p ouTune | iemcueng ROCKS ANDTHE ROCK CYCLE -MAGMA.LAVA,AND IGNEOUS Rocks Making 64 Coninion ‘Csdaion of nents Rocks Boe Se SEDIMENTARY ROCKS isin: Seinen Sedineay Rest Deitel Ros ‘Chesil Sefcreny Rocks Sedimentary Seructurcs and Fowl, Envtonbert of Depot METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS Pipe 5. The Gin Rr Potion Heat od Presets Bath Mesorphe Mioealsand Paes ROCKS AND GEOLOGIC RESOURCES ‘CHAPTER SUsawaney IMPORTANT TERMS REVIEW QUESTIONS POINTS TO PONDER ADDITIONAL READINGS WORLD WIDEWER SITES jin many experimes ptock under high presure JF Another famode land B the Tomb of the Unlsiow Soldier) in Ari PA guy bir exc, The Earth isan active panes ‘hesurfice and ple sve tea ends, Nov ou Sify the Earth's surface, but ig Bp ficrure rocks, Presure and the surface tobe attacked by organs,2 een Garantie | Ahelingeouity of quarry workers and sranspore fciliues 0 the limit. took a year « quarry the fist block, which weighed 51 mettc tons When the block was © ail eed, t amed our to have chacealed flaws and - BG »mopucrion ‘The Earth san active planet inside and out. Liguid water on the surface an pate tectonics combine to rework Earth terials endlesy: Not only do erosion and west igneous activity brings new m i interior and movements ofthe crust fold and Fracute rocks. Presure and high temperatures within the f crt often change rocks so thoroughly that thir form is hard co recognize. Movements ofthe erst aso case Some rocks to be deeply buried, wile other are brought to the aurice ro be attacked by ait, witer acids and the se, ties of organisms 1 set dhapded Quarrying second sone long wih 4 ‘hl for isuraes. took another yea The second sone See le ee hr a ply tae. __ Over the next years, however, the market for marble es he Yale quairy ws are o ose in Ip lose ut 190, win te eval oF he ae marist made i poftabe to reopen Former ‘varey workers, ome long ince tered, tured to "vere the operations, At Arson ccilpor, pon lari: «Sige garry was agua active aced what bad hap- ‘pened to the thd block ace mended forthe Tomb of - the Unknowns. Finally tered quarry worker was "four who rele the Geof the sone Tehad been ished aide and forgouen. Over the years excsation, ‘ad lowered the quarry doar leaving the tne sanded ‘ina niche 18 m (60.8) above the Boot Thee fst to shi day 00 heary and too maces oi easy "Nobody can figure out practic and economical wa to gee the block ont without destoying it : HF Rocks ano THE RocK cyciE Rocks andthe minerals composing chem are tala tral ofthe Earth. Indeed rock te simply aggregates ‘or more minerals. Some racks are made up of te mineral. Limestone fr instane,is composed ofthe min eral calcite, Most rocks, however, ate tnintures of Severs minerals. Granite, made up monly of feldspar and quart, alo wsully contains other minerals in smaller mounts, Three great families of rocks are recognized, each of Which is defined by the proceses that form the rocks. Rocks ‘hat solidify from the molten sate ae igneous rocks (Lain igs = fe). Igneous rocks may form from molten material that cols within the crust o atthe surface, oF they may fe sul rom consoldation of fagmentl materi ejected fom voleanoes during explosive eruptions. Sedimentary rocks Rooksandthe Rock Cyle 33Ta =| | a ti FIGURE 3.1 The work cyl shows the tice show pose izerapions nthe del eye ae made up ofthe particles and chemicals yielded by the breakdown of older rocks, The broken-down residue is ‘sansported by wate, wind, or glaciers Alter deposition, the residue, called sedimor, i compacted and cemented together to form a new generation of rock. Rock altered into new forms by heat, prewore and chemical uid inthe Earth ate termed metamorphi ‘The rock eyele is 3 wef vay to summarize the rla- tionships among the three great families of rocks (@ Fig 31). As one example, the rock cycle might begin with molten rock fom the Earth’ interior invading the crust anid hardening to form igeous tocks, The igi rocks