"!") / * . ! ' / *;
"9) 0 " ! 7" ", -/" )" (6! ", ,)"+ , ( .).
! '( " )" + * !, (" () ) + 9" 0 . /0"9 " (" ()"

* /" ) + 8 "8" ( . -/" ) ! " /" ("- " + ()
" () + )" " 8"! + ! - * () . 8 + !
(+ ( (. ! , +: 8 () /" * "(, ( * , "* - * 9 "* - "! *
+ * () ,.
6 9) . ) ! '( . ) ) /" 6 ) + . " ,6"

() ), / . "7,) *, 6+ / * /,)" ( . ( ()"* 6 * " + 8" )" "
+" 8" * !, () , : 8 + )") . )" " ( . ) * !, (, - /"*
( , ) ! '( . ' * / " 8" ) ! '( . + ) (+ *
" ( * 0, ,.
- / , ( + 6+ ) ! '( . ) ) 0, (" /" ) ! '( . )

/" 6 7,/" + / !" ! '( () ),) , 6*" * 6, 1:25 000 1:1000
000. # ) * - /" (, ( 0 * ' ) ! *") /( * "*" *. )" ("
6 7" " , ! * ! ) * - ,. ( * +" " . 6+ , + +
!" / , ( 8 ( & % ) ,
6 7,/" + + , 6*" * 1:5000 1:10000. 7", (+"
6 0 / /", , , ) "- (, , 6*" " ) ' ) )" + 6 0 ) . 6*" .

1 114
+" (" /" ) + *- ,/, ' ) ! ' /, !" *") /( " +" 0 " () .
) +" " (, + () * 6 " () . ' * . ( ()"* .
$ ' () * 6 , 7H29
5.1.3-1: % $ - 7.
5.1.4. $ ! ' ): - $ : % ' $ &

":"' () ! ' / )" " ) (" * " 6 ) + 9" 0 , ) : 1) *
, 2) , 3) * $ , 4) , 5)
- " , 6) $ , 7) ( .
"8" ( * *" * , ( -6 * " ) + ) ) ) + /, + ( ( , " () +,,
( (, (" /+ 9" 6 6 + ( () " ), " /", "0 ,
' . ( " 8" + "*", (+" (" + 9" ()" ! ,,
) 7" + 6, 6 /" () , (+" /" +" )" "( 6
. +" " ) " + , , 6,/, (+" +" , ) "-, 6 " () )"! /"
. + 8 ) )" " .

1 115
$ ! ' ): - $ : % &'"$& ( & *(
), ( ), / ) " () +: 6 * 9:" , /, /" .+ ( 6"*: " + 9 .
" (" 6 * ( ) ) !' * "(" * + ( " + 9 ( + 9 )" " . 6-
)" + ), . / 6 + ( :
6*" " ( )"),

! - )" " ,
*" " .
), * / * )" " (" "'" ) " "6" ),/" ,( + * /" + " () , ), "
( ) , + 9) , (, ( ") " ) 0 " )" " , ( * + ( ( /
"' ( ". + ( ) , )") ":"' " " - ) " + ) " () +:" ), *
/ * . ( + " )" () " ), . / (, ( " " ":
2 6 ) () / 8" 6*"7, ), . / - ,) /" ! -,

)" " ;
)" " + *" ! (,( ) 6* 6*"7, ), . / /" + *"
/" ;
+ ! )" " + 9 ( *" , ,!" ( .) ), " /" (,
+ /( ! - *"7,( - (, " ";
), " /" (, , + " /" * ( * ! (,( ) )" " ;
), " /" * !, (" 6 )+ ) " * /, , + , /" ! () ;
), " /" (" " * !, *"7,( - (" ;
" ), / ( * /" / + ( / + 9 .
0 " + " () )" + ), . / ,6 + ( () 6*" " + ( ) )

6 (, , ) -" 5.1.4-1.
5.1.4-1: 0 * " (Anderson and Mikhail, 1998)

6*" )" /0"9 )" + ), "
, ) "- /" (m)
1:1000 # /" ) + 8" 0. 25
1:2000 # /" ) + 8" 0.50
1:5000 # 8" 1.00
1:10000 # 8" 2.00
1:25000 "! 2.50
8"
1:50000 "! 5.00
8"
1:100000 "! 5.00 10.00
8"
1:250000 "! 10.00
8"
1:500000 20.00
8"
6- ! + /, "! )" + ), " /" ) ! '( * + * 6 ( + (" :

6 .)"+ / ) 0 () + ( ( " " () +" )" " ,
)" () 6"*: . - )" " a,
0 ): + () ,
) 9 + * 6 ".

1 116
( $ 1 , * , * (!$".') ) #$ 8 ) & / &0 - $ (American Society of Civil
Engineers - ASCE) 6 ) ") : /" ( ' ,/" 6*" " + )" + " ), .
/ . ASCE "* *" +" ( ) ) " + " , 6 : 1) $ (design
maps) 2) $ (planning maps). # +" (" ()" * () , /"
( " ' 0 . "8" ( . + (+ . + () . 6*" " + (" " , 1.100 1:2000
( )" + * ), . / 0.1 m 1 m, , 6 + ( () ) /" ) , , ) "-"
)" () )" " . ,! + () + ( ) ) *"8" /" 8, "8" ( .
+ , - () , - 6* , "! !, ! )" ! () !
8 . " + ()" + ) " () +: /, ( +, - , !" 9 . (), / ,
, ) "-" 6"*: 9) , * ! / , 8 / + . (" + ( ( .# +" )" +" ! , "
( /, , )"! /" ( " 8 . ( ) . 6*" .
5.1.4-2: * * "
ASCE
+( $
1:20 000 , /
' $ 1:20000 1:50000
' 1:50000 ( ) /"
5.1.4-3: - " " "

*
" ASCE
# )"! / 6*" )" () " )" " )" + ), .
) ! '( ! / (m)
( )")
# /" ) + 8" ("- " + 0.1
*" " 1:500 (0.5-1)
" ,: () 0.5
(2)
+ ) 1
(5)
# /" ) + 8" 9)" + 0.1
*" " 1:500 1:2000 (1)
" ,: () 0.5-1
(2-5)
+ ) 1-2
(5-10)
# 8" ! + 0.5-1
)" 1:4000 1:6000 (2-5)
" ,: () 2-5
(10-20)
+ ) 5-10
(20-50)
# 8" "! ! + 0.5-1
)" 1:25000 (2-5)
" ,: () 1-5
(10-20)
+ ) 5-10
(20-50)
# 8" ! 2-200
)" 1:100000 ( ) /"
# "* ( * , - / , 6*" + ! " /" 6 " , )" " ,
" + () / /" "' ( , 6 + ( () 6*" " () -" " 5.1.4-4 5.1.4-5).

1 117
5.1.4-4: -
+$ !
6*" 1:500 1:1000 1:2000 1:2500
1:1000 1:2000 1:2500 1:5000
5.1.4-5: -
+( $ 1:500 1:1000 1:2000 1:2500 1:5000 1:10000
+ () / 0.5 m 1.0 m 2.0 m 2.5 m 5.0 m 10.0 m
#' & ( ! '$ &

6+ / * /,)" 6 0 / /" " 0 , , : 8 , - , 6 . + 8,
) )" " . !, () 0, , " (, +" ', *" ) " +". # )" " ,
(" ( , : /, (" +" ( ") . X,Y,Z ) 0 . , 6 /" ( ,! *
' * / * , 9) (, () , ), " /", () ), 9, ( ") " ,6 " ) , "
+ 9 )" " ( +, / . (" + 9 * )"* ) 0 " () , / + 9 . ,! 6 0 /
+ " () +: . +( 6 ( / /" ( , ' * '/ ( ) )")" ") , ! ) /
' * ( )") ,*"() /" ! ' 0 " ' *". , (+ ("- - 6
)" " !" " 9, (" ) "- ! . ) )" " / (" /" ) / 0,+ /,.
! ) * " )" " ( ) (, !" " ! 6 + ( , (* ( ) ) 0 /

' * + , " + , * " , (0")+ ,! + ) ,! + ). 9) () /"
() * 6- )" + ), . / , ( , ( *" * + ,
() /" + 6- !,() " * " " ) 0 . /8"* ( ,0 /,, *
/" ) + 8 - 6", + 9 (" + ) ) ) + 6 ( +, 0"! (" "' 9,
!,() *") , : 8 ) )" " , , ( , ( 6 .)"+ * "*" . /"
- 6 " , ,6 *" , )" . ', / , * !, " /" " ) ' " , -
! + -,.+ " ! .
" -, , . /" ) 6 " ) + ,, -, , ( () 6,

)" " ), * / * , ( " (" +" ()+" () /" " , ()+ " "
( 0 *, # ' ) ! *") /( * *") * "*" . " 8" ), . /
( +, + 9 (" )" / * , + , + ,! " * " " "9") " ) 0 .
+ , ("!*" ) ), . / (" !" " 9, , ,) (+ " " /", 0"! ("
6*"7, " / +"6,/, , /, /" .+ ( .
# 6 ! ) . ) + ()" (" )6+. CAD (computer aided drafting)

( ()"* / (" * ()" 6 , : 8" ) /, ( *") /( .
) ). # *, , CAD ( ()"* (" - / /, *") /( ) ! '( (
() /" . ) (" , ( * )" " ( . ) " /, + + . - +" "
( ()"* - ( ()"* 6 6 , ) , + * (* ( ,, * /, - ) , () 8, )"! 9,
,!" 6+ " ) 9) (, " -( * , ( )" )( ( * .
5.1.5. $ ' $& &% $( , & '(
# () ' * ( ()"* " () +: 6 6 / ( 9 ( " ) 6 0"8

( 6 /" 0 * )" () * (, $, $
. K ()" (" * "9 + 8 6 . ) 0 .
- "* , * , , "(, 9"8 , 6 /, * " ( " - "*"
6 ( + " () * * . " ( + "*" / . ( ' / () .
( ()"* 6 /" ( 5.1.5-1. # () ' * ( ()"* " () +: /,

1 118
/ 9) / ( ,0 / " ' * . ( ()"* . " ! '( ' * ( ()"* (,
( , () . ' * . ( ()"* , ' ,( . ) " !" ! '( !
() .
# "*" , ) 8" "8" ( " /" * (, ( 8" ) " )" " ,

( ), " /", 6 "* ", !" *") /( - ( - " " . )" *" "
, (+" " . " ( /" 6 - ,, 6, , +: 8" * . ( +
6 CAD /" , ) *" 9) , 6 6 , CAD * !, ,/" * , /,
" () * () * * , * !, () () +: 8 6 . , )
+ 9"8 6 .
" ! '( ' *

( ()"*
' * ( ()"* " *(

6"*: 9), ' * ( ()"*
' * ( ()"* "

( ) () )
' * ( ()"* ' * ( ()"*

. "(, ( ' () , ), . -/" )
5.1.5-1: ) " " (Anderson and Mikhail,

1998)
5.1.6. + +$ ! ' #$ % / $ ' &)
6 ) ! '( . ) + ( +, ) "*" 6+ (" 6( " " "

' 6":
# /" ) + 8" " . . + " "*" ) * ( / ;
6- ) ! '( " /" /", ) ! ( ()"* , ),* 6*" ";
6- ( / 6 6, 6 .)"+ , * !, () 6 ( .;
" " ( 8" ( / , 6 + ( () 6*" ";
# 6 + , + ! + + !( / ;
" 8" 6 + ) ! '( ! ( / ;
6- ' * ) 6 .
5.1.7. ( &' !$0 * $ ' &)
" " , ) * (" 6,/, ( " " " "*" ) (Anderson and Mikhail, 1998):
# /" /" " *" / / ( , " "'" " ) + " .
,! + ;

1 119
' 0 6*" ) 6*" )" ( );
"!" :,0 ( ( " ' 0 * ( *- * ;
6 + )";
# ) )" + , (" + () / ) ), . / ( 6 . ( );
# ) !" ")( * ),*,;
# ) ) * ( ()"*, /" / ;
),* 6 " )" ),* 8" " , ";
# ) 6+ , ) ) . ) ( 6*" / /" 9 "
* * /";
/ () )" "! " * (), )" ) /" /, ) + ;
# 6! 7" -/" ) !" ! '( ! () .
( * ( + ., !" " . ' * / , /" "0 ) () ( * + * ( "

( " " " (Anderson and Mikhail, 1998):
, , (+ " ! 0 " /";
" ,! (+ " ! 0 " /" ,! "(" +" ! 0 " /";
# / (" , (, ) " (";
/"+" 6"*: 9 . " ;
# / + (), (+ " () - 6 + " ) ") 0 "( , * "'" " ) .
) 0 * " ";
# / 6 + (+ ! ,) , " " , (": ( .;
# ) " + ( * (" ;
# ) , ) , ( ! + ( 9)+ ( ( 6 *,) *) , *
! 0 . / + 9 * " ;
# ) ( + 9 " ! ,) ;
/ " " /" ) ) ,) )" ( ).
5.1.8. ' &! $! ' 1& ' ' #$ % / $ ' !' & - (
) ) 0 () ) ( (, " ( ) "' ( , +" (" () /" *

+ * , ,()+ * () +: /, ( * " ,( + / , "7,/, + )") - /" .
' * / 8 . + ! 6 + 8 . 6 ) ! 6 ! , " , 6" , ") :", , ) " ("
" 0 ) () / (" *"8,/, , /" ) ! '( / 6+ /" / .
6"* : .
/" "0 . 6 ) / ) 0 () , 0 (National

Map Accuracy Standards - NMAS) 6 .)"+ ) * (( " 8 . ( ) . 6*" ,
1:20000 ( ) / *) " (*" - ) + 9" 10% " 6 (/ ( , - ) "' ( . ) 0 27
0 / ! "9 6 ( + 9" 0.8 mm , 6*" )". $ ) (" ) 0" +" ) " ) 0 () ,
NMAS 6 .)"+ " (*" - ) + 9" 10% ) 0 0 / ! "9 + ( " " 6 6 (
)" + ), " /".
-6 * NMAS () (, *" : + , 6*" . + , "

"( " ) + . *" 0 . () ), / ( ,9)+ ! 7"+ ( . "8" *" ", ,9)+
"8" ' ) ! *") /" : ( " ")" /" - ASPRS, * )") 6 () "
! ) . ) ! '( . ) , +"6 * )") 6 !" ! '( " ) " ) .) ) 7" (,
" (+ /" () " () -" 5.1.8-1). +" " * ) -" * , . 6 ) ) 0 () /"
6 " " ( " 8" ! "9 " (KSG - s) N(X) ( E(Y) ) ) 0 ". "
27
- "' ( * ) 0 * (* ) /, (" + : +" ) 0 " /" (" /" () + " ) ' ,/, 6"*: , )/.
/" (" * !, ) ) , ( ) 0 9 , 0.25 **. *" , 6 6*" 1:25000, . 6 )
) " / 6 ( 20.0 *.

1 120
( " 8" + ) " ! "9 " "' ( /" /" + ) " ( " 8" + ) " ! "9 "
(SKG), (
(x X ) 2
SKG x = s x =
2
n , (5.1.8-1)
( y Y ) 2
SKG y = s 2y =
n
! " (,: x y *" " " )" ( )") , X Y 6 )" + " () ( /+" + ) /"
,( + ) 0 " + " () ), /" n , , - / ) 0 / (" )"() . 7",
+" ) " ) 0 () + ! 0"8" (" * /, () ) ( * " ) 0 " /" (" / (
,6 * !, " ) ' + ) . 0 "+ " () +" ) " ) 0 () "' ( " (,
1/3 )" + ), " /", 6 - "' ( " ) 0 ", ( 1/6 6 )".
"() 8" ) 0 () ) + * " (" 6+ 9 ) " 0 . ASPRS

() ) 0 () " ,0,/, (" ) 0 () +" . + ,! . ) ! '( .
) + 9 /* 8" 20 ) 0 , / . /" 20% ) 0 , (+ * + )
() )", *"7,( - * () / 8, /* 8" 10% , (, , , / ! "
() )". " " , () ( " ) 0 6 )"() 8" " ) "- ( " ' )
, 6*" . + ( " / . "8" ( . + . ) + * ( ,0 /"+ * ,
) " ) 0 " ) "- ) " , ! " (" ! + /, " )" "( ) " () , ), " 6",
(" + ) . )" ) / ! ) + " /,. " " ( *" "8 * "
) ) 0 6 ) , ) 0 () ) " 6,/, (" , ( , ( () * /
+ " 6 ,( () +: 8" + 8" ) 0 * )"* ) 0 " (!" ")( ") ( +" (FGCS, 1984
1994).
5.1.8-1:
" 1.
( & )$ !& ' 1&
$ & $ !- $ +( $
) !$ '& #$ . $'
$! & ' ' 1
(m)
0.0125 1:50
0.025 1:100
0.050 1:20028
0.125 1:500
0.25 1:1000
0.50 1:2000
1.00 1:4000
1.25 1:5000
2.50 1:10000
5.00 1:20000
" " ( +" *") /( " ) 0 () ) + * " (" 6 + ) *" *
'" " / " # *") " *" "8 . + ( ( * ! " ,, * 9 "8 # ) "-
* ) , + , ) 0 () * " !" .
,! 0 +" ' /" ) 0 () ) /"()" , "7"8"* ( / ) ( ) *

()" )" ) /" , , / / 6*" .
28
# ) 0 "! " " ' ) ! *") /( . *") + , . 6*" !" " ( . ( 0 *
*") * .

