Theories of Career Development

Career Development: Theories of Content

Refers to the influences on career development

which are either intrinsic to the individual
themselves or emanate from within the context in
which the individual lives.

In general, though, it is the individual influences that

got more attention

Parsons, Holland, Brown, McRae and John, etc.,

Career Development: Theories of Content

Frank Parsons book, Choosing a Vocation (1909)

Parsons observed that vocational choice consists of

self-understanding, knowledge of occupations, and
true reasoning, or discernment.

His idea was to help people create a good match

between self and occupation.
Career Development: Theories of Content

In the 1960s John Holland created a hexagonal model to build on

the matching perspective suggested by Parsons.

Workplace comprised of six major work environments and a

populace comprised of six personality types.

He gave the same names to both: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic,

Social, Enterprising and Conventional.

The matching process is a two-way street; people search for work

environments that are compatible with their personalities, and work
environments are created to attract certain types of people.
 REALISTIC
Has narrow range of interests and possesses
traditional values
Comfortable working within institutional
restraints
Values being practical-minded
Perceives self as lacking ability in human
relations
Has confidence in realistic skills but may have
low self-esteem
 INVESTIGATIVE
Aversion to persuasive, social, and
repetitive activities
Values scientific or scholarly activities and
achievements
Is open to new ideas and experience
Sees self as analytical, curious
Seeks challenging problems
 ARTISTIC
Aversion to systematic, and structured
activities
Values being imaginative but not being
obedient, logical, or responsible
Very open to feelings and ideas, and to
others
 SOCIAL
Prefers activities aimed to train, develop,
cure, or enlighten others
A deficit in manual and technical
competencies
Aspires to become a competent parent or
teacher
 ENTERPRISING
Values economic and political achievement:
controlling others, and being ambitious
Aspires to becoming a leader in business, influential
in public affairs.
Perceives self as aggressive, self-confident, sociable
but lacking scientific ability
Would find holding a position of power most
gratifying
 CONVENTIONAL
Preference for activities entailing structured,
systematic manipulation of data
Believes in becoming an expert in finance or
commerce, leading a comfortable life
Prefers to work within the structure of an
organization
Believes it is desirable to be ambitious, obedient,
and polite
 REALISTIC OCCUPATIONS

RIS : PILOT

RIE : EXECUTIVE PILOT, HARDWARE ENGINEER

RIC : SYSTEMS DESIGNER

REI : MATERIALS ENGINEER

INVESTIGATIVE OCCUPATIONS
IRE : SOFTWARE ENGINEER

IAS : ECONOMIST

IER : CHIEF ENGINEER, CONSULTANT

IES : ELECTRONICS ENGINEER

 ARTISTIC OCCUPATIONS

AIE : WRITER

ASR : FASHION DESIGNER

ASI : ARTIST, COPY WRITER

ASE : COMPOSER, STORY EDITOR, PLAYWRIGHT

AES : COLUMNIST, AD. AGENCY MANAGER

 SOCIAL OCCUPATIONS
SIA : CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST
SAE : HIGHER SECONDARY TEACHER, CAREER
COUNSELLOR
SEA : HR MANAGER
SER : EMPLOYEE RELATIONS SPECIALIST
SEI : PROFESSOR
SEC : PERSONNEL MANAGER
SCE : RECRUITMENT SPECIALIST
 ENTERPRISING OCCUPATIONS
ERI : SALES ENGINEER, R&D DIRECTOR

ERC : PRODUCTION MANAGER

ESI : IR DIRECTOR

ESA : SALES MANAGER , POLITICIAN

ESC : MARKETING MANAGER

 CONVENTIONAL OCCUPATIONS

CRS : CREDIT ANALYST

CIS : COMPUTER SECURITY SPECIALIST

CIE : COST ACCOUNTANT, INVESTMENT ANALYST

 Career Interventions by Holland Type
Pitfalls

Realistic 1. See limited transfer of skills

2. See few options careers, employers,
etc.,
3. Believes must have all the skills and
have done the job to be qualified
4. Finds it difficult to try something new
5. Not verbal in session/job interview
 Career Interventions by Holland Type
Pitfalls