in tarn are eventualy exposed at the surfice by erosion and attacked bby weathering The weathered rock fagments te carried by streams and rivers to a ake or dhe sea and deposited in Ly es, which harden to form sedimentary rocks. These sede mentary socks may late be buried deeply enogh that they tue changed by heat and pres into mictaiosphic rocks. ‘The heating may aceually elt patt ofthe rock, creating 2 ‘ew generation of igneous rocks and starting the cycle anew Asshown by the arows within the citele in Figure 3.1 any posible change can occa i the rock cycle, For exan. ple sedimenaary cocks need not be metamorphosed, tin 34 camer Rocks fonships among the tne fares of rock, The ars nie he stead might be uplifted and exposed at the surice where they ae weathered the patcles then are mansported and become sedimentary rocks once agin, Igneous, sedinen= ‘ary and metamorphic rocks cn all be attacked by weather- ing and wed a the raw material for new sedimentcy ocks Any of he three rock types can alo be changed by heat and pressure into metamorphic rocks oF melted to form a new generation of igneous forks. In shor any nype of rock can be tansformed into any other type, MAGMA, LAVA, AND IGNEOUS ROCKS Igneous rocks form ffom magna, molten rock within the Earth, or fom Java, magma tat reaches the Earth’ srfice ‘Contrary to popula misconception, magma doesnot come from the center ofthe Earth, nor ifthe Earth interior en trey molten. Instead, magma exies in small pockes, oF magna chante, a fee kilometers in diameter usally 0 km {30m ores below the srfce, During explosive eruptions, Particles collectively known as pyroclastic materials te dlscharged, Much of this material quite mall ands desig nated 2 ash, but much larger solani bomb ae also erupted. Ap coin Feegraned FIGURE 3. The oe of these of mineral era ‘walleye and 3 ie sinners grow lange an Two categories ofigneous rock rocks, which oid from lave. Traden beneath the esrfice. Av olen rock material cools the In the resing rocks (@ Fig ‘quickly so voleane rocks are gen that it shard eo see the consi aided eye. Voleanie rocks ato of 28 wees because they cool on th low and gas bubbles can expand Pluronic rocks commonly have « ‘enough tose with the unaided cy and crys have time to grow rocks ae oasegined (Fig, 32). tan vesicles becaue they cool de fu ishigh and abs cn ignces tock that have hasde Intncions (Chapeer 9, Melting and Crystallization ‘Making fozen juice bars in a ho lear about melting and crystals ious fash the whole mists for desi teezewniformly A hal offi pure ice crytal and 3 con ture has to gee colder char the fi tanden encely. Mixtures of subst for magmas, do noe mele or sok Poin ofthe mixta s usualy iw‘“Gizous nocxs (EXTRUSNE) sed at the surice where then are eramported and { once again, gneous,sedimen- sean alle atacked by westher- ial for new sedimentary rocks can alo be changed by heat and ic rocks or melted to form 3 new “sn short, any typeof tock ean oohereype. AVA, AND IGNEOUS ‘magma, molten rock within the sa that reaches dhe Earth’ sufice ‘oncepion, magma does not come sth, nor isthe Earth interior en tagma exss in small pockets, or meters in diameter, usally 50m arface. During explosive eruptions, ‘vm as pyroclastic materiale ar Inateril site smal and is desi ger wlan bos ae ao erupted, act ceaing Feegined Cousecraes| @AGURE3.2 The eter ofthe cooing te of magna on thesia of mineral yale () Rapid cooing resu n any smallest andsSine-grained tense. (0 Slow colin tae ense to grow linger and this els come-pinod Two categories of igneous ocks are recognized voleanic rocks, which solidity fom lia, and platonie rocks, which Iarden beneath the surface. Asa general cule, the faser dh alten rock material cools, the smaller the mineral erysals in che resuking rocks (B Fig, 3.28). Lava tends 10 coo ‘uickly so voleanic rocks are gene fm ‘hat it shard to see the consieuene mineral withthe un in cavities known se where pressure is Joo and gas