1 121
5.1.9. ' &! $! $ +( & ! # ' & / !'
6+ / * /,)" ( 6 ( + . ( ()"* 6 ) 8" ,) 0" ' * )" 0

"! () /" () . ) . * ) (, 0"() ( " ' ( ')+" ( *
"9"8 * 6+ 7 0 0, . / ) , ! 6 / ' * ) ) ,
(), (, () ! () 6 + . - ! (+ ! ,! ! (,()+ ) 9),, ' * ) " .
CAD ( ()"* 6 ) 8" () (, de facto () . *" , ASCII DXF ' * )"
'/ + () utodesk. Autocad ! * + +" ,! . ( ')+" ( . ( ()"*
, " ("- " /" 6 +" 6 /, 6 DXF , (+ /" "9"8". # " +" 6 / "
/" - " "6, ) )", ) ) ()+ 6 0 / " - "*" ( * . DXF ' * ) ("
() * , CAD ! ' .
" * /" + ' * ) 6 6*" , ) -, , () 6 + . 5 " (" 6 0 /

(" 6+ /,, / (" ) * * 0 " 0"() (" , )" ),
" 6 /, *" * - # . # - .
# # ) "- " () +: + 6 ) ,, () " " , " , + , /"! "
! 6 /" )". ! /" *"7,( - *, ) , +: ) ()+ ) () "
) ". 6 () 6 6*" , ! ) . () . ) 6 # # ,
" () (, & % .
5.1.10. ! & ') , !' : &)
# " () +" ( " ") : 6,/" (" "! " / ) ) () ( " 9) ".
+ ) ( ()"* (" " / * " * ( X - ( *, () / 8,
22.5 km 12 / * " * ( Y - ( *, () / 8, 15 km " +".
" (" 6 0 + /, +" * ( + * -" " " F6 X - (" G L
() 0 X - (". ) * ( ()"*, - / 7 )" (, +" " N (" " -
,+ + ) ( ()"*. " + (" ,*" 9, 0"+ /8"! /,! ) !
( ()"* ("+" , - /"+ * 1 :". ) ( ()"* - / 6 * 38 " + ,
7. ) ( ()"* * 42 " . - /" + ,! ( *" 6 / 22.5 km x 15 km)
" () +: /, ) ! *") /( " (" /" (( 5.1.3-1) " () +: /, ( +, 6 " "
() +" + ( " ") : . ! *") /( (" /" (" 6 0 + /, 9) * *
6 *. 9) 6 (" ( () / - / ) ! ( ()"* , 6 " " - / "
( *" 7B40), " 6 " (, "' ( " 6 + * / (, ) ,
" .
41
40
39
5.1.10-1:

1 122
! & ') & $ +( $ 1:5000
# " () +" + 6*" " 1:5000 + 9 (" , + ,) ! *") /( " (" /" )
9) (" /" ) ! *") /( (" / " 10 ( + , Y (") 5 " +
( + , X (").
( () + /" 450 mm x 600 mm. () + (" ,*" 9, - /"+ * 1 50,

" + * ( "+ , "( 0"+ /8"! ("+" -6 ! () .
() + (" 6 0 + /, 9) * 6 * / (" ( () / 6 ") ! *") /( " (" /"

" !- / () , + , ) ! *") /( " (" /" * 6 * / (" ( () /
6 + ) ! *") /( " (" /" " !- / , + ,) ! *") /( " (" /" ((
5.1.10-2).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 O.o.: 7E 29 - 15
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 L.o.: Mladenovac - 15
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
5.1.10-2: 1:5000
! & ') & $ +( $ 1:2500

# " () +" + 6*" " 1:2500 + 9 (" , + ,) ! *") /( " (" /" )
9) (" /" ) ! *") /( (" / " 10 ( + , Y (") 10 " +
( + , X (").
( () + /" 900 mm x 600 mm. () + (" ,*" 9, - /"+ * 1 100,

" + * ( "+ , "( 0"+ /8"! ("+" -6 ! () . () + (" 6 0 + /,
9) * 6 * / (" ( () / 6 ") ! *") /( " (" /" " !- / () ,
+ , ) ! *") /( " (" /" * 6 * / (" ( () / 6 +
) ! *") /( " (" /" " !- / , + ,) ! *") /( " (" /" (( 5.1.10-3).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 O.o.: 7E 29 - 66
L.o.: Mladenovac - 66
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 10
5.1.10 -3: 0
1:2500
! & ') & $ +( $ 1:2000

# " () +" + 6*" " 1:2000 + 9 (" , + , ) ! *") /( " (" /" )
9) (" /" ) ! *") /( (" / " 15 " + " + , Y - (" 15
" + " + , X - (". ( () + /" 750 mm x 500 mm. () + ("

1 123
,*" 9, - /"+ * 1 225, " + * ( "+ , "( 0"+ /8"! ("+" -
6 ! () . () + (" 6 0 + /, 9) * 6 * / (" ( () / 6 "
) ! *") /( " (" /" " ! - / () , + , ) ! *") /( " (" /"
* 6 * / (" ( () / 6 + ) ! *") /( " (" /" " ! - / ,
+ ,) ! *") /( " (" /" (( 5.1.10-4).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75
76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105
106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135
136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150
151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165
166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180
181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195
196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210
211 212 213 214 215 221 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225
5.1.10-4: 1:2000 O.o.: 7E 29 - 188
L.o.: Mladenovac - 188
! & ' ) $ +( $ 1:1000

( +, 6 " , () +" 6*" " 1:1000 0 " () + 6*" " 1:5000, )
9) (" ( / /, + () 6*" " 1:5000 6 () ! " , ) 6 () ( " * - /"*
() 0 () / ( - /. /" () + 6*" " 1:5000 " " (" 5 " +
+ , Y - (" 5 " + + , X - (". ( () + /" 900 mm x 600
mm. () + (" ,*" 9, - /"+ * 1 25, " + * ( "+ , "( 0"+ /8"!
("+" -6 ! () . () + (" 6 0 + /, 9) * 6 * / (" ( () / 6 "
) ! *") /( " (" /", " . - /"+ () + 6*" " 1:5000 " ! - / () ,
+ , + ( /" () 6*" " 1:5000 * 6 * / (" ( () / 6 +
) ! *") /( " (" /", " . - /"+ () + 6*" " 1:5000 " ! - / ()
6*" " 1:1000 (( 5.1.10-5).
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 O.o.: 7E 29 - 16 - 9
11 12 13 14 15 L.o.: Mladenovac - 16 - 9
16 17 18 19 20
O.o.: 7E 29 - 15,16 - 18
21 22 23 24 25 L.o.: Mladenovac - 15,16 - 18
5.1.10-5: 1:1000

1 124
! & ') & $ +( $ 1:500
( +, 6 " , () +" 6*" " 1:500 0 " () + 6*" " 1:1000, )
9) (" () " 2 " + , Y - (" 2 " + , X - (". ( ()
+ /" 900 mm x 600 mm. () + (" 6 0 + /, ( + * -" " " ( "+ , "( 0"+
/8"! ("+" -6 ! () .
() + (" 6 0 + /, 9) * 6 * / (" ( () / 9)" 6 " () 6*" " 1:1000

6 " () 6*" " 1:500 * 6 * / (" ( () / " 6 " ()
6*" " 1:1000 6 " () 1:500 ( ,b,c d) (( 5.1.10-6).
a b O.o.: 7E 29 - 15,16 - 18 - c
L.o.: Mladenovac 15,16 - 18 - c
c d
5.1.10-6: 1:500
"( $ - ') &)

() + + ,*" 9, (" , + , ' ' $ .' & " + * , 6"
/8"! ("+" -6 ! () , ) (" , + * " , ,*" 9, ( "+ , "( , , ,! * (
"( , "+ ) 6*" 0 ( " 8"! " . (" , /" / ) () ( / 9)
- +: "*" + 6 7,/, , + 9" 6*" , () + + (" ,*" 9,, "*
"). * + ,, 6" /( ) /" 6*" " , / * 6*" * . (" 6
+ + 9 , 6 0 ) * + "*" ( * " * 6 0 ) * 6*" * , () +
+ (" ,*" 9, , ( , ( "). * () + * , ) , )"), "* " ( " ,
8 . +" 6 ".
5.1.10-7:
! & , !':
" ") : 6 7,/, (" + )") * ) "* , / /" " :" ) " ,
!,. # - 6*" ( ") : /" + , () 6*" + . "
") : (" * !, 6 7 + ) , + ,) , / / 6*" 6*" " + ") : (
+" * !,() *. *" 6 /" ( ") : (, 50 cm x 35 cm. ( () ( ") : 6
+" 6*" " 1:2000 6 ( 37.5 cm x 25.0 cm, 6 +" 6*" 1:500, 1:1000,
1:2500 1:5000 6 ( 450 mm x 300 mm. " () * "- ) ":" 2, 4, 8

1 125
16 ( ") : . + ( ! () ( ") : 6+ 0 (" +" * / *
"-: " 0.5 mm. ,) ( ! () ( ) + (" + ) ) * " ,
+" * ) 0 () * / * "-: " 0.2 mm, ( () * + ) 50 mm (6 (
() ( 450 mm x 300 mm.) 25 mm (6 ( () ( 375 mm x 250 mm).
" ") : 6 ( * 8" ) ! * * *") *( ":

( : (,
) , * " ,,
) 0 " !" ")( " ( +",
)" " ) " (+ . ! ) ! '( . -/" ) / (" ( * /, ) "
( ! )" .
"( 8 * ! ( " ( , " 6 +"6 + 8" ") : ( (,(" * ( * . "

") : (" ,*" 9, , + , () (-"6 -6 ( " ") : "),
" + * 6" /8"! ("+" -6 ! " , ( "+ "( . /"+
( 9, (" , + , 6 * . - / , (" 9" " - /( " , + , () ,
, *" , " - / () , + , ) () ( " 9) ". # 6 + 9") , + (+"
( " - / /, +", "+ " /( " - /"+". # 9) (" (+" ( " "7 /, (), *
- /"+ * ( , + , (+ ! () , 6 ) * "7 /, (), * - /"+ *
+ , - / /, "+ " /( " - /"+" 1 :".
(( ") : ( :
6 + " ,- - / ,
6 + ( , 9) " 9) ",
6 + ) () ( ! ( "6 ,
6 + ) () ( " 9) ",
- , 6*" , ( ",
- /( " ") : ,
+"6, ( (,(" *( * ") : ,
9"* )( 6 / ( ", + , .
+ ( ) + 8 ( ( + 8 ( * ") : * /, - ) , ( ! ( () ( " - *
. . " " , , ), -/" ) * /, (" ( ) + ) *
),9"*. # ( , + (" , (,/, ( * ") : ) / 0 9) (" *
),9"* , + , " " , (,/" 0") ( + "6 *" 6 + ( + 8"! +
" - / 6 1 , ( + 9 "8
" ") () ( . 12) ( + ( *( + - / 5 mm.
"& , !' :
" 6"*: 9) / (" " * " 6 ) ( (+ * ") : * ( ") : , , + ,/" ("
:,- 0 () * ),9"* 6,/" , , / / 6*" , ( /( ") : . "6 6*"7,
( " ") : , ( "( " ") : ()+ ,/" (" ) 9) (" ( ") : , , + "
" :,- 0 () * ),9"* , (,/" - / ( ,0 / , - , - / , ( " ( " ") : ,
*" ,, , ( / ( ") : (" , (,/" - / ( ,0 / , - / , - / ( "
") : , *" ,( /" /" ",6") ") :. , ( "( " ") : (, () . *" 6 /
( " ") : . , ( "( " ") : - / /, "+ " /( " - /"+" " * , () + ,
( " 8"! ( 9 " ! "+ " /( ! - / ( ". ( , ( .( ") : () /"
( ") : (" ( " , (,/" 6 + " , ( ( ") : ".

1 126
5.1.10-8:
5.2.
! '( "*" 6,*"+ "7 + 8" / . +"9) 0 . -/" )

6"*: / + 9 . -/" ) ( * 8 * !, (" 6 ) , 6*" ,( + * 6 *.
( * /,, ) ! '( "*" 6,*"+ "' ( 8" + ( ( " * " )"
( *:" . ") : .
( ") ! '( " + 9 * !, - ) )" 6 ":

6 . ( * ,
) * ,
"0 *
, * ' * .
! '( "*" (" 6+ :

( ) ! *") ),
( # , (" ( ( * 8 )
.
"6, ) ) ) ! '( ! "*" /"(, ( ).

# "*" * 8"! - * (" 0"() 6+ " *" * " " ) ( . () ,*" ) 9) (,
) ) " () ". 2 6 ) (X,Y) +" ) (H) / ) 0 "7,/, (" /" *
+ 6 8"* 0"*, (" (+ / ) 0 , , ,/, " ,! )" () 0 ( (
( .) / (, 6 0 / 6 6 ,) ! '( ! .
5.2.1. &$ - $ ( $
6- *") " ) ! '( ! "*" 6 + ( : 1) ( ), 2)

, 3) 4) " ( " ).

1 127
( & &
6 + ( () 6 .)"+ ! + ") : () *" " , + 9 (" 6- " + ) "
*") " "*" . $ ) (, 6 .)"+ ) 0 () +" , ) " *") " ( * 8 - ) ( " /"
6 .)"+ /" - ,) . *", 6 .)"+ ) 0 () /" ) + 8 " " ( - / " ( !, (,
+" 6 .)"+ 6 , "7"8"* () 6 ) "-" ), 6* " " /", ( .
1 & '$ '$ *

# " 6 () "' ( 8 *"7,( - . / " "*" ) () 9" /" () ,
/" )" ) / "*" * 8 , ( +" "* () , 6 ) /" )" " () + ( ()" "
+ )") " ) + . / ) 0 . ! 0 /" "*" 9 "* () ,,
("- , 8, ) "- (+") ) + )"), * )"* ) 0 " ( +" (* " " ) . ) 0 ).
+( $ &
"9 " )" " ( . *" "8 ) 0 () 6 8 6 ) / 6*" * /, - )
6 0 / * 8" ! "9 ) 8 . # ) 0 (" ,6 * 8 . + ( * - ) 1:3.
98 ( , ("- "8" ( , 6 .)"+ "! () /, ) , ! ) * - ,-
- 0 ,+ , ) ) 0 . 6) . 6 ! , + )" , ! ) * - , * !,
(" ) ) , * 8" + 9", "6 + ( 6*" ". +" * !, () (, " 6 )"
( * CAD / . + , ) *" (" * * ) ,+ , +" 0 " .
( / ,) )" () , ( *- ( . (" " *"8 /, ,) () . " "*" ) , 6 + ( ()
6*" ". ) ) 0 () "8" ( . + , !" " ) /, -
"' ( ) ( / ) "- - ) , 6*" ( )") , (, 8"! +
) 0 /, ,,! * 0.5 mm. 6 0 ,6 " . , ) 0 () ") :
2.5 m, + : /" 6*" " 1:5000. $ ) (" ) 0" ) 0 () + ( , () ) 0 ()
!" " 6 .)"+ /, ) 0 () )" + . + ( * - ) ,! * + "
)" + ), . / . *", , (" 6 .)"+ + ( ( ) 0 () 0.25 m,
)" + ), " /" (" + () / ) " (*" - ) +" 0.5 m. 7", , ( ,(
6 ) * 6*" * ,6 + ( " + ") : () ( / .
6- 6*" " 6 + ( :
* ,
( ),
,
,
,
" .
5.2.2. ' ): - ( ' ( ' 1 &) $ ( $
)"* ) 0 , ( +, ) ! '( ! "*" 0 * " ) .) 0 / * "- ) :

" ,
.
" " ) .) 0 "' 9, ) ( ()"* " () +: /, " ( " , ( +,
6 ( * 8" ) 0 ") : . 6 + ( () !,() " ) . ) 0 " * " "
"'" " ) . ) 0 , * " ) 0 6+ /" 6 ) "-" ) ! '( ! "*" /
)" ) / * "- ) :
( * ),
((" , ).

1 128
3 $ + &' & ($ 0 &'$ & /' 1
2 6 ) * " ) . ) 0 * " - ) ,( () +:" ( " " * *") * : 1)
!, 2) , 3) , 4) 5)
.
# )". ! / (() ) 0 - 6 () ) 0 *") ) ! *") / ( ) ) *

() * , /0"9 " (" *"8,/, 6+ / 8, * . (" , . ) 0
" ( " " ( +" ) ! '( ! "*" , ("- )" ) / +" " + 9 ". 5
* 8 * )") * ,, - *( " * ! " /"* ( ! /" ! 0" , +" " "
*") " (" () 0"() ()".
" ' /" () *" " +" " . *") "' ( (, ( *

" ,- 0 ! !" ")( ! 6 + " * 0 (, ( , ! +:, 4.2.
"7 + 8" . 6 ) ! / ) . ) 0 ' ) ! *") /( * *") *

*"8,/" (" ( * 6 " ) ( ) ! 6*" +" . " + )" ) /". ( +
* " * " ( .) 0 " ( " ( + 6 8 ' ) ! *") /( !
"*" "' 9" (" *" * # )". ! /" ( 0 . *") 6 8 .
(" # /"* ()" , + ,, - / ) .) 0 (" 6 0 / (* 8,/".
$' & ($ 0 &'$ & /' 1

" ) * " ) .) 0 ( " " ) )" ) / "*" 6+ / (" ( :"*: 1)
2)
3) " # " .
" ) * " ) .) 0 " 6,/" (" ( + *

)" " , * 8 / )" ) / ) ( - " ,: () *
)" " ,). +" ) 0 " +" ) " ) " * " " * /, - ) +"6 " ( ) 0 * ( " " * )
+" ) ! ),* . " ' /" 6 " 6 /, !" *") /( ! +" * "' ( " (,
, + * , ,)()+ * /" (, , " () . )" ( " ' /" (" * !,
"7" " *" " " ( ) ) , 6 + ( () : , ,
.
) -" 5.2.2-1 )" (, ( " ' /" ) 0 () ) 0 +" ) " ( +" ) ! '( !
"*" "* FGDC. 8" + " () * ( * " 6+ :" " ! "9 " 6 )+ 8 !
( 4, ) -" 5.2.2-1) 6 + ( " ( ) $
*"8,/, (" + . )" " 0 / " + () /" +" 0.5 m )" " *
/ . /" " . " ) ! - )" " , ( ! " (" 6! 8 , *" ,
6 /", " . ( ()"* , ( . 9" + " () * ( * " 6+ :" " ! "9 "
6 )+ 8 ! (" ()" , ( ,0 /"+ * + ( ") 0 ( , " /" () , /
), . / " + () 0.5 m 5 m.
-" 5.2.2-1: !
(FGDC,1997)
6*" ) " , ( * 6+ :"
- )" * " " ! (km) ! "9 6 )+ 8 (mm)
" 8 ( + 2 - 30 12-72 km
, ( 28 24-120 km
, ( + 28 12-24 km
, ( 1-5 12-24 km

1 129
(" )" ) / "*" 6 + : - / ),*( . ) 0 ( +, / . ("