Investigative 1. May need to take more risks

2. Spends too much time thinking not
enough doing
3. May develop lengthy decision process
4. Cautious and conservative about
career options
5. Lengthy resumes and interview
responses
 Career Interventions by Holland Type
Pitfalls

Artistic 1. May have several negative work

experiences
2. May see too many options; too many
ideas, difficult to focus
3. May not consider important details-
job market, opportunity for
advancement, actual job
responsibilities, etc
4. Impatient with details of career search
poor record keeping
5. Works in burst of energy
6. May take first convenient job
 Career Interventions by Holland Type
Pitfalls

Social 1. May want to please others with career

decisions/allow decisions to be
influenced by others
2. Not able to deal with own strong
feelings of fear, anxiety, inadequacy
3. May be too modest on resume or in
interviews
4. Lack of positive feedback very
discouraging
5. Has difficulty with logical analysis of
options
6. May take job rejection very personally
 Career Interventions by Holland Types
Pitfalls

Enterprising 1. May not take enough time for personal

reflection
2. Acts/talk before thinking in interviews
3. May move too quick without enough
planning
4. Too general/lengthy resume
5. May accept a job too quickly
6. May ignore written information
 Career Interventions by Holland Type
Pitfalls

Conventional 1. May look to authority for answers

2. May decide too quickly
3. May not sell themselves on resume
or in interviews
4. Plans too rigid; does not allow for
changes
5. May miss opportunities because
wants fast decisions
6. Too quiet and non-assertive in
interviews
7. May not develop or use network
Life-span Life-space Approach to
Career Development

Super, D.E
 TYPES OF EXPECTED PERFORMANCE
A person's dominant type determines the primary
direction of Career choice

High levels of personal consistency, differentiation,

and identity will increase stability in career aspirations

High Career aspirations will be positively associated

with the types in the following order E S A I C R

Likelihood of creative performance increases as per

the following pattern A I S E R C
 Career involvement and satisfaction will be positively
associated with congruence

Women whose interest patterns are SAE or SAC will have

less work involvement, less job satisfaction outside the
home

Effective coping with job changes and unemployment goes

with the following pattern S E A I C R

High educational aspirations go with following pattern IS

ACER

Persons with consistent & differentiated personality

patterns and a high level of identity are more resistant to
external influence
 Congruence
Iachan Agreement Index
Job code

P CODE 1.____ 2. ____ 3.____ 4. No Match

1. _____ 22 10 4 0

2. _____ 10 5 2 0

3. _____ 4 2 1 0

Agreement ----- + ----- + ---- = ------

Values and Career Decision
Making
Duane Brown
 Role of Work and Cultural Values in
Occupational Choice, Satisfaction, and Success
Values are beliefs that are experienced by the individual as standards that
guide how one should function: they are cognitive structure, but they also
have behavioral and affective dimensions.

Individuals values are the basis of their self-evaluation and their

evaluation of others, and they play a major role in the establishment of
personal goals.

They may operate through a process of crystallization and prioritization.

Values are crystallized when individuals can identify them and tell how the
values influence their behavior. They are prioritized when individuals can
rank order them in terms of their relative importance
 Propositions on values
Work values are the most important determinants of career choice for
people with an individualism social value, if their work values are
crystallized and prioritized.

Such individuals act on their work values, if there is at least one

occupational option available that will satisfy the values held, provided:
values-based information about occupation options is available,
the difficulty level of implementing the options is approximately same,
the financial resources available are sufficient to support he implementation of the
preferred option
 Propositions on values

Factors that limit the number of occupational option

considered for people with an individualism social values are
low SES,
minority status,
disabilities,
gender,
low scholastic aptitude,
perception that they will be discriminated against in the occupation,

Self-efficacy will become a constraining factor in career

decision making process of individuals who value
individualism when the options being considered require
widely divergent skills and abilities
 Propositions on values
Individuals who hold collective social values, will chose
occupations that will correlate less with the individual's work
values.

Gender will be a major factor for those with collective social

value because of stereotyped perceptions of occupations by
decision makers resulting in occupational choices that are
stereotypical male and female.