bubbles can expand as Iva rses co the sre Pluronic rocks commonly have constituent miners lage ‘enought see with the unaided ey because they cool soy and crystals have time to grow to large size, Hence. these rocks are casein (Fig, 3.28). Plutonic rocks ely com tain vesicles because they cool deep in the crust wiere pres sure high and gas bubbles cannot expand easly: Mases of igneous rock chat have handened within the Earth are elled Jntaions (Chapeer 9}. Melting and Crystallization ‘Making fozen juice bars in hotne fieerer is good way to Jear about meking and crystallization, One ofthe most ob ‘iow fits is that che whole mista dose ot feze at once, or does i freeze uniformly A hal-hozen juice bar const ‘of fut pure ice ery and a concerted liquids the min ture has to get coer chan che fixering point ofa handen entirely. Mixtures of absences, whether fui juices ‘or maganas, do not mele or sof al a once The miling point of the mixzare is assy later than the mel point FIGURE 33 lgncdue rock witha porphritc exture eon Siting of rg miner gris backround of much let, nal ofthe ind dual subsances in the mista, In even lie owe make use ofthe same principle hen we use st to melt ‘ee or putantiieze ina ear we creates mire whose elt ing point slower than that of pure wate. Sima magmas mel ac lower temperatures than the snivdual minerals that comprise chem. The fering of an ice cube and the soli ‘ation ofa magia ae sentially the sme pracesthey der ‘only ince temperature at which the fvezing occurs Usually, magma isnot much hore than i melting point and consis of a mush of solid crystal mined wih liquid ‘The ealies-formed eras have ahead startin growth and end to beth largest erytal inthe rack. If the remainder of che magma cools quickly, the resulting rock has 2 po yr exture wit age crysals embedded in finer grained material (@ Fig 3.3) Classification of Igneous Rocks (OF the many kinds of jgneows rocks only abou a dozen are common, Igneous rocks are claiied according to their ‘chemical composition using three enter 1 ant of lta (acon pls oxygen that is present compared to everything ee 2. The kind of fldepars thc are present 5. The other mineral that jancous rocks rich in lca (654) at ft, those poo in slira (45-52%) are mafic, and thote in besween (33-65% sica) ae called logically enough, intermediate, Igneous rocks with very low sca (45%) ate wlan (©. Table 3.1), The commonest felsic rocks ae the plitoni rock grow it and the voleanic rock role, Both of which are com Drsed mostly of silicates such as quart and various feldspar ‘minerals. These mineral, which lak ion and magnesium, are termed nowferomagnsan. The most abundant mate rocks ae the voleanie rok fal and the plutonic rock ah ‘no (Fig, 3.4). Unlike felsic rocks, these sacs contin ap Magna Lavan eo Racks 35INERAL voucanic puvronic, | ems eet aaa See ease Chin a = | te pe ‘outa ol ae ie Se a ae cae | = | plagioclase, sodium plagio- | Fett > 65% Amphibole, bitte, sodium Rayoite Granite pas SS (B FIGURES. () Basle and (t gutbeo coger ea alc rock heat they hae low se content and contain conan toi wokruromc | Danie Many pee bro jenous rocks te clued according roous that aeually oats on wate The volcanic rock taf composed of volcanic ash (ig: 3.5) Bowen’s Series ‘The geologist N.L. Bowen observed thit miner in most igneous rocks tend to form in a specific sequence, Among, the ferromagnesian slicte mineral, ovine tends to form before pyroxene, pyroxene before amphibole, and amphibole before biotite: Among the feldspar, caeiam-rich plagioclte trades into sodium-rich plagiolsce and both types of pl oclate tend ro form eater than the possum feldspars (G8 Fig. 36), Notice in Figure 3.6 that Bowen’ series hae two branches along which ferromagmesan sists and pl siochse felispars ertalize simultaneously. If muscovite ‘mica and quartz occur, they wusly form lt. It is common {ond rocks in which 3 later mineral forms asim around an ‘arler formed mincrl or in