* " ,( () + ) * )"* ) 0 ( * " + ) + 9 !" ) / )" ) / ,) ("
# " ( " + ( " * !, () ) * "7 + 8 + ( ) 0
) ! '( ! "*" , * +" ) * ),*, (+ " -, *" #
)". ! /" , "*" , " ") () , 2002). "- * ) , + , ) 0 () " ( .
+ ( ( . 6 - /" . # *" "8 * 6 ( 3 cm 5 cm (FGDC,1989).
3 $ + &' & ) $' & ($ 0 &'$ & /' 1 +3 #& /) )

2 6 ) " +" ) "* " " ) .) 0 * !, (" -/" ) ,3 ! ( *
+ ,. 3 ! ( + /0"9 " (" () "*" ( " 8 . , 6*" .
+ .# 8, ) "- ) ) ! *") /( * 0 , "7 + 8 + ( ( . 6
/ * - ) - () , , (, () " ,! 0 ", " . /" ,6") , -6 "' /,
6 +:" ().
'" " / GPS ,) * )( /" 3 6 /". GPS "*" 6 + : + ) 0 ()

. 6 ) " +" ) " ( +" ) ! '( ! "*" , ,( + * /" + 9 "*" ,
+ ( ( * (* ( , " + ) " "6" ) + ) 0 * 0 /" (, ( ,) " + ( " 6 )".
29
5.2.3. !$0 * & 1 & & ( - ' 1 !' :
* 8" " "*" ) !" ! '( ! () () 0 ") : ) * 6+ 7"8

) ! '( ! "*" -,.+ ) ( * 8" ( ,1996):
)" 6 +/ .! 9 "8 6"*: 9) ( " , , ), ( .);

+"!") /";
), 6! ,! . -"/" ) +" ( ., , ), ., ( - / .,
+ " . .;
: + . " + + + ,
;
":"' ;
() . + : + . /" 0 . -/" ) .
+ ") : () ( * 8 ! 0 . / , -/" ) , + ) ! ' /" ,( +:" /"

6*" * 6 " ) () ( . ) () ( -) ! '( . + . # *
( * 8 *"8,/, (" ( " " 9) + :
# +" /" (" ( * /, ("0 * / " (*"/, - ) , 500 m;
+" /" (" 6 *"8,/, + * 6 *:" * / * ) +"
/" ! " " (), /, + 9" 0,2 mm x r (r /" *" 6*" " ) 8 ).
6,6") (, 6 )" !" *") /( " ( "( , ," ( .) 6 /" (" ,6 *
+ : - /) 0 (" * !, () , ( ) .
-/" ) / (" 6- ! (+ / . * . *" 6 / ) /, ,( + * 6 * ( * /, ("
/" *) 0 *,( " -/" ) .
-/" ) ( ") : ) , 0.5 mm x r ( ,), ) , / , , ( ,6 ) .)
/ (" , 6,/, /" * / * ,6 ( ) ! '( 6 , / "
" () +: /, ! " 6 0 ) . ( + 6"*: 9),, ( * /, (" (
/" * / * ,6") * ( " -/" ) .
# * ( * 8 ") : + 9 (" *" "8" ' ) + "0 . *" 8
+ ,,. 6 ) / + . ) /" () / 8" 6*"7, +" (,(" " ") : "
29
)" / /" ",6") 6 () , /" 6 , : 8" ) " ") () * , 1996.

1 130
) 0 "! 0 " /", ), " 6! " ), " ,! ! ! 7"+ ( ! -/" ) .
# "0 *" 8" /" () / 8" 6*"7, +" "(,(" " ") : " ) 0 " ! 0 .
/ , ), " 6! " ,! ! ! 7"+ ( ! -/" ) , () / 8" -
/" ,!" ") : " ) 0 " " ( " ( *:" ". / () * . )" "
' ) + "0 *" 8 (" * !, *" ) ( , 6 8 . +, " , /,
"7,/" (" + ( ( 6 /8 . ) 0 . 6*" " ' ) +
"0 *" 8 (" ( * ") : 6 0 + /, * * ( + * " ".
& ( - #$ & ,
" 9 "8 6"*: 9) ( * /, (" ( !" ")( " ( +" 6 ( * 8" ") :
( ") : /" ( * 8, ! ) () ( . 9) ! " ! +:" 6).
& ( - +#$ !
# * ( * 8 6! *"8,/, (" ( " " 9) + :
! " (" ( * /, ), * / * ,( /* 8" ) ) 0 ";
# * "9 ' /" ( * 8 *" " (" (+ ' ) + 6! .
/" " 6! " 6! 6 (),- + * ( * /, (" (),- +
) ! /" / ), " /" 6! " 6"*: 9)".
(), " " + 6! " , (, ( +,, / " " " (),- + * "
( * /, (" " 6,/, , (, 6 ! ,) + 9" 0") *") /"
() / 8" ) ! " /" /" ) ! " ( +" 6! " * 8" + *") .
, " ()" " ", )" (" , 6 , ,*" ( * /, (" (, * *" 6 /" +" "
2 mm x r.
" ( * /, (" 6! " ( - ! * )" / 9) (, - ", 9 8 ,
(+ 8 , * 8 + : ,. 8 , ( / (, )"*": * 0+ () !
* )" / ( .
&( - ' /#$ 8 ) & / * '

() ! 7"+ ( -/" ) (" ( * /, ( " " 0 :
# ), * / * ,( + : * - /"* ) 0 6 8 . + " () +: 8"
+ * ;
# * "9 ' /" ( * 8 *" " (" (+ ' ) + ;
- / -/" ) (" ( * /, , 6 + ( () 6*" " ) 8 (* !, ()
" () +: 8 - ( . / (0,2 mm x r)) ( ( " " * " "*" ) * : -" + "
,* , 8 + " ( , ! 8 + " ,(" , -" + "
)" "! / , *"() " 6 6 ( , ,(" ;
* 8" ( - / . -/" ) (" 6+ "0 * ' * / ("
,6 * /,:
- + * " + * ( () ) * * +" ")" ) 8 . +
() / 8" " -, " +" " 5 cm x r,
- , + * , 0") ,, ( " /, + ", ( ) * *"7,( -
() / 8" + (,(" ' " -, " +" " 5 cm x r,
- (+ * *"() * ! " (" *"8 ! - +" ")".
" "6 (" " +" " ! , " . * () +, ( * /, :
- ( + ,!", ( * 8, "0 . ' ,
- ("* ' , ( ! , *") ( ." ) *") ( *"8", ) - " 6
-" " + 8" ,( , (),- + 6 (+"):"8", )" "! '( (),- + . ("
( * /, /" * ) 0 *, " () +: /, ! + /, * ) ! '( *
6 *,
- + !" (" ( * /, ( +" ) 0 " /"+ * , ( + (" ,
- ") . 6 ( * /, (" (" ,
- () 0 " 6! ", * ! , ", "6" + , ( ") 0 ( " , "

1 131
( * /, (" 6! ",
- " ( * (" ( * ( + )"*": , +" . " ( *
(" )"*": (),- + / (" + , () , /, 6 0 + /,
) "* + ,
- "9 0 . 6 ( (" , ( * /, (" ( 6 ()" " 9)
) () 6+ 0 6"* . ,
- " 6 6 ( " "6 0 " ,!" ( * /, (" "* + () -/" )
(* (), ), " .).
" (" ( * /, "0 * ' * / (, , + ( + ,, ".
() / 8" 6*"7, ' " (*" - ) +" " 5 cm x r. - +"6 (" ,6 * /,
0") ,, , ( " /, + "( . 6 ) " +" ) ")
( ( * . # "0 ' , " "7,/, (" ( /* 8" ) ) 0 "
/ . (, +" /8" ) 0 " ' , ) " /" ( " + 6 , ( (
/* 8" 5 ) 0 () /" + + 6 ;
*+ /( " ,!" (" ( * /, " "6 0 ", *" (" , (,/" 9
(" ;
0 (" ( * /, " ) (),- + , + () , . (),- + ( "
6*"7, + (),- ;
+ " ,6 ( - / " (" ( * + ( " 8" + , 6 *" " 1:500
1:1000 (" ( * (+ + (" ,*" 6*"7, + ( *:" ;
* () + (" ( * /, )" () 0 " ) 0 " - . (),- + ,
9 * () (" , (,/" ( ") : . "0 (),- + (" *" " (
( + * () ;
/ , ) (" ( * /, * () + ;
,() ( * () + 5m , "), /" )+ * 8 1 m, ( * ("
( * ( + , )+ " 1 m ( * /, (" )" () 0 " ) 0 ".
), " (" ( * " ,(" () / , +" ) ! 8 + "
6 ) . " () / " ,(" , "! ), " " ) , 6 , +" ) ,
()" ,, ) (" 8"! + * , 6, ( * ) , ( - / ! -/" ) , "0 *
' ,.
# 6"* -/" ) 9) (, 6"* " ! ", ( 9) , 6"* "9 0
6 , 6"* " " "6 0 " *") () ", ), " , ( + " () /"
,! ! 7"+ ( -/" ) ( * /, (" , ,) 98 * ), * () / (
!" ")( " ( +" / (" ( " / 6+ / , ,) 98 () ) . -/" ) .
# * ( * 8 *"8,/, (" (+ ( * 8 ") : 6!
,! . ! 7"+ ( . -/" ) + 9 6"*:". "-: " 6 + (" "7,/,
*" "8"* (" ",6 * /, 6 /" ) " ,*" ) /". # 6"* *
-/" ) * (" +"6,/, 6 " , / / (" 6 ! + , 6 6"* ! -/" ) .
8" ") : (" + 9 , ( *( * , ( ,0 /"+ (" ,*" 9,
") * . ,() /( , ( )( , + + " , *, ,! -/" )
( * /, (" ( ( +" 6 ( * 8" ") : , 6 + ( () 8 . + .
)" () , ), * / * , ' * ,) ! '( * ") : * ,
( + : * - /"* ") : . ) 0 ) "- . 6 8 . + 6 + 8" "*
! '( * :,0,.
&( - ) !
# + * (" 6,*"+ /, 6+ , ) , " ", /"6" , -8 , - ", -, , 0"(*"
) . ) , " , /"6" -8 ( * (" ! 8 8 + () *" - ",
/ + + ", "90 ( , + , ( + , ) . " /" ) * !, " ( * (" "
"0 ' " " ) . / ,! (" ( * /, ! 8" + " / " /".

1 132
( ") : , ) + (" 6 6 (*" + " !) , (,/" + () 6 + + "
( " , ) , / ,! , /"6" , -8 , - ) ).
&( - $ : %
0 " )" " 6 /" (" "7,/, * ( " + ( " - /, (" ) , / ( / +"
(,(" " ) 0 " " (), )" " ( + ( ) + 9" 1/5 " + () /" 6 . ( .
() / 8" 6*"7, ) 0 " (*" - ) +" " 5 cm x r. 0 " (" - +"6 ,6 * /,
+ " * , ( + * / * , * "+ / * / * , ! *
+"9) 0 . -/" ) + 9 6 /" (" " ) /, 6 . (" (+ " ", + ) 0" ( .)
) . (" , /" / +" ) 6" +" + 9" ) 0 ( * (" /" ) 0 6
() " (" , (,/" 6 ( 6 * + ( ,() - (* ,(), ) (" / ( +
/, (" ) 0 , ( . , * (": 6 6 " 6"*: 9) 6 + ( ( ,
" () +, )" " "7,/, (" ") : * +" * *. ( * (" , (,/,
) /, ),9"* (" / - /", (" ( * 8" + 9 * *") *, + * ),9"*
(" ( * 8" + 9 ") : * +" * *. )" () 0 * / * )" "
( ", ( + " /", ! "-" ) .) 6 0 + (" - 6 . ( . ') ( * ("
" "*" ) ":"' 6,/, +" * ),9"*.
5.2.4. /& &( - ( $ ( $ )
$& ( ' ! & ( -

# *") (" *"8,/" * ( * 8 ") : )" " * ! " (" ( ()
6 ( * 8" (!" ")( " ( +") * !, 6*" ) " )" (,! + , ")
. ) 0 ") : ! " (" " /" *" +" *") " / / .
") : ( * 8" (" + 9 ( +, ( * 8 / (" 6 7,/" "* 6 ) /
) 0 () , 0 ) ( :
# 0, ) 0 () ;
6- () ,*" ) - 0 8 . + ! ( ) + 8 ;
"' ( 8" ,( + ) 0 () ;
"' ( 8" ) 6 "8" ) , *" "8 .
# " 0") *" "8 () ,*" ) - (" ( ),/, " ) ' ,/, )
( ,8 + /, ) "- " ,( +", "6, ) ) ( ) + 8 (" , (,/, , 6 ( 6 ( * 8"
") : . ) 0 () ,*" ) 6 *" "8" , ( ),/, (" )" " , / /" +
, /" 0 * , *" /" , + , - (+ . 20 m "7"
, ): * : *" *. /+" ( ) , * - ) +"
/" 6+ :" / , + 6, ". ) " () ", " " ) ( )" )
: *" * /, * ) ,+" "8" ( + () *" 6 ) () " + 9 " "
*") 9 " - ) /". () ,+" "8 ( + () *" /" +" ! ".
/" ) + (" ,6 * /, /* 8" +" ) 0 " , + , )" * " ". # +
+ (" ,6 * :, ) 0 ,. " ) ,! 0") , ) 0 , ,6 * (" , -
/ , - . ) " ( " 8 + (" ,6 * ) 0 , 0") ! + -
6 + 9 + 6, . 6 0") " 6 + 9 " + 6, " (6 . 6 ) +" )
,! ), , " + 6, 6 /" " ) 0 " ") : " (*"/, " + " () "7" "
* ( * 8 . # + (" /, , /" * /, , - , (" ")+" + " ,
+" ) () * , -" " 0 ) /, * *") . " ) ,! + (" *" " ,
/" * /, , - . (+ / () (" *" + ( (),*" ) "i" ( ! 8"
+ 9 -" "!" . 6 ) " - ) " ( + " , - ) " ) *") , (,/" ,
6 ( .# ( * 8 ) "- 6 0, 8" ) ") : . ) 0 , (,/,

1 133
(" , 6 ( 6 ( * 8" ") : * *") * (" "! () ,/, ,) * )( ,
"! () ) ". + / () +" (+"( " , (,/, (" ( ) + 8,
() ,*" ) . ,) * )( "! () + * /, (" 9) * ) 6 ) ,
- ,6 ( . ) + 6! " (" *" " , . 6 ) / + , ,
/" 6- ! )" " ( . ,( + ) "* !, ", *" " (" ( )" " , " , ( " , "
' ) ( ") : () + (" 6 " ". " , /, ) + ! ' ) . 6 )
* (" " ) + ( ( 6 . /8" ) 0 " " (), 0 ! ' ) / "* "
(" 6*" 6- ! )" " ( . " " , ( * /, (" + ( ()" " " ,!"
() ", (" *" /, ,! . ) 0 ") : . # * ( * 8 *" " ("
() / 8 (+ . ) 0 /" /, 6 0 ) * ' ) + * " 0 / /"
*"7,( - , :" () * 8 4 mm x r, () / 8 6! ' ) + "
, (, * 8 1 mm x r.
" () 6 ' ) +", *" 8 , - /"+ ") : .) 0 ,! , (,/, ("

( ") : .
0 " ") : (" ,*" 9, 1 999, ) * + 1 () 0 .
$' # & & ( ' ! & ( -

) ! *") ( * 8 *"8,/" (" , (":" * *"() * !,() !
,6 ! ") : , /0"9 " , 6 " * 6"*: 9) , , ( ,0 /"+ * ! " ("
" ' ) ! *") /( *") " * !, *" ) , , *- / ( + *
*") * . *" "8" , , ) "-: + /, (" :( " ,0 " ): " /" (" "
0") ( * 8 * /, * ( ) . , ): " " (*" (" 6 + + 9"
0,0001 D (D - , ): " , m). ) + * (" * /, 0, ) + " 6
* ( 8". -" " + 8" , + " * (", *" " /" () , . 6* ,
() ) 6 0 " / /" :"* /, /" 6 ( * 8". , )" "
(*" - ) +" , " " ( ( " /" / /" ( , 6 ( ,9) 8" , + ".
( (" (" *" " ( )" " , ( ( / ): . / 6 ( * 8"
() /" " * , (" )" " , * /, -" " ) :"* - * . ("
( * 8" - +: 0") /" 6 ( * 8" " * . " * (" ( * 8"
" , (" 8"! 0 8" 0") /" 6 ( * 8" ) . # /
/( . ) 0 /" (" 6" / 6 ( * 8" 0 ) + (" ( ( /
): "! () ,/" , 6 ( , 6 ) ! ( * 8". (" 7" / ,
( ( / (" *" , (, ) * (*" ,. # ) *" (" , ) , )"), 0 ) /,
/ (+ . " * /( . ) 0 . 6+ :" 6 *"7, , , " , "
( ( " /" *" " " " 6 * - ) * 8 + " () "7" " *
( * 8 . # * ( * 8 + 9" (" &'$ & ( $ - 6 ") : " ) 0 "
! * + ( 9)+ + / . ! 7"+ ( . -/" ) : 1) ( *" 8 , 2) *" "8
' ) + 3) "0 *" 8 . ( *" 8" /" () / 8" ") : " ) 0 "
( ( " /" /" (" " ( , + *. - 0 (" *" " ! " !
*") ( ( / ): ") : " ) 0 ", ) , " (" ( ( ( * / *
6 ,! 45 (( 5.2.4-1).