Women with a collective social value will enter a more

restricted range of occupations than men with a collective
social value
Career Development: Theories of Process

Refers to the interaction and change over time and is

depicted in some theories as a series of stages
through which individuals pass.

Development theories (Ginzberg, Super)

 Career Development: Theories of Process
Ginzberg examined people from many age groups, and determined that
occupational choice is not a one-time decision, but a developmental process
occurring over several stages and sub stages.

Up to about age eleven, we live in a fantasy stage, where we believe can

do just about anything. We say, Im going to be a ____ without
considering skill sets, education requirements, or the economy.

Between twelve and eighteen, people are in the tentative stage, where they
say, I like this (interests), Im good at this, (capacity), This is
important, (values), I think I want to move in this direction, (tentative ).

In the next -the realistic stage, adults begin to zero in and say, I want to
know more about this (exploration) and The picture is getting clearer. I
seem to be gravitating to this area. (crystallization).
 Career Development: Theories of Process
Donald Supers work consists of five stages: growth (childhood),
exploration (adolescence), establishment (early adulthood), maintenance
(middle adulthood) and decline (later adulthood).

Super also suggested developmentally appropriate tasks for each stage. He

viewed career as the sum total of all the roles we play in our lives, and
created a Life Career Rainbow.

Choosing ones life work is not a single point-in-time event, but a long-
term process, beginning in early childhood and progressing through
adulthood; and career consists of much more than work.

Both of these contributions made it clear that career development is a

dynamic process requiring continuous evaluation, reevaluation and change.
Growth Stage
Exploration Stage
Establishment Stage
Maintenance Stage
Disengagement Stage
 Life Stage 14-25 25-45 45-60 60+
Exploration Establishment Maintenance Disengagement
Decline Less time to Reducing sports Focusing on Reducing working
hobbies participation essential hours
activities

Maintenance Verifying current Making Holding ones Keeping up what is

occupational occupational own against still enjoyed
choice choice secure competition

Establishment Getting started in Settling down in Developing Doing things one has
chosen field a permanent new skills always wanted to do
position

Exploration Learning more Finding Identifying Finding a good

about more opportunity to new problems retirement spot
opportunities do desired work to work on

Growth Developing a Learning to Accepting Developing non-

realistic self- relate to others ones own occupational roles
concept limitations
 Propositions of Supers Theory

o People differ in their abilities and personalities, needs,

values, interests, traits, and self-concepts.

o People are qualified, by virtue of these characteristics,

each for a number of occupations.

o Each occupation requires a characteristic pattern of

abilities and personality traits -with wide enough
tolerances.
 Propositions of Supers Theory

o Vocational preferences, competencies, the situations in

which people live and work, and hence, their self-concepts
change with time and experience, although self-concepts
are increasingly stable from late adolescence.

o This process of change may be summed up in a series of

life stages (maxicycle) of growth, exploration,
establishment, maintenance, and decline. A small (mini)
cycle takes place in transitions from one stage to the next .
 Propositions of Supers Theory

o The nature of the career pattern is determined by the

individual's parental socioeconomic level, mental ability,
education, skills, personality characteristics (needs, values,
interests, traits, and self-concepts), and career maturity and
by the opportunities to which he or she is exposed.

o Success in coping with the demands of the environment

and of the organism in the context of any given life-career
stage depends on the career maturity.
 Propositions of Supers Theory

o Development through the life stages can be guided partly

by facilitating the maturing of abilities and interests and
partly by aiding in reality testing and in the development of
self-concepts.

o The process of career development is essentially that of

developing and implementing occupational self-concepts.
Self-concept is a product of the interaction of inherited
aptitudes, physical makeup, opportunity to observe and
play various roles, and evaluations of the extent to which
the results of role playing meet the approval of superiors
and fellows.
 Propositions of Supers Theory

o Satisfaction depends on the extent to which the individual

finds adequate outlets for abilities, needs, values, interests,
personality traits, and self-concepts. They depend on
establishment in a type of work, a work situation, and a way
of life in which one can play the kind of role that growth
and exploratory experiences have lead one to consider
congenial and appropriate.

o Work and occupation provide a focus for most men and

women, although for some persons the other foci, such as
leisure activities and homemaking, may be central.
 Supers Theory

Occupational Self-Concept
Career Maturity
Role Salience
Scheins Theory of Organizational
Career Development
 Structural Variable

ORGANIZATION

INDIVIDUAL

CAREER
 PROCESS VARIABLES

Adult Socialisation

Innovation
 Propositions
Socialization occurs primarily with the passage through hierarchical
and inclusion boundaries; training and education occur with the
passage through functional boundaries.