which some mineral sem to have been disiolved by the very magna that formed them, Bowen found he could artange all hee observations into 3 composie series of minerals, which is now called Bowen's and uniformity, obsidian was prized by ancient people Series (Fig 3.6) around the world for making arrowheads and other edged Bowen's series mumarizes the proceses hat occur when took, Pumice forms when felsic Tava assuch2 high gascon- magma melts or solidifies. At maeras sly in» magna, ten cht forms a porous otha it hardens. Pumice has 2 some chemical component av i guid maga ad go tere very mich he pl fm and so gh and io the sod mine The ono of te emaning FIGURE 3.6 Bowen’ series shows the order of erysalizaton of miner avrmon in igneous rok S FIGURE S.7 Bowen’ thet form ain he series ‘Grate ao contin ari Bast conse of 38 cuoren Rockson water The woeanic rock nf liquid changes, and other minerals begin to formin sig 3.5) tlhe magma has completely solidified. The ferromagnesan mineral ad calcium-rich pagielate form firs, and the maining magma becomes progressively poorer in ion, mage jam, and calcium asic solidies. The earliew-formed » observed that mineral ia most ere smincral ae siiea-poor, but av other elements are romoved nina specifi sequence. Among 5 Ss fiom the magma, the remaining magia becomes more minerals, olivine tends to form - stich, pefore aipibol, and amphibole ee : ‘Several important properties of igneous rocks corel sdipncleiam-rich pgiocbse Me ae HA wich Bowe series (8 Fig 3.7). Fei rocks tend to have agiolate, and both types of pla- . Sond oe more minerals with shared silica tetrahedrs than doa jer than the poesiam feldspars rocks, Because the slicon-onygen bonds among the sca gure 3.6 that Bower's series hat é Tor teeters ae song, rocks fiom the feic end of Bowens ze simultaneously. If muscovite : (Chapice 4), Rocks at the foie end ofthe series abo mc uly form st. eis common ie . a lower temperatures than those fom the mae end mine forms amt aound an = : i Bowen series i abo related to sever voleanic phe ‘whic some miners seer t0 (Chapter ‘ery magma that formed the sige ail thee observations into 4 Is, which is now called Bowen's SEDIMENTARY A Rocks 2s the process that occur when As mineral solidify in a magma, Various proces collectively known a8 eave gud. magna and go is weathering atack socks t oF near the = comgalion ofthe remaining, surface, dolving some materiale and Adisimeprating sald rock ao ragmens When tansported, this aymentary material ited sda tthe Ta material for sedimentary wets (Fg. 3.1) Runaing water is 2 parculaly inporent agent of seciment tansport, and facets, wind, waves and ocean port sed flecively, although wind can eranepore only small Distalved substances derived by weather also wansported 29 lakes or the ocean where they may be ‘come concentrated and eventually precipitate a mineral ‘Any area of sediment deposition is a depositional environment. Esrth sient: recognize thice major depo= sition seeings: continental, marginal marine, and marine Each inclades sever] «pectic de (8 Fig 38) FIGURE 3,7 Bowen series ni geo ck. (2) Gent tha form ate inthe sein, such quar Qo) par orthocae (ee Gane abo contains varey of oer mine ns gues ncocing bio gh Sant coniss of miners ht form cal in owen eis inloing sol sours of et sed conserable peotene (cates) an caer patel igh spose monly of ninesici ual FIGURE 3.8 Depostions enrronment, Sediments ray be deposited in continenalenionment sc Fiver kes and dese: Magn masineemvronmens Inde dear benches, lat and tase lon “Marineervronmens may be ether show or dep, Lithification: Sediment to Sedimentary Rock Sedimentary deposits consist of solid paticles and pore spaces, which ae the woide between particles. The process ‘of compaction and cementation, cllectively referred ¢o a8 lithiGcation, conver sediment inte sedimentary rocks For ample, compaction resling from the presure exerted by the weight of oveying sehment reduces the