1 134
5.2.4-1: ) *" "8"
) + (, () / 8 6*"7, +" (,(" " ") : " ) 0 " () ! -/" ) . # *

( * 8 *" " (": () / 8 6*"7, ) 0 /" /, 6 0 ) * ' ) + *
" 0 / /" *"7,( - , :" () * 8 4 mm x r, 9 " (+ . 20 -
30 m " , . 4 mm x r, () / 8 6! ' ) + "
, (, * 8 1 mm x r. # "0 *" 8 (, () / 8 6*"7, +" "(,(" "
") : " ) 0 " () ! -/" ) 6*"7, +"/, ") : . ) 0 6 0 ) . -/" ) .
)", ' ) + , ( *" 8 "0 *" 8 *" " (" + ,
. 6 ) " ) *") . /" )" " / () *, ) (" * !, *" ) (
(" 6 * ( ) " , " / 6 0 + /" ( *" "8". # ( ( * ,
) * ( * *" 8 * , (,/, (" , 6 ( 6 ( * 8" ") :
) ! * *") * (" "! () ,/, " ,! 0 ( . , "! () ) ").
( 6 ( * 8" ") : ) ! * *") *( ,- " , /" (" , (,/,:
- /"+ 6 " /8 . ) 0 /" 6 ( * 8", - /"+ ") : . ) 0 ,
+ " () ( (", )", ( . *" 8 , )" ) 0 !" ")( " ( +"
" * , ),*, *" 6+ 9 + . + / () +" (+"( " 6 (
, (,/, (" ( ) + 8, 6 * - .# ( * 8 "! () +
,! 0 * /, (" 9) * ) 6 ) , - ,6 ( . ( ( * 8
, (,/, (" - /"+ ) ! '( " 6 " ) 0 !" ")( " ( +", , ) + /, , (,/,
" * , - /"+ ") : . ) 0 , ' ) + , "0 *" 8 ,! (
. 0 " ") : (" ,*" 9, 1 999, ) * + 1 () 0 .
, " ' ) + (" , (,/, - ( " 6 /" ' ) , " (
' ) *. , " ' ) + 6! (" , (,/, , ,) 98"* " , 6! ". 0 "
") : /" (" " * !, ( * ) " ( " ( /" 6 ( * 8" ( " * " (" ( ,() )
, + ), 6- ! / . - ) "- () + ) +, /, 6 ( * 8", * !, (" " )
* , ( . *" 8 , * *") *, "(" 8"* + , ,0 * "(" *
" ,! 0 / -"6-"7,/" ) " , ) 0 () 8" ! / (( 5.2.4-
2). )" + . ) 0 0, /, (" , (,/, , 6 ( 6 ) ! ( * 8".
5.2.4-2: +

1 135
/" ' ) " (), 0 6 *" "8" 8"! +" /8" ) 0 " (" ( * /, + (
" " ,!" /" 6 ( * 8" (" 6 8 . ,6 * /, ( *" 8 . /" ' )
6! " - " ( ! * " " (+ ( 9)+ ) () / 8,
* 8"* 1 mm x r ) (" *" "0 () / 8" 6! " ! "
" ".
( '! & ( - !':

# *") (" () )" ) / ! " )+ " () "- * !, ,/" " *") , : 8"
) ( ( )" ) .
) ! '( * "*" , ()" (" ( " " " )". " # *" "8 :
"* ) 0 ( * - * ## ;
"* ) 0 , " * + "*" , ;
) , "* ) 0 ( * - * ## ;
) , "* ) 0 , " * + "*" , ( / * )". *
, : 8 ) .
9) 6 .)"+ *" " # *") " ( * 8 -,.+ ) /,:

() ,*" ) "* 6 "*" ()" (" , ( , ( , ,)()+ * 6+ 7 0 ;
+ * "* ( () :", ) 0 + ( .) * - ) ( ) *
6 + : + ) " ( " )" () ";
# ("- 8 (" * ) *" "8, + ( " )" " 6 !" ")( " 6 ";
6 ) 0 " - +"6 (" "! () ,/" * . () +: 8 )" ";
#' ) + )") !" *") /" ( )" ) * - ) * 8 5;
+ /"* * /, () + "*" ) /* 8" 0") () ( )" ) ;
"+ * ( " (*" - ) * 8 15 ()" " ;
"! () / *") )* ('" " /" , , ( *, (" /" ) * ) "
6 .)"+ . ) * ( ,0 /, * /, (" () ) ( ) " 6 , "7 / . -
# *" "8 ()" (" () * " ) ('" ";
# *. 6 ) ! 6 8 , *" "8 * (" * -"6-" ) 6 )+ 8"
' !, /" * /, - ) +"6 " ( /* 8" +" 6 )" ) 0 ";
( ,( ) * "*" , /" ) * (" "' 9" - / (,+ 9 . *" "8 .
". " # *" "8 ( ) * "*" ! " (" * !, () ) 6 " (, , ) -" 5.2.4-1.
-" 5.2.4-1: . !
$ ( $ '' $+
''
" ) .) 0 /" )
) () ( "*"
! '( "*"
" ) * " ) .) 0

1 136
-" 5.2.4-2: " " !
3 2 6 ) ( &
) 0 () (95%
2)
) ) 0 1 /"* ; # "*" * " " 1 cm 2 ppm " ) + ,! "
1 ( " . #%; ) . 8 , ( *
* * + "*" *" "8 45 ) 0 /+ 9" , 15 *
- * * ,) . ) 0 ()
) ) , 1/ 2 /"* # "*" * " " 0.5 cm + 1 ppm " ) + ,! "

1/ 2, ( # /" " . ; ) . 8
* " . 1/ 2 )" . ) 0 /+ 9"
- * ) 0 ()
6 () ) 0 1/ 2 ( #2 #1/#2; # "*" * " " 2 cm + 2 ppm ) " *" "8 ;
( " . 1/ 2 )" ; ) . .)"+ - ,
- ) "*" 8 5 45 ) 0 ( " 8" ! 6 /,;
* ,) , 6 + ( () - / ) 0 () ("): + "'" )"
( )" ) . "' " ( /";
" "' ( ()
"* ) 0 1( "* ) 0 * / *; ! '( 4 cm + 2 ppm ) " *" "8 ;
( " . "* ) 0 1 "*" , " "' ( ();
6 ,() +: 8"* )" ; 2 ! '( 6 ,() +: 8"* " " )
*" "8, " . ) " ( "*" , " 6,/" 0 ) +
! * *; "*" ;
5 30 (" , " *" "8 " .
-"6 6 ,() +: 8,; 5 cm + 2 ppm / 6 / ;
6 ,() +: 8 0.5 5 (" , -"6 " .
*" "8, ) , * *" "8, 6 ,() +: 8 " * " ) +"6 (
/* 8" 4 ( )" )
(( * * ") 8
- *) /" " ,!" ) 0 ";
" ("): + ()
"' " ( /,;
( * () / 8"
6*"7, - 6" +"
10 km
"* ) 0 1( / *( % ! '( 4 cm + 2 ppm "* " - ";
/ ; "*" , )" , " *
" . "* ) 0 1 2 ! '( + "*" ,;
)" ; "*" , !, ()
On-the fly " . +"6 ; -" " + 8" "! () + 8 +" )
" . ) " ( ) "- ;
! * *; !, ()
"*" 8 5-30 -" " + 8 ;
(" , +"6 6*"7, - 6"
+" " . ;
( * () / 8"
6*"7, - 6" +"
10 km.
# 1 ( * !, 9 , /"* , 6 1m( 1 5
( ! ( () /" . , m( %
"* )
,) * 1( % * 5m( 1
# 30 m ( %
' $
) ) 0 6 8" 6,*"+ , : 8" ) # /"* * +"
+ 9" !" ")( . ) 0 , , " "' ( * + "*" ( * " ,. () .
# )". *" "8 , 6 .)"+ (" , : 8" ) , () * + "*" ( * )" + , (
() ! ( , ( )" ) .

1 137
#" ) / 8 /" " 0 " ("( /" ) /" 45 180 * ,) . 6 + ( () "7" .
,( + *" "8, ,( + ) 0 () , 6+ 7 0 "*" !" " , 6,/"
, , ) / 8 0 " ("( /". )" + " ." "' 9"
) / (" " " 1, 10 60 (" , . " " . ) + : /"
-"6-" " ) *") ( , ) 0 () ,( + * /" "9" ' 6 " "7" ().
/" 0 ("( / , 20 * ,) , * ! 6+ ( ()"* )( . ! "9 (" " , ,/, )
(" " ) *") ( ) 0 () * " 0" + ) . 6 .)"+ /+ 9" ) 0 () " *" "8
" ) "- - ) 45 * ,) .
) ) 0 )". (" * () *. 6 ) ! +" ) ! +"6 + 8

* " ") 0 ! "*" ( ) 0 * # (# () "'" " ) ()"* - /"
) 0 " "+ " "'" " ) " * " " ) 0 " ) + " ")( "'" " ) ( + ).
( + *" "8, () ) 0 * )". * ! (":

* " 8 *" "8, - 6 . / . 10 km 6 ( 45
* ,) ;
6 "! () /" ) "- 6 ( 5-30 (" , ;
+ "*" ) / 8 0 " ("( /" ": /" 6 0 / *" !" *") /" ( )" ) ;
" ' " +" ) /"* * !, (" () ) ) . , 6 .)"+
) 0 () (, * ( * ;
, " " 15 km ' 6 " " "7" () * /, - ) ' ( ".
, %
". - 6" () ) " () (" * *" "8 , * " ) 0 * 6+ 7"8
/ ! "*" ( ). # 6,*"+ 9 "8" /" ! + 9" - 6 . /"*
( - 0 + ) ., + + 9" + ) )" ) /" "*" /" ! + 9"
") . /"* ( +" ) / (" "*"9) /, ( /" " ,!, ) 0 , 0 /" )"
) "- " ) . ( " /"* ( + + 9") * " - ) ) + (" ) 0
" 6,/" *" "8" , ! ( * + ,.
". - 6" () ) " 6 .)"+ " 8 ( 5 45 * ,) ). ". 6+ : +

9 "8" / " )". " "*" , )". " * " " 8 . +, *- /,. -
*" "8 6+ (" 6 + 8"* *") /* 8 . + ) . " (" () 6
6 8" ) 0 *")"* ) 0 " ( +" ) "*" ) 0 ") : .
( + ,( + * *" "8 )". * - 6" () ) " ! (":

6 " /" * /, - ) " 10 km;
#" *" "8 "' ( ) , ( , ( , ,)()+ * 6+ 7 0 "*";
# " ,0,/" (" , ) "- + ' " +" ) . /"* ;
) * - / ( )" ) : 5;
" +" / "! () /" ) : 5 15 (" , .
%
"* ) 0 )". ( * - *6 0 / +" + , ) + () () ("
("- )" ) / / / /" - / " " /" - *") " "(*") /"* ( !
* * . "'" " ) /"* (" () +: + : *"() 6 /"* ( ! , ("
/" + 9" /"* " " () +: 6 0 )" ) 0 ". ) , "
"* ) 0 " )". ", / ") " )" " "7,/" (" , (+ / " . . "* ) 0 "
)". " ( + "*" * 6 ,() +: 8"*, / )" " "7,/" (" ( * /"*
* ,/". "* ) 0 )". 6 .)"+ "9 + 8" ' 6 . " "7" () . 6 ) . 6 ! , "
0") *" "8 + 9 (" )6+. / 6 .)"+ /* 8" ") ( )" ) .
/ 6 /", - / ( )" ) " (*" - ) * 8 0") .

1 138
# * " 6 /" "*" "* ) 0 * )". * ( * - *, ) "
) 0 " ) 0 " ") : * /, 6 0 ) ) ")* . ) , *" "8 , () (" /" + 9"
- 6 . () ( - 0 +") ., + + 9" 6 0 ) . + ) /"
+ 9" ") . /"* . () (" " + * )" ) /" ( * * * - /"*
" " . *" "8 6+ (" 6 + 8" *") /* 8 . + ) . /0"9 " ("
() , ) () ( -) ! '( * "*" ,.
( + ,( + *" "8 * *" " +" )". " ! (":

* - / ( )" ) : 5;
/ 6 / (" 6+ "* , ,)()+, 6+ 7 0 /"* ;
(" 6 /, () - 6 + ") 0 ") / ! )" () 0 " !" ")( .
* " ), (+ , ) 0 , ) "- ("() /* 8" + ,) , 6 0 ) * ("( / *
6 0 ) / !" *") / ( )" ) ;
" +" / "! () /": 1 5 (" , ;
# " ,0,/, (" + ' " +" ) /"* , * (" * !, () )
/" ' " +" ) .
- &,
# )". "*" 6+ (" ,6 9 "8" -, "7 / 6 " ( ) 6*"7,
"'" " ) ! ") ! /"* . 0 6+ 7"8 "*" ( 0 /" "* ) 0 *,
( * 9) (" *" "8 ( ,)"* +"6", # 9 :, ( - 6 " () ",
") /"* , 0 *" (" * !, ,/" "7 + 8" ) ") ! /"* ,
" * + "*" ,. )". -"6-"7,/" ) " ( )") ( +" * ) *
6 + 8"* ) /" ! * -" " + 8 . ! 0" /" () / 8"* 6*"7,
- 6 ! ") ! /"* . )". " * " ) # * " +" (, - *
()" ) /,) *" " . # *" * " " , "*" , "' ( /" )". 0 *
, ,)()+ * / (, , " () .
"* ) 0 " )". ", *" "8 ) *) 0 ") : * ) 0 * 6+ " ("

6 0 ) 0 ,,( , ( , ,)()+ * 6+ 7 0 . () / ) *" "8
( /" * + 9" "'" " ) . /" * + 9" ") . /"* . #
/ !) *" "8 6 .)"+ ) *" "8 .
( + ,( + *" " # )". " ! (":

* - / ( )" ) : 5;
.)"+ (" ) , 9) + 8" ( " ' . )" () /"* ;
( * ) , ! *" "8 , (+ , ) 0 , ) "- ("() + ,) , 6 0 ) *
("( / * 6 0 ) / !" *") / ( )" ) ;
" +" / "! () /": 1 5 (" , ;
!, (" () ) /" ' " +" ) /"* , (" " ,0,/,
+ ' " +" ) .
"*" (" " 6,/" 6( " " " " /":

1. # +" ( ()"* ;
2. - / ;
3. M" "8";
4. -" " + 8e ) 0 .
$ ) $ '( 6+ (" 8"* /* 8" 3 6 )" ) 0 " )" ) / "*" .

# " () +: *" "8" - 6 " () " ) " ) 0 " "). "7" "
") : " ) 0 ". 6 + "7" . 6 ) . ) ) 0 " * - ) * 8
+ () , " + " () () ) 0 () /" 0 " " " ) ) 0 ". # * +"

1 139
+ ()" +" ", ") /"* (" "( , " +" " , + " () ) " /"
(duplicate point tolerance) / 6 + : + ( " ' /" /" ) 6 6 )" ) 0 " ()"
6 " ( 6 + ). # " ,0,/" (" (" +" ( ()"* 6+" " + 9" ,) , ) , *" "8 ,
("- + " / 6 /" ( ()"* .
+" ( ()"* * ( " " " :"+":

# +" (" 8 "'" " ) ! /"* ;
# +" *" "8 , ( + ( )" - 6 ! ") ! /"* ;
# +" " ) ( () - 6 ! ") ! /"* , ) , *" "8 ;
# +" ( + () , ( ) - 6 " () " + /" /" , + ,
- ! !" ")( ! ),* ;
# +" " *" " () "'" " ) ! (- 6 !) /"* , ) , *" "8 ;
# +" ( + () ', ( 8 +"6";
# +" + )") / 6 /" ( ()"* ;
# +" + " () *" " + )") " ) ( " ( " 8" + ) " ! "9 "
* - ) ,! * "' ( * , , ,)()+, 6+ 7 0 "*")
$ , * ( (" "' 9" ) ( ()"*. 3 * (" +"6,/, / ) 0

, WGS84 ( /"* ) 0 , / + ,! / ) / /" / . XY
( ()"* 6 .)"+ /" , + 9" ) 0 ( 6 ) * ) * , WGS84 ),*, "
/" /"30. - / /" " . * -" " + 8 , " /
"' ( . ) 0 . 0 () -" " + 8 " ) 6 + ( ) 0 () - /".
0 () 6 ()" ) () / ) 0 , - ) ( ()"* " ":,/, ) 0 ()
- /". / ) 0 6 - /, 6 + ( + )") () ,*" ) *"8" !
! * . " " ,- / ( " ) 0 * - ) ) + 0 ) + )" ) / "*"
-, " + *" -,.+ " , , :,0,/, - " )" ) /" "*" .
"9"8" +" ) " * " )" /" ) " . /" /* 8" /" , ": - -
0") + 9" ) 0 ( 6 ) * + ( * , (, +" ) ),* , , ) "- .
0 " * /, - ) + *" ( "7" " 0 ) + / )" ) / "*" . ()" ) 0 " * !,
(" () ) 6 . 6 ) , +" ) , - /,. # * 6- ) 0 6
- /, " ) "- () ) ! , ( " ( , +" ) 0 , ( -6 * " (" ) + *
) 0 * ) " " +" " )" " ) *" ,* 8 ) -/" ) + () " ) (' * .
*") . # *") 6 - /, * !, (" () ) 6 (+" ) 0 " , ,) )" ) /" /,
"' 9, ) 0 " 6 - /,. # /" ) (" * !, - ( ) , "! () ) , ,
! *, 6 6 + 8", ) * (" *") ,0 ) + /, , "! () ) ( " ,0,/" ("
, /" +" )" ) / "*" ). 6+"9) /, 0, 8 *") 6 - /,
+" + /, (" + " () 6*" " . 6 ) ! / , * ( * +" ) ! -
+ * ( * " + ". 6 ) ! +" ) ! / .
% $ #' $
(" *- ,/, ( 0 )" "() 0 # *" "8 " . /":
# +" ) ) # /"* )" ";
# +" ) (, !" ! '( " )" " ) ) (' * ( " , +
/" /";
# +" ) (, !" "+ ( " " + ) ( 0, )";
# +" ) (, ' ) 6*" ", ' ) ) /", 6 /" " " )
*"8" ;
# +" ) /" ),* " ) - ;
30
*" : * (" + ) 0, - ") 0 " /, () * * ),*,.