Innovation occurs at a maximum distance from boundary passage.

Process of socialization will be more in the early stages of the career

and innovation late in the career, but both processes occur at all
stages.
 Propositions

Socialization primarily involves more labile social selves while

innovation involves primarily the more stable selves, provided
the individual is not held captive in the organization

A change in the more stable social selves as a result of

socialization will occur only under conditions of coercive
persuasion.
Career Development: Theories
of Content & Process
 Career Development: Theories of Content &
Process
Refers to those theories that take into account both content
(characteristic of the individual and the context) and process
(their development and the interaction between them)

Social Learning Theory (Krumboltz), Cognitive Information

Processing Theory (Peterson, et al)
 Krumboltzs Social Learning Theory

Assumes that peoples personalities and behavioral

repertoires can be explained most usefully on the
basis of their unique learning experiences while
still acknowledging the role played by innate and
developmental processes.
 Krumboltzs Theory

Social learning theorys two major types of

learning experiences
Instrumental Learning experiences
Associative Learning experiences

Self Efficacy theory

Efficacy expectations
Outcome expectations
 Krumboltzs Social Learning Theory of
Career Decision Making
Designed to address the WHY behind decisions to
enter, change, or express interest in educational
programs or occupations

Four factors that influence the career decision making

path
Genetic endowment and special abilities
Environmental conditions and events
Learning Experiences
Task Approach skills
 Krumboltzs SLTCDM
As a result of the interaction of Genetic endowment
and special abilities, Environmental conditions and
events, and Learning Experiences, people develop

1) self-observation generalizations
2) world-view generalizations

As a result of learning experiences and the

generalizations and skills that develop from them,
individuals engage in various behaviors that lead to
entry into a career
 Krumboltzs SLTCDM: Career Decision Making

DECIDES model:
Define the problem: recognizing the decision
Establish the action plan: refining the decision
Clarify the values: examining (self-observations & world-
view generalizations)
Identify alternatives: generating alternatives
Discover probable outcomes: gathering information
Eliminate alternatives: assessing information
Start action: planning & executing this 6 step sequence of
decision-making behaviors.
 Krumboltzs
Learning Theory of Career Counseling
Designed to help career counselors know what to do
to help
Four Fundamental trends
1. People need to expand their capabilities and interest, not
base decisions on existing characteristics only
2. People need to prepare for changing work tasks, not
assume that occupations will remain stable
3. People need to be empowered to take action, not merely to
be given a diagnosis
4. Career counselors need to play a major role in dealing with
all career problems, not just occupational selection
 Krumboltzs
Learning Theory of Career Counseling

Planned Happenstance and flexibility

Indecision vs. Open-mindedness
The restrictiveness of congruence
Evaluating effectiveness
Has the client engaged in new learning activities?
Has the client made efforts to create a more satisfying life?
Constructivistic Theory of Career
Development
 Career Development: Constructivist
approaches
Emphasizes on holism and the individual as central to the
construction of their lives and careers

Constructivist Theory of Career Development is related to

existential theory and is more a philosophical framework
within which career counselling can be done.

Career Construction theory (Savickas), Ecological Career

Theory (Conyne & Cook)
 Constructivist Theory
There are no fixed meanings or realities in the world, individuals
create or construct their own meaning/reality of the world
through the experiences they have.

Individuals differ from each other in their construction of events

-the same event can have very different perceptions

Lives of people are ever evolving stories that are under constant
revision. An individual may choose to develop new constructs
or write new stories in their life.