amount oF pore space and chus the volume ofa depos (Fig. 39). A smd deposit may be 80% water-filled pore space, bat when the deposit is compacted, the water is squeezed cut andthe deposits volume mizy be reduced by up to 4% (Compaction alone is generally sficiene to tify mod for lager parces suchas sand and gravel, cementation |snecesary. Cementtion resus when disslved substances sch as ealeium carbonate (C3CO4) atid silica S103) pre- ite inthe pore spaces of ediment thereby eflzervely Dining che particles together (Fig 39) The colofl elo brown, and red sedimentary rocks in the southwestern United States derive thie color mos fom iron cement Earth scents estimate that Eerth¥ crust comsiss of shout 95% igneous and metamorphic rock, bt sedimentary 40 coarrena Rocks rocks are by far the most common at or near the sufi Indeed, approximately 75% of surface exposutes on conti rents ace sediments or Sedimentary rocks, and they cove most of the seafloor. Sedimentary rocks ate generally elas- Sed a dtl or choi Detrital Sedimentary Rocks Detrital sedimentary rocks ate composed of detritus or the solid particles of preexisting rocks (Fig. 3.9). Each ofthe several varieties recopized ie characterized by the size of is ‘constituent particles. Sie 6 signfcant factor in clasfica ‘don because the size of partie transported isa diet indi ‘stor of the energy ofthe transport agent Fr instance, de ‘otal panicles measuring more than 2 mm in diameter, x —> —.. [ BFFIGURE 3.10 Devil sedimenary rocks: (0) conglomerate; (9 edimentir bec endstone; and (4) the maroc dle fommon at oF near the suice 5 xfice exporutes on cont- Jinentary rocks, and they cover entry rocks are generally clt- Rocks Joke te composed of detec ot cransport agent. Fo snore chap 2 mmm in diameter, ce eansported by wind or sow a high-energy depositional envi sich particles are termed colo 1 (B Fig. 30a and b). The only wo rocks is that the grave in meaning thatthe particle h Secimentay Rocks 4]ajo open 10 ‘orre Buy) (puNiep gm 05 Ap PAO (Geunpas sq "suOROD /pocd ue sodas pouioundse 14) adop. bur sins Sq pout soda siousage sto sodop put mounds 29 03 pus se a sjpee-o1 aA Wow std aS, our ase mew py ou ur 5poq-s0H9 toy wom 121A Jo woRDanp ap aut au a4. ur dip 30-patmasop we atsodap aun pes pu fo P30 Poulet ae sae, nu (EEC BA) poppin om 313,39 oweeNGAED U0 0}09 Ssouatgyp Binoy see en sos ary 01 Gees es eur 36] UNS ae ou aye Buoury yusumanan >) esd 204 (9) eB cy 09 ©) CTS FUNDS © spe emus Ty stop ado 3 dn pa soso Joa sD HCL SND AD fe ‘molouiu fumeua> suo) suomsu je nd ONL Te TAD & ruonsodop aun u Suyeiado saso2ord 4p eat yo any 8 paue) rp tousypas se usiony ssumea 30 Gaze euoD asus siissog pue soimonnig Arequaunppag 1209 01 poses ad poway pce pos put ating Soop ust o2>8go3 a aee0> a AH Hoo} ‘pry od sumooay yom mp ‘patung uaa NUE Tae to ue aiey pu preywo> asodusoonp on putes ud por natino uraeatogpp saves 2yp arog og pu aces tars 31 {PCH 3K) Poe AeeoMU®fomDYpog 94 0 paropsuoa soppypiason sang seta Jo pesodui ut seBuoyeods dpotns pang eo dn ayemr ‘ats ue Spoor, sypoads ‘susqueo yo sure pase potas au, "uommidiaid essay oraeiour tay ‘nse stuos ang says HB Jo SwORNMATE wy SIE} Ageqosd uisg> soy -speaqiosze pu ‘ated srods “oot 42653} pasn asry somo Aueu spo Gina dans uoy 1 padeys ag ues oy ase pops) aie pu xy) soqeresou “pa 40 sooaq) 29d “oHe) auyp aze Jo senanea sooo 24p Jo 0g “(zL'E Bea) OK) zIEN Je seks udeasorn yo posoduson 0 py ©1292) 208549 Jo oc 39 ‘wou are syp04 paw sssuR axsode9 impo 36 agus \y 70H saodess uous aout 2 H (OHHZ*OStD) unsdi@ poy ore aye] fue ao 0 TREE oy poraidand option impor Aisin 5 (SEN) ae exeunr 2p 30 pasodwon ‘yps yoy novo snes NOBEL and yor 38 2uod aun hay uonenaes 2p XDSL Ae musa put Ie Jo auinjos 3x9 02 Howodaud uy soa sien jest pasossip jo aunowe 24 ‘sextiodeaa sare or u>yay @ pur ezi"¢ Zug) ssIEN FuRIOdene WO sqe2um 30 vonendoaid pouuoy atueRLow 64 a9) xp BynedoqFouzodeso st sy a8 el p04 aE EE ee “iat suonsuy ssiatud