1 140
# +" ) ' ) 6*" " + ( * (+ 7"8 , " ("0 , + ( ,
)" ) /" "*" ( +" (" * " 6+"() *" "8"* ( );
# +" ) /" 6+" " + () , ) (' * / ) ;
# +" ) /" " ) "'" " ) + 6 0, 8" " . ,! + ;
# +" ) () . () 0 * " 8 .
$ * '& ! "( &' , * $ ($ +, * ( $ - ( '!(

# /" ) ,*" ) / * - ) "*:" , 7" , " " ) ( * ! *
- , () " + 9 " ! 6 , + 7"8" + * 6 - () "*" . # *
9"8 , " + () ) 0 , 8 . + ! 0,+ 8 * /, (" 6 )
( " " " - ) " 0 8" ":
(, / + !6 0 / ;
(, () /( ! )" "( ;
* !, - ) + , " * " * /" ) * ;
- 9) + 8 . + , : 8";
* ' * ), ) " ) "- 0,+ ) (RINEX ( .);
/"* *" /,*, ) " ) "- 0,+ ) ;
"- ) " 0,+ ) , + 9" / ;
"- ) " 0,+ ) + 9" ' 6 0 + /" . *"() .
" ! * 6 - , # *" "8 ( 0 (, ( " * 8" + 9" ( 0 "

6 )":" + )") . /" "0 " . * ' * / * * *" "8 , ( " "
* /, - ) , 6+"9) / * 6 :
# ) ) 0 ;
# " ) ,;
# /, + ( )" ";
/"* ;
)" ";
# *" "8 ;
( )" ) ;
#" *" "8 .
() + " "*" ) # "9"8 * !, , :,0 ) (+" " "*" )" ( " ' ",
Solution Independent Exchange SINEX ' * ),, /* 8" ( " " ":
! + " 6 - , *" "8 ;
6 + +" 6 / ! * 6 - ,;
),* + "*" - " *" "8 ;
" ()+" " ) ' ) "9"8 ;
)" + "! () /";
' 0 6 8 ;
# 6 8 / (, ,0"()+ + , - ;
9 " " - )";
/ "9"8 ;
"9" () " "7" () ;
# / () ";
/ (- + / ( * ) ,
, ( " *" " ( . * ).
*") ", ( -6 * (" ( + # " "! () ,/,, " . /"

,*" ) + ) 0,+ ) ) )") " 6 "! () ) .

1 141
" " , )". 0 6+"9) / ) "- ( ( " " ":
9 " " , "7 /" "*,;
) ( )" " ( . *" "8 , , :,0,/, - /, ) *" "8
6 ) *) 0 * ;
"6, ) )" "( 8 - 6 . / ) +" 6 /, ! * 6 - , *" "8 ;
"6, ) )" 6 + 8 * " " 6 /" ( + / / * , () * (), 8 *
" * ( " 8 . ! "9 , ) +" 6 /, ! * 6 - ,;
,* " "( 6 * "6 + ( . *" "8 - 6 . / ;
# 6 9 " .) 0 " * " " "'" " ) . ) 0 ;
( ) ) 0 ( * ),*, / (" (", * " , !" ,
" . /" * *" ";
# ) " *" * ) 0 () () 0 () * " " ) 0 ());
- 6 "8" - + ! (), 8 6 .)"+ " " , ".

1 142
6. (LAND SURVEYING),
6.1.
$ ( $ + (: .' (land surveying, boundery surveying, property surveying) -,.+ )

,( () +: 8" ! / + . + ) . (" (+ ( 9)+ ). # "*" 6"*: 9) ( ,
( " " * ) "- * :
( !, " . " ) " 6 ( + 8", + "' ( 8" ,)+ 7 + 8"
+ 9 " " " ! + ( 9)+ "' ( . ,6 * + : + . -/" )
)" " ,;
-"6-" " . " ) " 6 - +, ( + ,( () +: 8") !
+ ( 9)+ ( +, ) "). 6+" " ! "*" ( ! ";
-"6-" " , )" ) /" ( " " " ) +" + 9" * 8 .
/" ,( ,( , " "' ( * * / * (" ,)+ 7,/" +" 0 , -
/ + . /" ;
-"6-" " , / + ! (" 6 " (! ( -! 7"+ ( 6"*: 9)",
,() /( , 6 , ( .);
"' 9" / -/" ) )" ) / " ", (, 8" " ! ".
+" (" 6"*: 9)" () +: , *") ( " 6 6 /" !, ,! + ( 9)+ ) + /"

6 + ) ,)+ ) () 8" / 8"! + . ! * !, () ,)+7 + 8 ( ! ( ()
' ) 0 ! + ! () 8 " ) )" " ,.
) !" ")( ! () ,08 /" " 6,/" )" " ( *" "8 , ( 0, *" 6 /"
+ 9 , " , "* ( " +" / * " (" 6 ) / *" 6 /"
! 0 . / + 9 " 6"*: 9) 9" ! ,) (" * "/ ( +
"' ( ) 9) /" +" * + * () +: 8 6"*: 9) , *") *" "
+ ( 9)+ - / 0 . - ) / (+ / 6 ) ( , , !" ")( () ,08 *
6 + ) )". 0 " " , " + " ( " )" *") 6"*: 9) 6 0 / " + ) !
"' ( 8 8"! + . ! , 9) 6,*"+ !" ")( () ,08 - (" - +
( * +" + ()" * (" + ) , ( 6 8 / (" )+ 7,/, 6 + 8"* ("- !
+ 9 "8 () " " " () ), /" / (" - + *") * " ") () .
6.1.1. $ ' $ ( $ + (: .'

( ,( *" *, "*" 6"*: 9) (" * " ( ' + ) :
! "*" ;
# "*" " ) ' /" " ;
# "*" ( :"* " " 6"*: 9) .
! "*" 6,*"+ *" "8" " 6 ) ! / )" " , +" ,( () +:" .

"+ " ) .! .
# "*" " ) ' /" " 6,*"+ + ,( () +: 8" !

( +, ) /" 6+" " ! "*" .
# "*" " " 6"*: 9) 6+ (" ( +, " " /".

1 143
6.1.2. $ ( ( ' ! $ ( $ + (: .'
# "*" 6"*: 9) * " (" " 6 + ) ( " " * !" ")( * "* *;
()"* * ) ) . () ;
" ) * ( ) *;
" ) * ): *;
# , "7 / * .
" * + * (, - / , ) 7") "*" 6"*: 9) (" 6+ *" *

' ) ! *") /( " *") ".
/" ! * !, ", " , " )" " ( . *" "8 ) "- -, , ) +" -"6-"7,/,
" ) *" "8" , / ! + ( 9)+ . # "*" 6"*: 9) /0"9 " ("
) 0 " 6,/" *") * ! ( ! + 0"*, *"7 " ) 0 " * /, (* (
! ( . ) 0 , ! " + ( 9)+ (, ! ( " () ". ,( + )" "
" 6+ : + /, " ) *" "8 , ! ( + (" 6+ / , - 6 ! , *"7 "
) 0 " (" "7,/, ( ) 0 ! ( !+ , (" , " + , 8 !
"7,/, " ) . /" ! " + (6 +:" ), ! ( + ("
() +: , 8" / - 6 , ! ,)+ 7,/" ( +, () / 8 /" . ) 0
6 +:" " ! " ! ( " () ", 0"! (" 0, 8" , . ("
"*" 6+ # )". ! / *, " . /" *"7 " ) 0 " " ) " ) * (" 8"*,
, " " " )" " , ) " 6+ : + /,, # ) 0 " ) "- -, , 9) - " *"7 *
) 0 * .
" " , 6 .)"+ ) 0 () "*" ! + ( 9)+ 6 + ( + " () 6"*: 9)

(+" , + " () * 6"*: 9)" , ! , "! , , /( " ). ) * (* ( ,, +" 8
8 (" ()+ 8, ,( + 6 +" 8" + " () 6"*: 9) , " (), 8 , *").
! ) ,( + 6+ : + /, "*" ! + ( 9)+ ) "- +"6 ) ( ) 0 *

() /" "! + ! "'" " ) ! ( ()"* # (# () "'" " ) ( ()"* - /").
9 "8" + " * " " ) 0 * !, ,/" )"! ( 8" (+ . "*" , /" ( ()"*,
* !, ,/" "' ( /" - +: 8" , 9)" . *"7 . ) 0 " ) ' /, !
" 0 /" () + / * "/, ()+ 8 /" ()+" " - 6" () . ) .
" + ( 9)+ ,( () +: /, (" , 0 + /, ( +, 0 9 "8 6"*: 9)

+ . ,*" ) . # /! ) 9" (" ( +, + : 1)
$ " 2) "
" # .
*" (" 6 8,/" + * ) * ,*" ) * /" +" ' ,/, (+ " "+ )
,0"( . (, () " "+ " /" 9)" " " , 9)" ", , ) * ( ,0 /, (" .+ ) /,
() /" " "+ " /". $ ) /" , " + "8 6 /" 0 " + :", "+ " /" * /, +" ,
+ , ( !,.
')$8 ) - , 0 ) - & ( - #$ & , ' '$ / .' &
31
) " $
) () ( 9) + , -,.+ ) ,0/" /" ! (":" ! *"() .
6,6") * ( ,0 /"+ * ,0/" /" " ) () ( " 9) " * " -,.+ ) + + 9"
(":" . *"() ,0/" /" ! (":" ! *"() -, " ":" + 9"
) () ( . 9) . - 6 + 8, ) () ( " 9) ", + 8, *" 6 + ,
31
)" / /" ",6") 6 () , /" 6 , : 8" ) " ") () * , ,1996.

1 144
*" ! ! 9"8, ) () ( " 9) " ,0,/" " ,- " - /",
"). - +:" * * 9:"8, ( , 9) " 9) ". # * 6 " ) ()
" ") () () /" ! 0 / ) () ( " 9) " * " (" 6 ) ,
" () , " * 0 6*" ) "' ( ) + . (" ! 0 / 6 + ,
" () " ,- 0 !" ")( 6 + + 9 - +, , 9)" . -" "! ! 0 " /"
( +, () /" "! 6 ( 6! 0"8, ) ") : ! ( * 8 ! 0 "
/". # *" ! " ) () ( " 9) " ( " * 0 , " () ) ( + ("
( +, , " " " ,- " - /". " ,- 0 !" ")( 6 + "*
)". 0 , ,*" ) /, 6 9"8" , " *" ! " ) () ( " 9) ".
". 0 ,*" ) / ( :
( ( - /"+ " /" (" / /, 6 + / /, 6 ) () ( "

9) ",
( , *"8" " ! " ) () ( " 9) ".
")" , " " ,- 0 !" ")( 6 + + 9 -" " + 8" !

) () ( . 9) ( +, ) () /" "! "*" , 6 7,/" " - )
*"7 + 8 ( + ! + /, " *" " + * ) () ( * " ),.
+% $
# * -" " + 8 ! ) () ( . 9) (,(" " -" "!" (" * /,
! " ) , 8 . + , :" () * - ) * 8 500 m. *"() * ! " ! 0
/ ("0" () -/" ) 9 10 m ( ,), " "6 0 , ,!,, ) , " , .)
() +: /, (" +" -" "!", ( -" () " /" . ( ,0 /, " ! () 6 () +: 8"
-" "! ) + * *"() * , " (" * !, *" ) ! 0 / / *"() ! !
6 8 . + () +: 8". # /, 6*"9)" " -" "!" , (, /
! 0 ") 0 " 6,/, (" , 6 ( , *"7 + 8 . ! 0 / " + *
" ! () ! -/" ) ! 0 " -" "!" (" () +: /, ( * 0") , /, -/" ) ,
(" " * " -" " + /, -"6 -6 , , - -/" ) . ! 0
/ "( " * () ! -/" ) ( ,), ) , " ) .), / /" 6 /" 0 6 (,(" "
) () ( " 9) ", ( -" () " -/" ) () +: (" /" -" "! . ! 0
/ " 6 ( /" ! 6 /" 0 ! -/" ) ,! 6 /" 0 -/" ), ! 0 ) 0
(" - / , "(" , ( " 9 . / , -" "!" (" () +: /, 0 "' ( ,
"). * () +,. 0 " ) 0 " (" -" " + /, () - * , 0: + * -" "! * /"
* /, 6 , 6 " ) -" "!". " "!" * !, - ) -") ! *" *" 6 /
0,20 m . 0,20 m . 0,70 m, , + /, (" +" ) , )" " , ) + " 6 )" "
0,10 m. " "!" (" * !, ( "( ) / ()" *" 6 / 0,20 m . 0,20 m . 0,10
m, 6,6") (" 6 -" "!, * " () ) () - +") .
6.1.2-1: # " "

1 145
- $ %
0 " -" "!" (" ,*" 9, ) *"7" ) *"7" " *- /"+ * 1 :".
0 " -" "!" 0") , /, ! 0 " /" (" " ,*" 9, () *"7",
0")+ *"7"), +" (" 6 " 0") . ( + ) () ( . 9) . + () , "
! 0 " -" "!" 6 /" 0 * -/" ) * ,*" 9, (" () * - /"*.
/" ! 0 -" "! 6 /" 0 6 + -" "! 6 /" 0 . -/" ) ( +

- / () +:" ) *. 0 " -" "!" ,*") ,)" 6*"7, +" () /" " -" "!" ("
- /"+" , + , 6 * ( ) * 9) (" , - / , 6 - / "). " -" "!" (( * 8 *
- /"*), , *" , - / ,*") ,)" -" "!" 0"+ 1 :" ( . 6*"7, -" "!"
12 12 12
- / 12 13 ,*") ,)" (, ) -" "!" /" " * ) - /"+" , ). (" 6*"7, +"
1 2 3
,*") ,) . ! 0 . -" "! ,*") , +", ) (" - /, "). " -" "!" /, ,
*" ,* ( + 6-, " ( . 6*"7, 12 12
,*") ,)" (, +" +" -" "!" /" "
1 2
12 12
* ) - /"+" ).
1a 1b
( % " $
# * () +: 8 ! 0 . -" "! 6 6 7,/" (" " - ) *"7 + 8 /
( : ,+ " ,6 ( *"7 + 8 , ( , *"7 + 8 . ,+ * " , (" 6,/,
( + ) () ( / 9) (* / , + 9 , (":" (), - /
* () + , )" () " ":"' , /" ( " 8 ,) + 9" 6! 0"8",
/ * *") * 6 /, 6*" , /" ( *:" ! , ' ) 0 () 8" ! ",
- 6 "8" *" /" (" 6 .)"+ /, ) .). # / ! 0 " /" (,/" (" ,
6 ( , *"7 + 8 . ( ! 0 " /" ( : + (), - / -" "!", ( (
) "- ( ,) *"() ! " (" -" "! 6 ( * ( * + (,(" .
" , /" ! 0 / 6*"7, +" (,(" " -" "!" + +, + , , ,
, ,( , " / . ( + 6 ( "+", " / . ( "( "
() ".
(+ , ) () ( , 9) , 6 7,/" (" ( *"7 + 8 , ! / 6*" /

( :
0 , /, ( 6 * - /"+ * -" "! ,

-/" )" / * " /" ("0" ! 0 / ,
+ "( - / ", + ) " )" () 0 " -/" )",
), " (": ,
" "( , " ) () ( . , ), ( ! + /, * ) ! '( * 6 * ,
6 +" (": , + ) , (,(" . ) () ( . 9) , ,9)+" -
) 0 . 6 /" + .
# ( ) + 8, ( " *"7 + 8 ()" (" ) ! '( 6 / + " 6 ),

1:5000. ( ,0 /, (, /" " + " - ) 6!,-:" , 9)" + 9 ("
8 . + - + ,( ,( "). * () + *. ( ,0 /, (" ! 0 / *"8
" * 0 , + 9 (" 6 " - ) *"7 + 8 ( * 6 " +" / (" *"8 /,. - )
6*"8" " ! " /" ( () + " () /" "! " - ) *"7 + 8 .
' $
"
) () ( . 9) ( * /, (" " ' ) ! *") /( * *") *
)" "() 0 * *") * ( ) ! * *) ( !" ")( " ( +" 6 ( * 8"
") : . " ) () ( . 9) 6 ; )" 6*" " ( * /, (" /" ,) (

1 146
) 0 9 , + * ") : () , /" 6*" " ()" 6 - 6! 0" " .
# ",6 * 8, ! 0 " /" ( * ") : (" , /" ( (,/" +" *
),9"* " /" ,6") /" ( * : " 0 / ",6") ..." ( ,0 /, /"
' * ) - ( + * " * ( * ( / , /
" /"), ( * /, (" (+" " * " ) 0 " /" "' 9, ! , ) - ", 6*"7,
( *:" . " * . ) 0 ) - ", 6,6") " -" + ! () + + ! 0 ,
! 0 ") 0 " " (" ( * /, ( * *" 8 * , - (*" .
')$8 ) - , 0 ) - & ( - #$ & , $,

# " 0") ( * 8 ") : (+ + ( , ( + 9 "8 (,
:"* )" (), ( + ) 6"*: 9), - +"6 (, 6+ 9" 6! 0"8"
6"*: 9) / ()" ! " -" " " + * -" "! * , , / "
" - 0 !" ")( 6 + - ! 6 /" , 9) ,)"* (*" !
- +"9)"8 ,)"* ( " () + / + ! ' * ( 8 . " ) () ( . "
/ + * -/" ) * ( ,)"+ , " "6 ", + ) .) -" " + /, ( 6! 0 + /,)
(,-/" ) / (" 8 * () /, (/ + , ,9)+" + ) " ,6" ).
( + " 6+ 9" -" " + 8" ! (+ / . " , " ,- 0
!" ")( 6 + - ! 6 /" , 9) " 6+ 9 ) -" " + 8" "*
' ) 0 * () 8, )" " ,, ) 9 +" -" " + 8 ( ( " ( + . 0 "
-" "!" () +: /, (" (+ * (), 0 * " * * ) 0 * ! 0 " /".
-" " + 8" ! 0 .) 0 + 9 (" ) (" (,(" " ") : " ) 0 ", + ,,
! " /,. :" () (,(" . -" "! * - ) * 8 500 m. + ! 0
/ (" -" " + 6 * -" "! , ) /+" " () / 8" )" /" , /
( / +" (,(" " -" "!" (() " , ) " -, " +" " 0,2 mm x r (r /" *" 6*" "
). " (), 0 " ! 0 " ) 0 " (" * !, -" " ) * * -" "! * /"
" + (* ( " * !, + /, 8 . + "7 + 8". ! 0 / (" -" " +
) / 0 9) (" )" " , -" " " -" ( " /" () * + () * -" "!
"( ". " ) () ( . " -" " + /, (" () - * , 0: + *
-" "! * ( 6 * " ) -" "!". " "!" * !, - ) -") ( ", ! *" ,
/ ()" *") ". +" -" "!" ( 6,6"+ *") . /" (, + " ( )" " *)
, + /, (" ) + " 6 )" " 0,05 m. 6! " *" 6 /" /" . + ()
-" "! 6 (, ( 6.1.3-1.
a) betonska b) kamena v) uklesana u stenu g) metalna
6.1.3-1: %

1 147
& ( - #$ & , $,
" " ( * /, (" " ' ) ! *") /( * *") * )" "() 0 *
*") * ( ) ! * *) ( !" ")( " ( +" 6 ( * 8" ") : .
# * ( * 8 ! 0 . ) 0 " + 9" (" *" "8 (+ . ' ) +
-"6-"7,/, " . *" 8 , :, ) " ( *:" . ) 0 . ) + "
*" " (" ) 0 9 , "' ( * * ( * 8 . " ("- . " + "
( , ), , ( " ! 6"*: 9) ) ( * /, (" ( ( +" 6 ( * 8" ") :
*" 8 * ! 0 .) 0 " -/" ) .
32
6.2.
# "* ( * / (, ( 6 , " ,- - / " ") () * (" 6,*"+ :

"*: 9)" ( : + " , ! 7"+ ( , 9,*( () );
-/" ) ( ( + , () *-" , " *( .);
# ("- " + -/" ) ( ( + " () /", ! ", ,* .);
,! 6"* 6"* -/" ) ( ,) , " " ) + " , )" " *, ,
-/" ) 6 ( ) ' 6 0 , , ), , .).
# "*" " ") () -,.+ ) ( " " " ) + () :

( () +: 8" !" ")( " ( +" 6 ( * 8" ") : ;
)+ 7 + 8" ) () ( " )" ) / " /" ";
" "8", , : 8" ,)+ 7 + 8" () . ( . )
" ") () * ;
# , : 8" ) ( * + " ") () , ( ,
" ") () ;
# ",6 * 8" ) ) 9 /+ " () " ") () ;
) () ( ( 8" - ) 8" 6"*: 9) ;
6 , ) () ( . + ;
") 9 -"6-"7"8" !" ")( . + 8 . +, () 6 /,.
) () " ") () " () +: ( + , "+ " /, " ") () * + *

8 * , 6 ( + 0" * : , ( , / + () , ,6 8 , " +" ()+ "! )")
' /" () .
6.3.
6.3.1. * (, !$0 * ' )& ' & +$ ! ' '$ ) ! )

# "*" + + 6+ (" ( :"* 6 " + 8 ) () + + . ) () , + +
+ (" "+ " / 6"* * 6"* * + + * ( /, * () /"8 *
, "7 / * 6 /" () / - +"6 - +: 8 ! 7"+ ( " , ) "- " 6+ ".
# "*" + + -,.+ ) ( " " " -/" )" ( * 8 :

+ , * " ,;
6 , " , * " ,;
+ , * " ,;
" ) " " !")( , * " ,;
" " *, , * " ,;
32
# 6 * )" / ",6") /" 6 ) 6 + "*" , ) () , " ") () , 2005.
") : /" ) () , " ") () , + , ("- " ! , " " *") .