To be a fulfilled person requires critical reflection of the

assumptions that account for our daily decisions and actions.
Career Anchor
 Theory of Career Anchor
Career anchor theory was developed by Edgar Schein (1978) at MIT

10-12 year longitudinal study of 44 MBA graduates using in-depth

interviews to examine job histories and the reasons behind career
decisions.

Career anchors emerged as a way of explaining the pattern of

reasons given by the graduates as they progressed through their
careers.

While the research was built around a study of managers, career

anchors are now widely applied to all levels of employees.

Schein defines an anchor as a pattern of self-perceived talents,

motives and values that serve to guide, constrain, stabilise and
integrate individual careers.
 Theory of Career Anchor
These elements of the anchor are outlined specifically as:
perceived talents and abilities (based on actual successes in a variety
of work settings).
perceived motives and needs (based on opportunities for self-tests
and self-diagnosis in real situations and feedback from others).
perceived attitudes and values (based on actual encounters between
self and the norms and values of the employing organization and work
settings).

Anchors serve to explain how and why an individual interacts with the
organization,
An individual will not give up the predominant career anchor if a choice is
available - i.e. an employee will not take on a job where the needs of their
career anchor are not met, if there is an alternative.
 Technical/Functional Competence
Competence in some technical/functional area
Would not give up the opportunity to apply the skills in that
area and to continue to develop those skills to an ever-higher
level.
Sense of identity is from exercising those skills
Most happy when work permits one to be challenged in those
areas
May be willing to manage others in the technical area, but not
interested in management for its sake
Would avoid general management because one has to leave
ones own area of expertise
 Service/Dedication to a cause
Would not give up the opportunity to pursue work that
achieves something of value
E.g.
making the world a better place to live, solving
environmental problems, helping others, curing diseases
through new products, etc.,

Would pursue such opportunities even if it meant changing

organizations

Would be happy if there is opportunity to influence the

policies of your organizations towards these values.
 Entrepreneurial Creativity
Would not give up the opportunity to create an enterprise of
ones own, built on own abilities
Willingness to take risks and to overcome obstacles
Want to prove to the world that one can create an enterprise
that is the result of ones own effort
May be working for others, but will want to go out on ones
own sooner
Wants the enterprise to financially succeed to prove ones
abilities
Measure of success is the size of the enterprise and its
success
The need is so strong that failures are tolerated through out
the career in search of that ultimate success
 Duty
Would not give up on opportunities to put happiness
on the face of significant elders by ones career
decisions
The meaning of career is the satisfaction of the
significant elders
Cares less for skill/value congruence in career
decisions
Career success means fulfilling ones duty to elders
 Managerial Competence
Would not give up the opportunity to climb to a level high enough to
enable one to integrate the efforts of others across functions and to be
responsible for the output of a unit of an organization
Wants to be responsible and accountable for total results , and
identifies own work with the success of the organization.
Willing to work very hard and nothing comes before their jobs.
Superb at reading and understanding their organization's culture.
Knows what the rules are, what they can and cannot do, and what will
be rewarded or punished
Want to be able to attribute the success of the organization/project to
own managerial capabilities based on analytical skills, interpersonal and
group skills, and the emotional capacity to deal with high levels of
responsibility.
 Security
View security/stability as the most important factor in their
career. Main concern is to achieve a sense of having stabilized
ones career so that one can relax.

Definition of career success is lifetime employment, the rewards

of money, status, and good health.

Value being seen as loyal and hardworking

Value good relations with colleagues and peers, and

organizational respect.

Although security comprises both economical and psychological

factors, getting secure is the essence of their career successes,
and are sometimes labeled as "organization men" or "solid
citizens."
 Autonomy
Would not give up on opportunity to define ones work in own way.

Desire maximum control over their work lives. Primary concern are
personal freedom and autonomy.

They can be freelance consultants, professors, independent small

businessmen, field salespersons, etc.,

While prone to work hard, their goal is to become experts in a valued

specialty and then negotiate for their freedom.

For these careerists, knowledge is power and expertise is freedom.