sore, ‘prsumpoueu way suey Jigegoad sour 3g aue2E0p 2 suowou Jo uosioanod aig y amos3e seat st20ud uo uriy 209 2UoNsuN uF SeMED 3p Jo aos som a1 umgsueut wags sung) su0sojoq “iqtt'e Ha) st uso jo pays axdoasornar ap jo Spe dn operas ep pur souonuny aos jo usuedios men ayo az pts ‘uayaug Sones 204 “PORRPONG TiS pe dayne > “30 wy syns cjo sou ng etd foqeny 28840 cur urs suey sono 2u0§ (11 Fed @) APE COD) aneuoqae> axp ys esau yo dn apeus ae fun Sse “spar mewogies ar FFO3}B Wve] sanuopoy jo paso Snes} aE (EODED) AIDED Jo paodton ‘noxonury ‘uo soup rea 40 soursodu ap sy 0 spas apr rungs 2 $01 aazajar age sozand Janey san IGG HPO suiueBio Jo SomANDe fequogD 349 19 oH FO! 2ruediour aun Aq sour uo} 03 sien Woy POIEIKS 99 ura fo atagy sues30 ays pat yp 04 pousadsen aie sqeumreu pasostp assur Fetaqpeam Suatp paaiosp Se ir af) toy 20 s4p0u KaRuOtNpOS FqUEBH sypoy Areruoumpag jesnay sypo0 2aIp jo vowwo> sou ayp way? Sun POE Aree p25 [aUNR [Te 30 fy INOge atadUIOD HDEIPNYY —POLC iy) sour oered paseds Aptos Buoy ean San 32-2095 se poneufisop 21 sauonsey pe souosspr anos “yom 5 sesburu Ae sue onzed partede ious ous worgues 23 5 tats “annaead uy sous aweomy 70 does & 105 umn se pe uondiosap an ¥ se 30q pom sep ios agg efdusexe axe aosdep pur ‘aoypra nope eqoaaed (ans ye) ponte pue (ne 019) porte jo porod woo Spo geusttpn aap Te Paul ADSPTE aere knovin 3k evaporits because mical precipitation of minerals Fig, 3128 and 8), When sea- ot of dsclved mineral matter 3 volume of water and ev the poine at whic alt, compoied of the miner jam chloride precited fom lake water. Rock gypsum common ersperite rok. A snerals and roeks ae kno, ote of microscopic eri of. Some of the color varieties of ‘novaculite Because chor cn be shaped to many cultores have owheads, Most ch of sca hel, bit cipitation. g, 3.124). Ieforms in vrter x deficient ino ose completely and foe his muck becomes pt, which bacco, When deeply buried eat i alered to coal s and Fossils cof features known a seinen asa result of physica, chemi- + openting in the depositional pe of lime nade up of E ple mais BFICURE 3.12 (9 Cor oF rock le fom anol wellin ‘Michigan. (9 Rock gypom.() Che. 6) Coal énvironment. Among the nist cornon of chse features sae distinct ayers known stata o eds (@ Fig. 3.13). Most, Sedimentary rocks have some king of aering, wth indie tal livers showing diferences in composition, particle si, ‘olor,o2 combination af eaures. Many sedimentary rocks are rssbetded (Fg. 313), which means tha layers within berate inclined. Cros el and snd dus dowavard or dip.in te direction of ov: Thus, one en de- ermine the direction of the current atthe tite of depos don fom cos-beds in ancient rocks, 1. Ripple marks are anathee common sedimentary sractre Some resul fom the to-and-tfo mation af waves these ip nd to be symamettal and typically develop in fand deposits neat lakeshores snd sethores (® Fig. 3.14). ‘Ripples formed by curren moving in one direction. in Seam, are asymmetrical, with agente upstream lope anda Seep downstream slope (Fig. 3.4). Like cros-bedding, ‘symmetrical spples are good indicators of ancient curent recions. Other sedimensry scree include the ma ts tac form when clay-rich sediments shrink and crack at they dry out (Fig. 3.14), ‘The remains or taces of prehivoric organisms, known as F fossils, ae most common in vedimentary cis (8 Fig 3 15) ‘ing scommon in steam deposits and the eroebeds ae inclined (Gee @ Perspective 31 on page 46). Especially common fos sis are che shelb of marine animab such a8 clams, oysters, ‘oral and many others, some of which are extinct some varied oflimestone, fos ae the main components ofthe rock (je Fig. 3.118). Fos ae asf for several porposes For example foil ae the bes way oF demonstrating the age ‘uivalence of edimenary rocks in diferent ates, and they sls constitute on ony ecord of prehistoric ie (ee Chapter 11), Inadéiion, fossils are wef in determining the depos ‘onal environment of sedimentary rocks. Sedimuotry