1 148
') + , * " ,;
( + , * " ,;
/" 0 " ), " " + + .
# " ( * 8 + + , , : /, (" ( " " )" () 0 " *") *

+ ,, ) 6 :
+ , * " , - / 6 ", + () * )" / , - / "0 "+ ;
6 " * " 6 ( ()"* , + () * )" / "0 "+ ,
( *" 6 /" ! " /" ;
+ , * " , + () * )" / , - / "0 "+ *" 6 /" ;
" ) " " !")( , * " , - / - + () ! , + ) * ;
" " *, , * " , + ()" - + , - / - + ()" + ()", 6 - +( ,
6 /, ! " /, *" 6 /" "0 "+ ;
') + , * " , + () * )" / , - / "0 "+ ;
( + , * " , + () * )" / , - / "0 "+ ;
/" 0 " ), " " + + *" 6 /" ), " )" () 0 " ) " /" .
+ + .
) () + + 6 7,/" (" ) () ( * 9) * .
) () + + (" ( () / :
-
) ! . )" " ( . ) - /" . ( * 8"* + + ;
# + /" .+ + ( ( * )" () 0 . ) + + * ;
# "! " . + + + ;
"! () + + .
6 ) () + + -,.+ ) :
# "* " +";
* 8" + + ( 6 *" - ) ! . )" " ( . ) ;
6 , + + + ;
6 , "! () + + .
6.3.2. $ $ (& $ ! ) , ' $ ) - , 0 ) - & ( - ) !)
# "* + -,.+ ) /,:
# , : 8" 6, , ) "-: + () () /" " ,*" ) /" + + * ;

# "8" 6"* . + + ;
6 ,( ( * 8 + + .
# " 9 "8 () /" . ) 6 6 , ) () + + " (" 8 . +

, ) "-: + () 0"*, (" 6 7,/" ' /& 1 +) .' *.
"8" () /" . 6"* . + + ()" (" /, + : + 6"*

, "7 / () /"8 .
) + 8" 6"* . + + + 9 (":

! 0"*;
) + 8"*;
*- + () ! 0"* ) + 8"*).

1 149
# /, + : + 6"* , "7 / () /"8 " / . (" 6" () /"
6"* + + (,:
+ , ) ' ) !) : , , , ;
+ ) ) !) : , ( *)
.
) + 8" 6"* . + + ) ! 0"*, + 9 " /" " ()" ( * ) . # 6"* + +

) +" ) ! 0"*, + * /" .+ + ( * + + , 6 0 + /, (" ( + *
. ,- " "7" " ) ! 0"* (" (" ( + , + , "+ + )" *
0, 8 ) ) "- ,6") " /, ,- " 6 /" , + , "0 + . ! 0*
- ) ( ) , *") 9 / - ) / , 0"*, (" - / (" ) ' ). ( ) + 8" ) ! 0
* " (" + 9 ) ) ( + ( *:" ! " 6 ) + 8 , /" * )" "() 0 . *")
( ) 0 9 , *" "8 , + ( /" " ) *") . (" ( ) + 8" + 9" ) (
/" ( *:" ! + , "6, ) ) ( ) + 8 , (" (" , ("- 6 ( , ,6
" - ). ( ) "- ( ) " " 6 ) *" *" "8 * , . 6 ) *
+" ) * /, + *" "8 * - /" . ) ! 0"*. 6+ :" (), 8" 6*"7,
6 ) . *" "8 *" "8 - /" . ) ! 0"* /" + " ) *")
) + 8" ) ( 6"* . + + + 9 ( + + . ) + 8" ) (" 6"* !

+ + 9 (" " /) ( , " * 0 , )" () 0 * *"() * . (" ) +
" /) ( , ) ! 0 "* " ")" ),/" * )" / ! /" +:" + .
)" () 0 *"() / * (" - +"6 + 9 ) + 8" ) (" + , (,:

(+ " * + ,. 6 ) / +" ) / + ;
*"() / * /" *"8" *" 6 / * )" / + ;
( ") - + /" " + 9" + () + + .
# 7" " ) 0 " 6"* ! + + 9 6"*:" -" " + /, (":

(+ * " * * , . 6 ) / +" ) / + ;
*"() * ! " (" *"8 *" 6 / ( "(" ) * )" / + ;
, + ,, - + * )" " , (+ . 50 m.
+" /" ) (" + -" " + /, (" ) 0 * , ) +" 0 () " " , " (*" "
+ " () ( , 6 ( * 8" ") : 6 ), 6*" ,. ( 6"* ! + / (" 6
( (' ) " -") ( " !" -" " + (" ' - 8"* 6 * ( * - / *
(' ) /, ( -") ( / 6 ! + /, * - / * + . - 8"* 6 * ( *
- / * ! + /, / 6 ( *" 6 /" 20 x 20 cm) , / + 9 ("
-" " + 8" ) (" 6"* ! + / (" 6 ( *" " !". 0 -" " + 8
) (" + ) /" , # ( , 2001).
"( * 8 + + ' * /, (" 9 "8"*: 1) ! ! ) () ( ! ,

2) () /" "! ) ! '( ! , 3) ) -' ) . ( " 6 ( * 8" + +
* ) ! * *") * ( * 8 ()" (" ') ( " 6 7" "
') - ) /( * - * ' * + 9 " . 6 6 , ') ( , () /" "*
"*" ,. (" " (" (+ + + " * !, , ) ) / ( "! " ( *
( * 8 , ( " + + * !, (" 6 7 + ) , + + 9" *" . # /" " " "
( ( ( ", , 9) 8" + 9" + () + + ( .) /" (" 6- ! !,() " + + " * !,
6 ) ( ( * 8 + + 6,/, (" , , / / 6*" , ( / (
+ + . (" 6"* . 6"* . + + 8 . + )" () 0 (
6,/, (" ( * + + ,+ + .

1 150
+ (" ( * /, :,0 -*" ! *"() ( 9) , ( *" "
() ", -,.+ ) /, *" () ,*" ) ) 9 0 . (" *" *"() , (
*" *"() () " 6 6! , ,) 8", + (" ( * ! - ) 6! ".
() + "*" ( * (" " *") 6! , /" ( + * ) ()
" ") () , ) () 6"*: 9) ) ! '( * + * , , : /,
8 /. + ") : () ( * 8 ,( +:" /" +" ) * . 6 ) * " * * ) (",
- /"* * ), + + * , 6*" * 6 " + + .
+ (" ( * /, + , ( ) 0 () /" " !" ")( " ( +" 6 ( * 8" ") :

* " " + "7" . !" ")( . ) 0 ( / + ( ( "7" . , + *
) * ( ()"*,). (": * ! + * , ( * 8" + + (" * " + 9 ) (
( + ( " * " ", /" () - 6 + "7" ( * 6 "7 + 8" !" ")( "
( +" 6 ( * 8" ") : . 6,6") , !,() 6! 7" * " + * (": , , ,) 98 ()
! 7"+ ( . - + , , / * " () /" ) 0 " !" ")( " ( +", ( * 8" + + * " ("
+ 9 ) ( / 0 /" (, /8" ) 0 " + " ( *:" ! -/" ) ) / ! )"
,0 * "(" * ( /* 8" ) *" 8 ) ., + ( "7" . ") : .
) 0 . , *" 8 " * " - ) +" 25 m. /8" ) 0 " /" ( * 8 , (
)" ") : " ) 0 " 6 ,0 ! "(" , * /, - ) "7" " ) * , " "7 + 8
) ") : . ) 0 + + . # +" /" ) (" + + (", - + *
)" " ,, -"6 /, . () /"8 , , "7 / * ), , ( * /, ("0 * / 6
6*" , 1:500 1:1000 " (*"/, -, , , 50 m. , ("0 6 6 ,
* " ,, -"6 -6 6*" ,, " * " - ) +" 100 m. )+ " 6 ) " + ",
+ + ), " 6 " ) , 0,5 mm x $ 6,/, (" ,
/" * / * ( * /, ( " -/" ) . 6*"7, ( *:" . (,(" . ") : . ) 0
() * + , *" " (" (+ ' ) + .
+ 0 6"* + + ( - / + + 6 +,0, ( ) ) + + ) (),- + *

"+ + , 9) * 6"* - +( + + ( * /, (" ( /" *) 0 *
( + + . () 6"* + + ( * /, (" ( + * /" 9 * 8
/" !* *") * " ! ( *" "* 6*" " (1 mm x ). # 6"* + +
+" " 9 " ( * /, (" ( +" /". # /, () /"8 , "7 / + + * , /
(" 6- ! * . *" 6 / ) /, , ,( + * 6 *( 6 *6 + +"), ( * /, ("
/" *) 0 *,( " -/" ) , , (, ) + . *" 6 / (" * !, " () + ) ,
6*" , ( * /, (" ) "- * - /"* ) 0 ) /, , 6*" (
( ) * ! + /, * ,( + * 6 *. (" " ) "+ 6 . ,! .
( + " 6"* ! + " 6" , /" / +" ) / + , , , (" ,6 * /,
*" ( +, / . (" "' 9" /+ , (, " ) .
! " /" * " 0 / (" ") : " * !, " () + ) /" 0 * ,+ + ,
6 6 () + 1. + ! 0 6 7,/" (" - - ( ! 2-
).
! " /"- * "- 6 7,/" (" , - / 6*" () / * * )" / ,,

' * ) 4 ( :
6 / ! " /", * " "(" () . (. 6 ) /" /
+ /* 8" + )" () 0 "(" ( +" ) * + ), (
/"* 6" . 6" . + + , ( ( "+ );
*" 6 /" ! - ) -/" ) ;
"(" "+ ;
) ,+ ;
,- , + *" " , ) 0 "+ 6 /" (" 0, /, )".

1 151
" 6 () + 1. + ! 0 ,*" 9, (" , + , ) () ( " 9) " 1 n 6 (+ ,
+ (), + . /( " () + "*" " () +: - / ! " /", * ", ( . /"
( + + 6+ 9 ,*" /, ! " / , * () (" ",6 * , ( " ("
,*" 9, 0 6 () + 2. + ! 0 . )" () 0 " ) 0 " + + 9) (,: ) 0 "
0+ 8 * . (! + .) (" , . ( () -, .) + + , ) 0 " ( / 8
6 + / 8 + + 9" + + " * ") 0 "+ + ,. 6 ) * +" ) *
(* ( ,, ( * /, (" ( ) 0 9 , ! 0 .) 0 " . 0 " /, . () /"8
, "7 / ( * /, (" ( ) 0 9 , () . ") : . ) 0 . ) "-" ("- * 6 .)"+,
( , "8" + + )" " , + 9" (" , ( *" 8 (*" " ("
, " ' ) + 6! /" + , ,6 * /, ( ( *" 8 /"
+ + 6*"7, ( *:" . ") : . ) 0 ).
" 6! 7" * ,0/ * + () / 8 *" " (" :

-/" ) , () /"8 , "7 / , ( () +, ( - / + ) + ;
+ : + . ) / . -" "! ;
! 0+ () ! * )" / .
# * ( * 8 + + ! ), " " ) 6 6 /, ( * (" +" )

/" / (" ), " ( " "+ , ' 6 * 6! 8", ( 6+ 9" /
6! 8 . * 8" (" + 9 ( ) 0 () +:" ! ! ( ! + , ,) ), " ,
"7" ! ) .) 0 !" ")( " ( +", () +:" . , 6, 6 6, 6 ), " . )"
") : . ) 0 ,+ + * ), " , "7,/, (" *") * ) ! *") /( ! +" * .
6 " ) )" (" "7,/, +" 8"* 6*"7, , 6 . 6 6 .) 0
0 /" (, )" "). "7" " !" *") /( * +" * *. ( ,0 /, ( 6 .)"+
( * 8" ( " ,9) 8 + , , ) "-,, " + 9 (" ( * 8" + , +" ( * ( * 8"
( : . , "+ 6 . ,! . /, . 6"* . () /"8 , "7 / .
/" 0 ), " 6 (*"9) / + 9" + () 6 0 ) . + + ( * (" 6+ 9" *
! 7"+ ( * + * , ( +" /", -"6 -6 6*" , !" ")( ! + + .
( " + + ( * ( * 8 6,/" (" "0 * ' * ), " ( 8"! + *
*" 6 / * , (,/, (" )" () 0 6 (+ + .# *( * 8 + +
/, . () /"8 , "7 / *"8,/, (" *") " ( " 6 + "*"
" ") () , , + * + * /" ,! 0 /" "7" .
)" ") : . ) 0 6 /" "7,/, (" ") : * +" * *, )" ") : .

) 0 () . + + /, . () /"8 , "7 / * !, (" " ) *
*") *. )" (" "7,/, 6 " , )" 6" . 6" . + + ,
,, 6 ) 0 " . 6 ) . +" ) . " * + + , 6 )" " 6 8 . 6
/, () /"8 , "7 /". 6 , " ,* " , "7,/, (" 8 )
"+ ( "+ ), 6 ) + ,* " , ) -") ( ! , 6
() " + +" ) ! 8" + 9 " + . (" , /" / +" ) / + 6" +
+ 9" + + ()" 6 0 )" + ()" ( * (" "7,/" ) ! 8" ) 0 " /+ 9"! +
6 () " (" , (,/" 6 , " ) *") * 6 /" ( 8 . + * )" () * , ,+" ,
(, + + . 6"* , " " ) " " !")( , * " , "7,/" (" / ) )" "
/ (),- + , ( , 9) .
(" )" ") : . ) 0 "7,/, ") : * +" * *, 6+ :" (), 8"

6*"7, )" + ( ( " 6 " + ( ( " 6 " - /" " +" 8"* 6 ( :
h = 36 mm L 6 6 /,, (
h = 60 mm L 6 () " + +" /, () /"8 , "7 /", ! " L
" () +: , , +" * ( ! + 6 " ,, *") * .

1 152
# - /" ( * 8"* + + ( ) + /, (" , (,/, ( * + + , (" ,
! + /, " )" " ( " 6 ( ".
$ ' $ # & & /' $ & / ! ' - /" .( * 8"* + + , 6 7" 0

( 6 + "*" " ") () ( :
"+ + , ( "( "+ + ;
( " 6 ( * 8" ") : ;
( ) ") : . ) 0 .
6.3.3. +$ ! &) $ # '$ ) ! )

( +, " - ) ! . )" " ( . ) - /" . ( * 8"* + + 6 7,/,
(" + /" .+ + "! " + (+ . + + , 8 . +( / 6,/"
0 ( 6 6 , !" ")( . + . # /" ! + ( ) "
/, ) (" + ( /, * () /"8 * , "7 / * (+" )" () 0 "
( " ) " 6 ), + (), + . # " +" " . ) , /" !+ (
) " - , /, 6! ,! . ! 7"+ ( . -/" ) , () " ) "
6 " ) () ( * , ( * - /"+ ! 0 . / ) () ( . "
8 . + . ("- . " + . 6 )"* )( ! ( / + /" .+ + ()" ("
) ! '( /" / , 6*" (, ( 6 !" ")( " +". + (
6*" " !,() " ") : * !, (" 6 7 + ) + 6 + 9" + () + + , (
6 ("- - "! , "+ + .
# "! " (+ . + + 0 ) ( :
9"* )( 6+ + ( )" () 0 * * ( ( * /" 0 ., 0 .
:,0 6! ", ( ,!" ! 7"+ ( " -/" )"),
6 "7" . 6"* . 6"* . /, . () /"8 , "7 /
6 0 / . 6 ', ( 8" + + ,
" , () +" /" .+ + 8 . +" 6 ",
6 " 6 +" 6 * ! () ", ! + " + +" " + ", 6 +" ! + .
/, . , "7 / () /"8
6! 7" ,0/ +" . (":" . *"() ! + 6 7,/, (" "! " +

+ + , 6*" 1:2500 1:5000, 6 + ! ( " 6! 7" ,0/ , 6*"
1:10000. (" "! " * , + + 6 6! 7" ,0/ " * !, " () + )
+ + "! " / ( ,9 , (" +" + 6 ) "-" ( ) + 8 (+ . () /" .
6! 7" . + + 6"* . -/" ) . ( ) + 8 + + 6 + ,
(" ( (,/, ( - * () , , + , , .
"! () + + 6 7,/" (" + , * , ) ! + * )"( * , + ,
) () ( " 9) ", , :, 9"! "8 *" . ) ( +, / . ("
) /, + + /, () /"8 , "7 / .
6.3.4. !$0 ) - ' '$ ) !)