They may be both creative and interesting, but they are sometimes hard
to get to know because of their marginality.
 Pure Challenge
Would not give up on opportunity to work on solutions to seemingly
unsolvable problems to winning out over tough opponents, or to
overcoming difficult obstacles
Need freedom, but willing to exchange large chunks of freedom for an
exciting project.
Engineer interested in impossibly difficult designs, strategy consultant
who is only interested in client about to go bankrupt and have
exhausted all other resources, salesperson who defines every sale as
either a win or a loss.
Novelty, variety, difficulty become ends in themselves.
When turned on by their jobs, they are happy to work harder and finish
projects.
They like to initiate new projects, and sell their ideas to their superiors
They tend to get bored easily, are impatient and begin to look for new
projects.
 Lifestyle
Career is important, yet it is only one dimension of their
overall success map.

They have three major domains in life: career, self-

development, and relationships.

View their work as very important, but will not sacrifice it in

the long-term for the other dimensions of their lives.

Their career has to remain in balance with self-development

and relationships.

They want it all, need it all, and are willing to work hard to
have it all (work, relationships, self-development).
 MBAs Interface with Work
Placement

Confronte Enchanted
d
Disillusioned

Transient Abider
Adapter
Migrated
Migrated (Education)
(Entrepreneur)

Mellowe
d
Outsider Committed Unresolved Opportunist Org. Man
(side-tracked)
 Career Anchor
Petersen and Roger (2009) Identified three dimensions underlying career
anchors

Dimension 1 -Managerial, Challenge, and Variety career anchors, includes

mainly young educated managers and mirrors an initial career stage
characterized by professional growth, a desire for professional exploration
sought by many young entry-level managers.

Dimension 2 -Lifestyle, Autonomy, Service and Entrepreneurial career

anchors, corresponds to a later stage when people become more
autonomous, self-confident, but often started a family life and want to
maintain a good balance between professional and private activities. This
search for balance is particularly important for female Managers

Dimension 3 -Security and the use of technical/functional competencies.

 Career Anchor Studies
Yarnal (1996) studied 374 employees in a service organisation
UK. The main occupations included engineers, air traffic
controllers, technicians, managerial and administrative staff.
78% male, 40 years of age, 12 years of service.

Primary anchor distribution

Technical (31%) Lifestyle (23%)
Challenge (14) Security (15%)
General Managerial (6%) Service (5%)
Autonomy (3%) Creativity (3%)

Secondary anchor distribution

Technical & Challenge
Security & Lifestyle
 Studies on Career Anchor
Feldman and Bolino (2000) studied the career anchors of self
employed

The most frequent career anchor was autonomy/independence

(46%) followed by entrepreneurial creativity (33%). For them,
the opportunity to build a business of their own and to have
more creative opportunities was the major career motivation

Individuals who are pursuing self-employment out of a desire

for entrepreneurial creativity have higher levels of job
satisfaction and psychological well-being, as well as high
levels of overall life satisfaction.
 Studies on Career Anchor

Individuals who are pursuing self-employment out of a desire

for autonomy and independence report the highest levels of
skill utilization, intent to remain self-employed, and life
satisfaction.

In contrast, those entering self-employment to maximize

security and stability had the least successful career
outcomes.
 Studies on Career Anchor

Premarajan (2001) found that a little over 10% Indian managers

exhibited a culture specific career anchor called Duty

Wong (2007) did an exploratory study using Scheins concept of

Career Anchors to investigate how Taiwanese managers made their
initial career choice and the values which shaped their subsequent
careers. The subjects valued independence, a balanced lifestyle and
entrepreneurial opportunities

In a study at University of Toulouse among 200 French managers,

Mignonac (2002) found that willingness to relocate was positively
related to Managerial anchor and negatively to Lifestyle anchor.
Career Anchor Distribution (%) across studies

IGBARIA & MARSHALL &

SCHEIN YARNELL
GREENHAUS BONNER
1985 1998
1991 2003
TF 30 23 31 26
GM 27 26 6 14
AU 11 15 3 33
SE 9 7 15 11
EC 8 5 3 23
SV 6 8 5 32
CH 3 7 14 38
LS 2 11 23 53
 Career Anchor Studies
Uli & Noah (2009) examined career aspirations and their
relationships with objective and subjective career success
among managers in Malayasia.