+ 8" ) () + + -,.+ ) ,)+ 7 + 8" + 7"8" () . *"
+ + * ( /, * () /"8 * , "7 / * . # *" , () , + + *
+"() ) /" , / + ,( ,( *.# *" * , , (* ( , + ! + ,
(* ) /, (" *" " , * , ( * , ) () , + + , , ( + . ) /
" () +: /, ( / ) () + + . )+ 7 + 8" + 7"8" *" + 9 (" () *
) 0 9 , *") * ( * 6 6 , ) () + + . ( * 8" + + + 9
" ,6" ", ( ,! ! 6 / / () + +" /" 8 . + +"() ) ,
"( / +, 6 6+ 7"8" + " / ! 6 / /" " ,- 0 !
!" ")( ! 6 + - , - 6 ) () " ") () (, :"* )" (),: , - ), , ( ,(

1 153
*. # / +: + 8" + + 9 (" (), , 0 ( 6 !" ")( "
+" 6 ("- " ) "-". " , - ,6" " , (), ( , -" / , () ,
) 9 , ( , (+" *" " + + * 6 /" /" ( 6 ,! 0 .
,)+ 7 + 8" *" + 9 " , - , () " *" " 6,/, (" () /" *
( * + + , ' * * , (), , 6 " ) () + + . # *" " + + *
/, * () /"8 * , "7 / * ( *:" " () " (,-/" ) 6 0 39.
# + , 6,/, (" ("- ' * *( * + + . ( "+ + 6 () +
2. + ! 0 , - -"6-"7,/" +"6, ( ( * ( * , ) () , + + . /"
!" ")( ( * 8" + + 6+ 9" , ( ,( ( * +"() ) , (" 6 /" #
$ . (" * "! " " - ) ! . )" " ( .
) , () +:" . " ! " () " +"() ) , ,)+ + (, 6+ 9"
,( ,( ( * , , - "6 ( 0 () ) + ) ,)+ 7" " " () ) " )
8 . + ) 8 8" , "7" * ,. +"() ) , () +:" * , " )
,)+ 7" " " () ) ", , - " "9"8"* - ) 6 + 8"
. # *" " () " 6! 8 * " () , / *+ + + " (" + *
+ + , "! () , + + . (, + + /, () /"8 , "7 /
, 8" ( )" " , - 9, (" + * + + , (" (+ 8 * ) / 0,+ /,.
# () /" + + * " ) + /, (" , "! () , + + . # ,9)" *
+ + * /, * () /"8 * , "7 / * , / (, , 8" , " ) + /, ("
! + /, * ,( + * 6 * ,+ + . (), , + 8 ) () + + ,
6 .)"+ 6 )" "( + . , 6 /, (" /" + + /" " . () +
" + () , /" 0 . (+ . + () + + . /" 6 () + 1. + ! 0
* /, - ) +" " * ! , + + , ) ( " +" " " () "
- 7+ 0 " ) , -". / + + 6 7,/" (" - 6 ,' * ) 4
3. / " . " + () , (,/" (" - / / * /" / 6 ) .

1 154
4 :
1. 1
2. )
3.
4. ) $ ,
, '.
5. %
6. ,
7. ) ,
8. % $ , #
9. $
10. )
11. " , "
12. #
13.
14. '
15.
16. 2
17. 3%
18. # $ $
19. # $
20. # $ "
21. # $ #
22. # $ $ "
23. $
24. - "
25. "
26.
27. #
28. # ( , $ "
" )
29. ! ( !, ,
, " ! , !
30. .
31. .
32.
33.
34.
1 155
6 4 :
1. 0, ) "' * /, , " , /" / - (" , . , , ) /

+ )( / + 9 6 ( d = 450.23 m , ( " 8 + " () )" 6 (
Y = 7545000.00 m .
2. # ")+ 8" * , ( . , "* , ( " )" - ,)

"* , ( " , ( " )"
Y X Y X
34 230.23 4 480 540.22
- 12 120.22 4 445 542.10
7 560 230.10 4 490 340.00
7 450 100.12 4 500 300.40
3. # ")+ ) + ,! " )" , " - ,) . ) 0")

+ ,! ! ( ()"* - ) + ,! ! ( ()"* , (, )" (5000, 5000).
d X Y
130.00 m 301030
450 m 1202040
5500 5800
6100 4500
4. 0, ) , , " ,! 6*"7, ) 0 1 2; ( 3 4, ( +,
) ) . , ) -" :
X Y
1 5500 5800
2 6100 4500
3 4 856 120.23 7 510 000.32
4 4 856 720.23 7 450 000.32
5. 6 + ) ! ( + ,*") ,) 6*"7, +" )" ) 0 ", (, 6 ) ( " " .
P
P
z
B

2
A
B
1
2 3
1 Q
3

1 156
# ! ( " "8 )
() , !
A1 305.42 A=1040035 P = 433130
12 359.60 1=632005 z = 1061730
23 612.16 2=2581102 d =0.01 m
3B 485.13 3=1204504 = 30
B=2363033
Ta1 Y X
A 4 321.404 6 240.562
B 5 619.243 6 405.272
6. 0, ) )" " 6 )" ) 0 " % (, )" )" ) 0 *" "

,! + , ) ,! ,:
X Y
1000.00 1000.00
1000.00 1600.00
= 45 10 12
= 65 10 12
7. 0, ) )" " 6 )" ) 0 " #, (, )" )" ) 0 , % *" " "

, " ) 0 "# ) .) 0 .
X Y
1000.00 1000.00
1000.00 1600.00
% 1300.00 1300.00
dAP = 269.258 m
dBP = 364.005 m
dCP = 206.155 m
8. 0, ) + 9 , ' !, " - 0")+ ,! ( +, ) " * .) 0 .

( +, ) . ) ) 0 0")+ ,! " ) )" "(" / !
0")+ ,! .
)" ) . ) 0 :
X Y
1000.00 1000.00
1000.00 1600.00
% 1500.00 1000.00
1500.00 1650.00
(125 ha)

1 157
9. )" (, + ( " " " R100 (H100 = 130,342 m) R200 (H200 = 131,828 m). ( +, *" "8
+ ( ( . 6 ( 0, ) + ( " " 6 ) . ) 0 1, 2 3.
$ 3 :
/ Rn h 'i di vi h i Hi
+
1 R100 151.520
1.917 0.20
R1
4.426 0.26
R2
5.571 0.16
R3
-1.690 0.29
R200 161.761
[h ] =
'
i
0.91
( H 200 H 100 ) =
fH =
10. ( +, ) *" "8 (" , " 6" ) ! ,! ( 0, ) + ( ( , 6 ,

*") *) ! *") /( ! +" * .
z AB = 894330, d AB = 460.56 m, i A = 1.235 m , l B = 2.450 m
11. 0, ) + ( " ") : . ) 0 , ! ' (, ) ( " "

*" "8
) 6, , 5 ) 8" ( ( H = HV - l HV # *" -
")+" - l 6
1 #1 60 0.351 108.752
62 2.371
1 0.71
2 0.50
3 0.92
(2.372)
2 56 2.440
#2 58 1.106 108.071
4 1.50
5 1.20
6 1.23
#2 (1.108)

1 158
:
. . $
(& /, 1997)
# ! ( * " 1. " /" ),/" (" , + , "'" " ) " * " "
* !, ()+, () + "*" ( 8 *. # ! ( * " 2. " /" ),/" (" ,
+ , ! ( " * " " 1. " "'" " ) " * " ".
" *") /( - ! ( " * " " 1. " /" ),/" (" , + , ( ()"*
6 )+ " . ! / " ) " ) , :,0,/, ) 0 "
"'" " ) " * " ".
" *") /( - ! ( " * " " 2. " /" ),/" (" , + ,

/" 0 . + + ( ()"* *"7,( - +"6 . + + / ("
( w /, ) 0 " "'" " ) " * " " ! ( " * " " 1. " .
! ( / * " 2. " , )" " ( ( ), / ) 6 .)"+ (,( "

,6 " ( " " , ", 6 )+ " ,6 + 9) , 9) ,- .
( ( .), 6,6") (" * !, 6+ / ) ( " + + ( /+ 9" /" *
! ( * () *.
# /" ) + w, - ! ( " * " " 1. 2. " ) "- ("

+ ) ( " " . + :
- * ! * - ) * 8 20 km;
, /" .+ + * - ) * 8 4 km;
! ( + + ) "- -, , * !, ()+, 9) ( , " / ;
( , (,(" . () , ! ( *+ ,* "- ) /+ 9"
1:3;
, " ! ( . () ) "- (, , ! * 50-500 m, -"6
-6
6! 7" () ,0/ ;
! ( + + , () * + , )" " + , " (*"/, (" (" ;
" (*"/, (" /" ) + ) ,! 0 " + + .
# /" ) ! ( " * " " 6 7,/" (" + * ( ) *

6*" 1:2500, 1:5000 1:10000 ) ) / * .
0 " () /" " "'" " ) " * " " ( ) + /, (" +" *,
+ /" ) + " ) 0 " ! ( " * " " 1. 2. " * ),9"*.
# /" ) + " () " ! ( " * " " 1. " ( ) + /, (" * ),9"*
"-: * /" 0.6 mm, () " ! ( " * " " 2. " 0.2mm .
(+ , ) () ( , 9) , 6 7,/" (" ( ! ( " * " " ,

6*" 1:5000 1:10000, / ( :
) ,* " ,( ( ( * ) * 6+ + () ;
")" () /" " ) 0 " +" * + "7" " ) 0 " * ),9"*;
! , ) () ( " 9) " "), 6" " * ),9"* "-: " 0.8 mm;
! , ! 7"+ ( ! " "), ,) * ),9"* "-: " 0.5 mm;
1 159
" , () +" ( "), " " * / * :,- 0 () * ),9"*
"-: " 0.5 mm) ( " ") : ( "), " " * / *
:,- 0 () * ),9"* "-: " 0.2 mm) ( 0 ! ( * 8 , ( *
" , () +" ' ) ! *") /( " *") " ( * 8 ;
" ) *" " " () " ( ) " " " * / *, 0, ( "
( " * / *( * ),9"* "-: " 0.2 mm).
(":" ( +" + 9" ) () ( . 9) , *" (" ,*" /

! ( . ) 0 + 9 " " 6 7,/" (" /" ()+" (
! ( "* " "6 " (":".
! ( " * " " 6 7,/" (" /" * + 9" () + ' * )

100 cm ( 70 cm 70 cm ( 50 cm 6 + ( +" 0 " ) () ( "
9) " 6 - " 6*" ".
,*" ( 8" ) 0 ! ( " * " " 1. 2. " + 9 (" ) () ( *

9) * - / 1 :". ! +" (": ! ( ! )" (
+" + 9" ) () ( . 9) , 6 * ( ,0/ /
-,.+ ) /, +" + 9" ) () ( . 9) , ,*" ( 8" ! ( .
) 0 + 9 (" " " -"6 -6 ! " ) () ( . 9) .
"() 6 ! ( , ) 0 ,- (" ) -"6-"7,/" ) / () -" "!"

! () 6 *" "8" , , ,! + 6 ( * 8" ") : .
) - 6 / ! ( .) 0 + 9 (" + ,) / * -" "! *

) C ) D.
" "! * ) C -"6 6"* ! " ) () - 6,/, (" ! ( " ) 0 ",

(' ), -") ,. )" ) + * !, (" , ) "- ) , " *") "
0" "0 10 cm ( ('" * ) *,( " , * "0
2 mm, 6 * + "*" .
" "! * ) D( 6"* * " ) * () - 6,/, (" ! ( ") 0 "

() - / 0+ () / 6"*: / 6 . 0 () * 8 (' ( /")
6"* " 6"* " -" "!" * - ) () .
) - 6 / ! ( .) 0 * " (" + 9 ) *" * -" "! * (

- 7" * ! + *, ,! 7" * - * , +" * , -") ( () +") *
6"* * " ) *.
" "!" /" (" () - 6,/, , - + * 6"*: 9), , + /, (" /* w" 50

cm ( + 9 )" " 6"* " -") ( " *" " -" "!" (
6"* * " ) *.
6 6"* ! " ) () +q (" ,* /,*( ' / .
()" + ) * )" " * ! ( " ) 0 " * !, (" 6,6") () - 6 + )

+" ) ,( 7" " " !+ 6 " * - * ( , *
"0 2 mm.
(+ , + () - 6 + , ! ( , ) 0 , ,6 * (" ( / (
*" 8 * , (,/" , ) ! *") /( - 6 - / 27.
1 160
" "8" . 6 ) . ,! + , ! ( / * " 1. " + 9 ("

( 0 * /" (" , * )" ) *, " " ) ( * )" ) *
0 / /" "6 , / 6 ,! + " + " () 1". " "8" (" + 9
+ , ! ,( * *") *, , /* 8" + ! ,( , + 6 8"* * "
( * " ) ( 8"*.
" "8" . 6 ) . ,! + , ! ( / * " 2. " + 9

( 0 * )" ) * ( ) * . 6 ) ! *- /+ 9" 6"
! + /, * " " ) ( * )" ) *. " "8" (" + 9 + ,
! ,( * *") *, , + ! ,( , + 6 8"* * ".
"6, ) ) *" "8 . 6 ) . ,! + , ! ( /* " 1. 2. "

, (,/, (" , ) ! *") /( - 6 - / 1.
(" * *" "8 + 9 ,) * )( "! () / , * ("

-"6-" ) 9) * 8" "6, ) ) *" "8 , ' * ) 4 (
( /"* / ! + ( /, ) ! *") /( ! - ( - / 1.
)" )
/ * (" 6+ " ,! + *" "8 , ! ( /* " 1. 2.
" " (" )"() 6 ) () " + 9 " " *") 9 "
- ) /". )"() " * " - ) () / +" ! " 0, )
) " ,) 6 + 9") *" "8 ! + /, * )" ) *.
! " , +" 0 /" (" )" ) * *" "8 . 6 ) . ,! + ,

! ( / * " 1. 2. " 8 . +" - ", + " " -" +"
() , /" , " , / (" ( - , ,! + . *" "8 ,
"'" " ) / * " .
, " , ! ( / * " 1. 2. " *" " (" " " ) * ! ") *

: *" * .
" "8" , " " ) * ! ") * : *" * 6 0 w"

- +: 8, )"() ( + () *" 6 ) * () " + 9 " "
*") 9 " - ) /". )"() " * " - ) () / +" ! "
0, ) ) " ,) (, *" "8 , 6 + 9" .
, " (" *" " - () ( + 0 ) + 8 * *") . " "8"

+ ( " () ,*" ) ( ! + 9 (" " ) *") . #
)* ('" ( * ) ( , )"* " ), (,+ ! + 6 ,. ,6 * /, (" ( *
() 6 ) " ,) *" "8 .
6 *" "8" , + 9 (" *" "8" ! + /, . 6" ) . () / 8 ,

- / , - ( /" * 0 ) + 8"*. ! " , + ()" )" )
6 *" "8" 6" ) . () / 8 , 8"! +" ) 0 () ( + () + "
" -" /" (" (" *" "8" . 6 ) . ,! + .
"6, ) ) *" "8 ( . , 6" ) . () / 8 , (" (" ,

) ! *") /( - 6 - / 18# / ( :
6 +" () 0 " + 6, " ) 0 ";

"6, ) )" 0 ) + 8 (" , ";
1 161
"6, ) )" 0 ) + w +" ) ! *- ;
6" ) () / 8";
) "6 + ( , () ,*" ) ( ! ;
+ " () )* ('" ( ! ) ( ,* - * ;
+ " () )"* " ), " (,+ ! + 6 ,. , C;
*" -, ( 0 ( * 8 , *" * " ) " * + "*" ( .
,( + .
(" * *" "8 , 6" ) . () / 8 + 9

,) * )( "! () / ,* (" -"6-" ) 9) * 8" "6, ) ) *" "8
, ' * ) 4 ( ( /"* / ! + ( /,
) ! *") /( ! - ( - / 18#.
+ 7"8" *" " . , , + ) ( ()"* + 9 (" , (+"*,

"* (), , " + 7" * 6 (+ 7"8" , *" " . , "'" " ) /
* " .
( ( " 6 " + ( ") 0 ! ( " * " " 1. " , " . " 6

" , /, *" " . , , "7,/, (" 6 + 8"* * " "
) ! *") /( ! +" * *") * /* 8 . + ) 0 ,
( " . *" "8 . # * 6 + 8 * " " ) ! *") /( !
+" * , + ( " ) 0 "'" " ) " * " " ,6 * /, (" 6 )".
( ( " 6 " + ( ") 0 ! ( " * " " 2. " , " . "6

" , /, *" " . , , "7,/, (" 6 + 8"* ) ! *") /( !
+" * + + * , + , ! ! ( " * " " 1. " .
# * 6 + 8 + ( ") 0 "'" " ) " * " " ) 0 ! ( "
* " " 1. " ,6 * /, (" 6 )"
# ' 6 *" "8 , ! ( / * " 1. 2. " * !, (" + 9 ) ,

() ) 0 * "* ) 0 * " *, .
() ) 0 * " *, , # /"* )" " () +: /, ("

! ( " ) 0 " ) (" "7,/, +" ) / " () +: /,
! ( " () ". 0 *" "8 , - , "! () /, "6, ) ) + "
" -" +" () , /" /" (" (" # *" "8 , "'" " ) /
* " .
"* ) 0 " * , ("- * /" ) * "9"8"* "7,/, ("

(), *" "8 , - " "! () /" "6, ) ) .
) 0 " ! ( " * " " 1. 2. " 6 7,/" (" "! () ! ( "

* " " / ( :
- / ) 0 ";
- / () " ) ! *") /( ! - ( - / 1 / / (, , (
"6, ) ) *" "w . 6 ) . ,! + ;
- / () " ) ! *") /( ! - ( - / 18# / / (, , (
"6, ) ) *" "8 ( . , 6" ) . () / 8 ;
- / () " - ( # 1 / / (, , ( "6, ) ) # *" "8 ,
() ) 0 * " *, ;
1 162
- / () " ) ! *") /( ! - ( - / 27 / / (" 6 (
/ ) 0 ".
6 + 8" ! ( " * " " 1. 2. " "7 + w" + ,! .