Respondents mostly reflected managerial competence, job

security, and sense of service.

Objective career success was positively correlated with

managerial competence and technical-functional
competence, and negatively correlated with job security.

Pure challenge, sense of service and entrepreneurial

creativity, as well as managerial competence were
significantly correlated with subjective career success.
 Implication

All career orientations exist among talent in

organizations. Managers and HR professionals must
understand what employees' internal career
orientations are to devise individualized plans to
capture the hearts and minds of employees and to
maximize their performance.
 TECHNICAL COMPETENCE
WE Challenging and independent work with unrestricted
resources

PB Same pay as comparably skilled colleagues in similar

organizations. Absolute pay more important than bonuses or
stock options

PS A professional promotional ladder parallel to the

managerial ladder. Increase in job scope as desirable as
increase in rank

RE Recognition from professional peers, including savvy

subordinates, more important than praise by an
unknowledgeable superior
 MANAGERIAL COMPETENCE

WE High levels of responsibility

PB Substantially more pay than level below in one's own

organization

PS Promotion based on merit, measured performance,

and results

RE Promotions to higher positions of responsibility

 AUTONOMY

WE Clearly defined goals, but no close supervision

PB Merit pay and immediate payoffs, but no compensation

or benefits with strings attached

PS A new job with even more autonomy, but no rank or

responsibility

RE Portable recognition. Medals, testimonials, letters of

commendation, prizes, and awards are valued more than
promotions, titles changes, or even financial bonuses
 SECURITY

WE Stable and predictable work and visible rewards

PB Steady pay based on length of service. Prefers

packages that emphasize retirement benefits

PS Seniority-based promotional system. Welcomes a

published pay scale, with defined longevity requirements
for raises

RE Recognition for loyalty and steady performance

 ENTREPRENEURIAL CREATIVITY

WE Creative work allowing invention, ideally in own set-up

PB Ownership and control is the most important issues and

would want to own the stock, the patents, etc

PS Wants the power and freedom to move into the roles

considered key for continued exercise of creativity

RE Building fortunes and high-profiles recognition, e.g. own

name on the product or company named for self
 SERVICE/DEDICATION TO A CAUSE

WE Work that permits influencing policies in the

direction of one's own values

PB Fair pay for contribution and portable benefits

because there is no blind organizational loyalty

PS Movement into position with more influence as well

as freedom to operate autonomously

RE Recognition from peers and superiors and feeling that

own values are shared by higher levels of management
 PURE CHALLENGE

WE Opportunity to overcome impossible obstacles

and solve unsolvable problems

PB Pay is less important than challenging job

PS Ever tougher challenges

RE Passing self-imposed test

 LIFE STYLE

WE Work that can be integrated into total lifestyle -that

respect personal and family concerns

PB Flexibility of working conditions and options for

integrating work into life are more important than amount
of pay

PS Career advancement that takes into account lifestyle

preferences such as unwillingness to relocate
geographically

RE Understanding and accommodation of lifestyle

preferences
Mentoring
 Mentoring
A process in which an experienced,
productive, senior employee facilitates the
personal and professional development of a
less experienced employee protg.
A mentor is 815 years older than protg and
usually not the immediate superior.
Protg is a young professional with high
career aspirations.
 Mentoring Functions

CAREER PSYCHOSOCIAL

Sponsor Role model

Coach Counselor
Protector Validator
Exposure Friend
 Coaching & Mentoring: Key Differences
Coaching
Key Goals To correct inappropriate behavior,
improve performance, and skills
Initiative Coach directs the learning &
instruction
Volunteerism Not voluntary, though the
coachees agreement is essential
Mentoring
To support and guide personal
growth
Mentee is in charge of learning
Both participate as volunteers

Focus Immediate problems and learning Long term personal career

opportunities development
Roles Heavy on telling with appropriate Listening, providing a role model
feedback and making suggestions
Duration Usually short-term. Administered Long-term
on an as-needed basis
Relationship Coach is coachees boss Mentor not in the mentees chain
of command
 When to use mentoring and coaching?

Consider coaching when

seeking to develop its employees in specific competencies using
performance management tools
a company has a number of talented employees who are not meeting
expectations
introducing a new system or program

Consider mentoring when

seeking to develop leaders or talent pool as part of succession planning
a company seeks to more completely develop its employees in ways that
are additional to the acquisition of specific skills/competencies
a company seeks to develop its potential leaders to imbibe the cultural
traits
 Benefits of Mentoring
PROTG
Sponsorship
Exposure & Visibility
Coaching
Protection
Challenging Assignments
Role Model
Friendship
 Benefits of Mentoring
MENTOR
Enhanced Self-esteem
Revitalized interest in work
Close relationship with the protg
Delegation/professional assistance
Professional Updating
Financial Reward
 Concerns for Mentors
Pressure to take on mentoring roles
Lack of requisite skills
Not taking feedback role seriously
Lacking time to work with protg
No perceived reward, benefit or payoff
Possessiveness
Not letting protg take the risk necessary for
learning
 Factors Affecting Mentoring
INDIVIDUAL
Mentor's Interpersonal Skills
Protg's Eagerness to Learn
Protg's Ambition

ORGANISATIONAL
Openness
Non-hierarchical
Development of Subordinates.
 TYPES & FUNCTIONS OF PEER-
RELATIONSHIPS

INFORMATION PEER:
Information-sharing
COLLEGIAL PEER:
Career Strategizing
Job-related feedback
Friendship

SPECIAL PEER:
Confirmation
Emotional
Personal Feedback
Friendship
 Reverse Mentoring
Karabulut, A. (2008) explored mutual learning
experience in a technology mentoring program, in which
a graduate student mentored two faculty members
about technologies and their integration to teacher
education classes.

One-on-one, needs based mentoring relationship has

provided mutual benefits for the participants in terms of
technology and pedagogy skills

Mentors benefits extended to the unobservable and

occurred over a longer time period (i.e., professional
benefits).
 Studies of Mentoring

According to Institute for Corporate

Productivity, 64 percent of businesses with
over 10,000 employees and 50 percent of
those with 5,000-9,999 employees have
mentoring programs.
 Studies of Mentoring
Eby, Lockwood & Butts (2005) examined how perceptions of
support for mentoring relate to attitudes and outcomes.
Perceived support for mentoring was positively related to
career and psychosocial support;
Perceived mentor accountability was negatively related to
mentoring problems.
Mentors perceptions of management support for mentoring
were positively related to their belief that mentoring
relationships were mutually beneficial.
As mentors perceptions of accountability in the relationship
increased, their willingness to mentor in the future decreased.
 Studies of Mentoring
5-year longitudinal study on Sun Microsystems's mentoring
program. Studied 1000 employees to compare the impact of
mentoring. Results showed that:

about 20 percent more likely than non-mentoring employees to

experience a change in salary grade
about 20 percent less likely to leave the organization than non-
mentoring employees
at least five times more likely to be promoted than non-mentoring
employees
 Studies of Mentoring
Warnberg, et al (2006) studied the predictors and outcomes
of mentoring of a 12-month formal mentoring program.

Data from both mentors and protgs at the program launch,

midway through the program, and at program close.

Mentor proactivity was related to more career and

psychosocial mentoring; protgs perceptions of similarity to
the mentor was related to more psychosocial mentoring.

More mentoring was related to positive protg and mentor

outcomes, including improved protg career clarity over the
duration of the study.
 FORMAL MENTORING: A GENERIC
MODEL
Protg Identified
Development Diagnosis
Selection Orientation Of Mentor
Protg Orientation
Agreement Negotiated
Execution Of Development Plan
Periodic Meetings
Reports To Coordinator
No Fault Conclusion
 Coordinator Responsibilities

Maintaining mentor pool

Assisting with development goal
Negotiating the agreement
Conducting group meetings
Conducting mentor/protg orientation
Maintaining records
ORGANISATIONS ABILITY TO SUSTAIN
MENTORING

Voluntary participation
Skipped level mentors
Cross-functional pairing
Flexible duration
No fault conclusion
One-on-one mentoring