) ) 0 , + * ) * ( ()"*, + 9 (" ( q,0 +
*") /* 8 . + ) 0 ,6 ( " *" "8 .
# ! ( * " 1. " 6 + + (" , + , "'" " ) " * " "

"( - * " , ( 6 "' /, ),* * " " ()" ("
6 )" )" ) 0 "'" " ) " * " " /" (" , (), , 6 + 8
,6 * /, ) 0 ".
# ! ( * " 2. " 6 + + (" , + , ! ( " * " "

"( - * " , + , 6 + 8 /" 0 . + + ! , "
+ + , + , ! ! ( " * " " 1. " . "' /,
),* * " " , - ( ,0 / ()" (" 6 )" )" ) 0
"'" " ) " * " " ! ( " * " " 1. " /" (" , (), ,
6 + 8 ,6 * /, ) 0 ".
) , ), ', ! () . () 0 ! * " 6 + 8 ! ( "

* " " 1. 2. " 6 + ( + ()" 6+ 9" . *" "8 . " "8 /
,0"()+,/, , 6 + 8, * !, - ) :
( :,0 + )" "() 0 ,! + " *" "8 ;

( :,0 + # *" "8 ;
*- / )" "() 0 . # *" "8 .
, 6 + 8, ,0"()+,/, ( * )" "() 0 ,! + " *" "8
*") " ', ! * " 0 " ( * + ,! " )"
! ( . ) 0 , + * ) * ( ()"*,. ) . () 0
* " "7" /" )" * *" "8 /" (" 0, /, " 0 "
+ " () + ) ( " 8 . ! "9 - /" . "). * " *
) 0 () " * ) 0 () 6 "6, ) ) *" "8 .
, 6 + 8, ,0"()+,/, ( * # *" "8 *") " ', !

* " 0 "( * + ,! " )" ! ( .) 0 ,! - *
!" " ) 0 * + ,! * ) * ( ()"*,. ) . () 0 * "
"' ( /" + / * * ) * ( () +:" * + / .
* ) /" . ) . 6 .
"+ 7"8" 6 + ) . + ,! . ) , + )
( ()"* "' 9" (" ("- ) (' * (), , ! + *
/" ),.
,! 0 , ) "-" # *" "8 /" 0, w" () . , 6

) . 6 . ) * ( ,0 /, + 9 (" w . + (+ 7"8" , +
) ( ()"* (" "). " " + ( " ) 0 * " ", ,
6 + 8, :" ,0"()+,/, (, *" " " " " ) * ! ") *
: *" *.
(" 6 0, 8" + ,! . ) ) 0 "'" " ) " * " "

()" *- + )" "() 0 # *" "8 , ! + * /" ) * ("
"' 9" (), 6 /" 0 " - " "'" " ) " * " ".
1 163
) 0 " ! ( " * " " 1. 2. " 6 7,/" (" ( ( )

+ ( , (,/" , ) ! *") /( - 6 - / 25.
1 164
( $ ,- 1997)
/( * " (" 6+ / (" ( () /" . !" ")( . ) 0

"* " ( * ) ( + ") :. /( , * " , 0 " (+" /" 9 " "
6 ( * 8" ") : /" *"7,( - ( / /, !" ")( " ) 0 ", "
/, ! ( /* " .
/( " ) 0 " "7,/, (" *" "8"* , /" ( " " .

0 :
,*") 8"* 6*"7, +" "7" . !" ")( .) 0 ;

,0 * "(" * , ;
, + / ! ,) / ), , ;
, ") , )" /".
,6 * )" " , -, , /" , + " ! ( * * " *,

/( * " (" /" ),/" 6 (+ - ("- .
/( ) 0 "7,/" (" ,0 * "(" * ( /* 8" ) *" 8
/ (, + ( "7" . 6 ), - /" "
, ", 0"*, ,! "(" *"7, (,(" * / * /" * 8
30 ) +" 150 .
/( " ) 0 " (" () - 6,/, , *" * 6"*: 9), " * 0 * "+ *
-"6 6"* ! " ) , , )+ / 6 !+ 6 " * + * , "
8-15 cm "0 15-20 mm.
( " * 0 . "+ () +: (" ,* /,*( ' / .
# () +: 8" /( . ) 0 , + , , + / + 9 ("
)" ) *.
/( " * " " 6 7,/" (" , 6*" 1:2500 1:5000

( :
) ,* " ,( ( ( * ) * 6+ + () ;
) ! *") /( " ! ( " ) 0 " ( 8 . + * - /"+ * +" *
),9"*;
! ( " () " ( ) " " " * / * +" * ),9"*
"-: " 0.2 mm;
" , () +" ( " ") : 8 . +" 6 ", - /"+" 6*" "
( ( " () 0 ( ! ( " * " ";
/( " ) 0 " ")" *" 8 * "0 1 mm, 8 . +" - /"+"
/" 6+,0" " ( ( " * ),9"*, ( * /( . ) 0 /"
(, ( 8" + + ! ( " * " " 0 / (" - /"+ ( (,/,
+" * ),9"*.
(+ () + ( " ") : * /, /" , 6*" ,, (" ( * /" *

6 0 ,( : * (,, * + 9" 6*" (" ( (,/,
(+ * (), ( ") : .
! /" ) * !, " ( /( " * " " " 6 7,/" (" ("- +" ("
/( " ) 0 " /" 6 ( * 8" (" ( , ! ( " * " ".
1 165
/( " ) 0 " ,*" 9, (" ( " ! ( . ) 0 , () +: /,

6 ( " 8"! - / ! ( " ) 0 ".
/( " ) 0 " /" (" () - 6,/, () + "*" ! ( "

,*" 9, (" , ) , ,*" ( 8 ! ( .) 0 .
# " * / * ( / . (" ( * ) ! * *") * ("*

(+ / . 6 ( , -,...) - / /, - /"+" /( " ) 0 " ( *"
1204/ , 1205/-).
+ /( ) 0 *" (" , - (*" . *" 8 (" + 9" ,6

*" "8 ! ( . () , (,/, , ) ! *") /(
- 6 - / 18, ) ! *") /( - 6 - / 18 6 ( 6- .
6 ( * 8" ") : ) ! * *") * (" , (,/, (
") : ,6 ( 6 ) ! ( * 8".
/" / * (" "7,/" /( ) 0 ,0 * "(" *, /"

! ,) / , + / ( , , ") ,, *" " (" , - (*" .
/" () - 6 + /( ) 0 ! ( / () (* ) ("
6 ) * ) 0 * !" ")( " ( +", *" 8" ,*") ,) .
/( . ) 0 ) / ! ( / () ( * 8" ") : + 9
(" )" /( " ) 0 " ( 8".
6+ :" 6 6*"7, *" 8 " 6 6 6*" " ( * 8

1:500 1:1000 (*" " 6+ :" (), 8":
= 0.0010[d] + 0.00012[d] + 0.03
6+ :" (), 8" - / (" , *") * (" 6- ,

! ( . () [d] 6 6 , *") * .
# 0, 8 /( " * " " 6 7,/" (" ( /( " * " ".
+ / /( " * " " / / (" 6 /" + 9"

/( . ) 0 - / (+ / - / 0"+ - / 1. /" (" ,*" 9,
( , + * / ( -6 * *"7,( - , +"6 () 0 " 6 ("- "
" " ( /" , - , " , - ). ,*" 9, (" * !, "*
" ( " , 0, 8 , 6 + ( () ! ( " /( " * " "
*"7,( - " 6 + ( () ( * . / .
(, ! ( / () / / () / ) /( ) 0
,*") ,)" /( " ) 0 ", (+ " )" ! ( " () " /, "
) /( ) 0 - / (+ / - / 6 /( " * " ". / - / /"
/ - / /" ( " ( ** !( + 6-, ".
/ /" (" ( (,/" * ),9"* +" 0 " 2 mm 8" " ( " "
" ( ( / ( .
# 6+ 9" * 0, 8, /( . ) 0 /" " /" 8" - / ("

6 , * ),9"*.
1 166
6 0, 8 /( " * " " 6 7,/" (" "! () /( "

* " ", , / (" , (,/,:
- / /";
/8" ) 0 " /" ,*") ,)" ) 0 " / ;
- /( " ") q / / (" 6 / ;
() ) ! *") /( . - 6 - / 18, 22, 22 23 ! " (, , (
*" 8 ( ! " (, ( 0, )" )" /( . ) 0 )"
/";
, /";
" (), 8";
6+ :" (), 8";
)"! / )" " .
0, 8" ) /( .) 0 + 9 (" ,:
) ! *") /( * - ( ,- / 22 ;
) ! *") /( * - ( ,- / 22 ;
) ! *") /( * - ( ,- / 23;
) ! *") /( * - ( ,- / 23 ;
) ! *") /( * - ( ,- / 23 .
0, 8" ) /( . ) 0 () (" ( " 8 + " ()

," - /" 6 - *" 8 ( * *" 8 / (, ,6")
( * 8, ") : ) ! * *") * (" () ( * *" "8"
6+ 9" ,6 ( * 8" ") : .
/( " ) 0 " /" (" 6" / (), 8" 6*"7, , "

( 0, )" 6 ) /8 . ) 0 /" . 6 )
" , + " , " " (*" " + " () ), 6 6+ :" , 6 ,
*" "8 , + (*" .
/( " ) 0 " "7" " ,0 * "(" *, " (), 8" "

(*" " + " () 6+ :" ! (), 8 6 "). ! () + ,+" !
6 50%.
)" /( . ) 0 , (,/, (" , ) ! *") /( - 6

- / 25 " ( " , ,*" ( 8 ( " ( " 6 ! ( .
) 0 .

Geod Premer 1

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Geod Premer 1

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

. , .!" . .

(" "' 9" " + )" / + 9 0 / /" )" / /" )" / ,

) 0 * *" * "* : (" 0"() ( * ('" *. # "(" + 9 /

/ "(" + / 6 6 6"*: " +" ( 6"*: * + 9 6 + ("

6 + / * +" + /" 6" 6) 0 " B + 9 "*:" ' * * +"

- "*: - ('" ! - , - (+" /" , + " *" / " " " ,

# (* ) /* ) ) 0 " ( " 8 / + 9 "*:" /" - 6,/, ) ,! (( 1.1-6). # + 9

", , 6 + ( () )" , +" 0 " 6 .)"+ " ) 0 () "*" , + 9 "*"

- (" -"6-" ! + /, !" ")( ( + /, " (" "*" ( ) , " .

# "*" 6,*"+ *" "8" "7 + 8" () ! / " "*" ) ' 6 0 !

1.2.1. #$ % $! & '& '(

1.2.2. $ ) "# $! & '& '(

1.2.3. $&$! & '& '(

1.3.1. & ! '"(

( " 8" + "*", , "*" ,, 6 0 / /" (,) )". ! / &# '(

- !" ")( ),* "' ( /" (Moritz, 1980):

" " , ) ( ()"* /" , (,9) () ) / *. ),* ) *

1.3.4. !& !& / $' ( '$ * /) &

! " (,: H - + ( , + * ( ()"*,,

# *") , B C "7,/, (" ( +, 6 ) . + ( , - ( ()"* , *")

! '( ! '0 6,/" / "7" . " "*" ) !" ! '( ! () .

(" +" )" ) / "*" , "' * /" (, 6 0 / /". ) * ( ,0 /, *

) ! '( /" / / (" ( () * "( + 8 6 +:" "

,(- !" + /" / () /" 0 / /" ( ( +

, :"8"* ! *" / +" + (" "' * / , ' *,

- (" - +" 9 6 ", ,*"() ! () (" (" , /

*" (" () " ( " " ":

+ / 0 () ! ,) /" 9 6 " -, " 3.

1.4.2. !" & & ( !" & $! & '

! " /" - " * , / 6 ( = 0,9999.

Y = 7500000,00 + ( 22362,48) (0,9999) = 7 477 639,76

Y = ( 7532411,11 7500000,00) / 0,9999 = 32 414,35

" , / , " ( " ( (, 9"* "*" , - , )" + ( " + 9 ) d +

1.4.3. ! & ') & $ ' $ ) $ 1& ' ( UTM

6, 9", /" ,(+ /" " + " /" /", &

( + " )" () " UTM /" /" (,:

# " ) ! 9) /" +"9) , "*" * (+ ,0 -" " / .

,0 -" " / "*" () 0, 6 *" " () ! . * )"* ) 0 . )". /" ("

6 + ( () ) ")* 6"*: " 6 +:" () , "*" (" ,( + * " " ) :

$ ( $ " $ )& , + 9 "*:" ( * ( + *" 6 * + ( "' 9" X,Y

!' $ ( $ * "' ( 8 / ) 0 , "*:, ) ") , 8" *

6 + ( () *" ", "*" (" * " " ) :

2.1. CONTROL SURVEY

# "*" ) . ) 0 , + , "8" ( ! "*" -"6-"7,/" " . ,

" ,- - / "!6 () /, +" 6 0 )" / " !" ")( " ( +":

2.2. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY

! '( * "*" * "' 9, (" / + ( " - . ) 0 6"*: /

2.3. 2 3 ROUTE SURVEYING

# "*" ( - / . *, / /"()" 9 / *. # 8 * (" /0"9 " 6,*"+

") : /" "*" , ( - / . *, / - " + 9" "0 , + , " *") +"6 .

# "*" 6 ) "-" 6! 8" ! 7"+ ( . -/" ) -,.+ ) :

, / * ( ,0 /"+ * , ( + "* 6 !" ")( ! () ,08 /"(, ( ()"*

") : /" "*" , ( - / . *, / - " + 9" "0 , + , " *") +"6 .

# "*" 6"*: 9) - + (" 6 0 + 8"* *" "8"* , + / (! ) /"

*"), 6"*: 9) , * " ( 6"*: 9) ( /" ! ,! ! + ( , + /"

( ,( "+" " * ) "- * , "*" 6"*: 9) (" " :

# "*" 6"*: 9) 6+ (": ) ) * () * , # )". ! / *, )" ) * (

) ! *") /( *") 6,*"+ ()+ + 8" ' * / -/" ) * " ) *

2 ! '( "*" -,.+ ) , : 8" 6 + 8" (+ . " "+ ) . )

. 6 ) / + , / + ! -/" ) ( /"! (" + 9 "*" (0 * - 6

*" "8" ,- () (" " a (echo-sounder). . ( , " " ,

"' ( 8" . 6 ) ! / + , . 6 ) / + * 6+ 7"8

'$ & )". " 6,*"+ /, *" , ( ' () . , "7 / (

) 0 * " "* : (" 0"() ( * ('" *. # "(" + 9 /

/ "(" + / 6 6 6": " +" ( 6": * + 9 6 + ("

6 + / * +" + /" 6" 6) 0 " B + 9 ":" ' * +"

- ": - ('" ! - , - (+" /" , + " " / " " " ,

", , 6 + ( () )" , +" 0 " 6 .)"+ " ) 0 () "" , + 9 ""

# "" 6,"+ " "8" "7 + 8" () ! / " "" ) ' 6 0 !

( " 8" + "", , "" ,, 6 0 / /" (,) )". ! / &# '(

" " , ) ( ()"* /" , (,9) () ) / . ), ) *

# ") , B C "7,/, (" ( +, 6 ) . + ( , - ( ()" , *")

(" +" )" ) / "" , "' /" (, 6 0 / /". ) * ( ,0 /, *

, :"8"* ! " / +" + (" "' / , ' *,

# " ) ! 9) /" +"9) , "" (+ ,0 -" " / .

,0 -" " / "" () 0, 6 " " () ! . * )"* ) 0 . )". /" ("

6 + ( () ) ")* 6": " 6 +:" () , "" (" ,( + * " " ) :

$ ( $ " $ )& , + 9 ":" ( ( + " 6 + ( "' 9" X,Y

!' $ ( $ * "' ( 8 / ) 0 , ":, ) ") , 8"

6 + ( () " ", "" (" * " " ) :

# "" ) . ) 0 , + , "8" ( ! "" -"6-"7,/" " . ,

! '( * "" "' 9, (" / + ( " - . ) 0 6"*: /

# "" ( - / . , / /"()" 9 / . # 8 (" /0"9 " 6,*"+

") : /" "" , ( - / . , / - " + 9" "0 , + , " *") +"6 .

") : /" "" , ( - / . , / - " + 9" "0 , + , " *") +"6 .

# "" 6": 9) - + (" 6 0 + 8"* " "8" , + / (! ) /"

"), 6": 9) , * " ( 6"*: 9) ( /" ! ,! ! + ( , + /"

( ,( "+" " * ) "- * , "" 6": 9) (" " :

# "" 6": 9) 6+ (": ) ) * () * , # )". ! / , )" ) (

) ! ") /( ") 6,"+ ()+ + 8" ' / -/" ) * " ) *

. 6 ) / + , / + ! -/" ) ( /"! (" + 9 "" (0 - 6

'$ & )". " 6,"+ /, " , ( ' () . , "7 / (

9 /" "" , " ") () - " "0 , + , ! , " " ") 6 - ()

- ! () " " ":" () " 6 () ), /" /" ) 0

"" , , + /0"9 " (" ()" + ,! ) ( ()" . (" + ,! !

+ ,! * ) * ( ()",, / ) 0 " "' ( /" + ,! ) *

/" /" 6 ) (" ,! + " " , ()" " , * . #, ,! ( 360

) 0 * " " )" (" 0"() ()" * 0, 8

# "* * 6 ) -" " 3.3-1, ,6 ") () + , , " ) "- " ) ( " ) +

"" ,, " "8 (, 0 :. " " , ( +, "6, ) ) *" "8 0, /, ("

# ! ") / /"()" "' ( /" () + ") ,( () +: 8 * " " ) .

(" ()" ) . ") /( () ," ) , ,"() () (" ) . ") (

" "!" /" (" () - 6,/, , - + * 6": 9), , + /, (" / 8" 50 cm ( + 9

!$0 ) - !" ")( " ( +" + 9 (" , (+ ., + 8 "" . 6 ,/" + 8"