Rocks 43'S FIGURE 3.13 These sandtone lyr in Arizona show beth horizontal beding and o-bedding,Cro-bed nate sncient curen deen by the way they at inline, ote ht ntsc Environment of Deposition Because sedimentary rocks commonly contain foils “and various stractures indicating hw they formed they powide ‘much of our knowledge of Earth history. Furtherste is Jmporant to undersand how sediments were deposited for economic reasons, most pezoleum, natural gi and coal come from sedimentary rocks. In short, we want to know if 4 sandstone, for example, was deposited in sre channels in desert sand dunes, or on a beath "To inerpet © environment of deposition, Earth scien- ‘iss examine those features of sedimentary rocks, thet formed asa teal of proceses operating inthe depositional cuvironment. Soring in detrital sedimentary rocks re Som proceses thr selectively transport and deponit sedi ment. The sand in wind-blown dunes, for instance, i chats acterized as wel sorted because it consis of guns tht are all about the same size, whereas glacial deposits tend to be poorly sorted and consist of mixtures of pave, snd, snd ‘ud. Fossils such at corals and sea lilies seem to have lived ‘only in marine environment and thei remains ae clear o. dence of marine deposition’ Other fossils including those ‘of insets and ampubians, seem almost never to ha been nd their fs indicate continental of feshwater Sedimentaty structures are particlay useful. Although symmetrical ripple marks form in 4 variety of seving they se partcuatly common in seam channel deposits Wind 44 cmmmns os ako generates asyimetricl ripples, but they ar usualy eat- ily dxingushed ora those of seam channel Symmeteeal sipple marks typialy develop in sand deponted neat lukeshores and vesshores. Sand dines may poses Inge crs beds, and maderacks may form in mad exposed ea a Seashore a low tide, The following example ilrates how Earth scientists use ‘rows features of sedimentary rocks to determine the de- positional environment The Navajo Sandstone (8 Fig 3.16 ‘on page 47) ofthe southwestern United States is compored sosly of well-soreed sand grain measuring 0.210 0. mam in ameter, Tracks of dinosaurs and other Land-dwveling imals indicate the original deposit accumlated on land rather than in the sea. These features along with crow-beds ‘ap to 30 m (98 high and ripple marks both of whieh ear to have formed in sand dnc, lead to the conchaion sandstone represents an ancient desert dane depont ‘The crosebeds ae inclined downward generally te the southwest indicating that che wind blew mosty fom the METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS “Mose metamorphic rocks (Fig 3.1) orm in one oftwo way. ‘Contact metamorphism takes pace when rocks oe ‘heated by an adjacent mas of hoe rock, such ayaa ineusion @ FIGURES. Foss :FIGURE S.14 (@ Symmetrical ware formed tipple ars mere oct in Monans () seta pre mss steatabed in Calor (] Moves Forme in clyrich eso ch ave did ding. Cre be nite cal ripples, buc they are usally ea ose of stream channels, Symametial Gevelop in sand deposited nest Sand dunes may poset Inge cos ‘sy form in mid exposed n leilusrates how Earth cients rentary rocks to determine the de The Navajo Sandone ( Fig 3.16 western United States composed i grains measuring 02 to 0.5 mm yosaurs and ether and-avelingan- inal deposi accumulated on land hese features slong with cxos-beds pple mack, both of which ap- sand dns, ea {nis an ancient desert dane depo, lined downward generally 10 che 2 the wind blew monly fom the \PHISM AND WPHIC ROCKS 8 (Fig 3.1) form in one of wo ways sm takes place when rocks ae sss of hoc rock, such an intrusion il @ Meearphiem a Mutanrpbic Racks 4546 FIGURE 3.16 The Navajo Sa: ofthese rock indict depstion | (@ Pig. 3.17), Contace meta ‘more than kilometer (0.6 mile diminish in incensity with dan Earths metamorphic rocks for ‘phism, resulting fom intense p ing ofthe cru, usally relat (Chapeer 7) by deformation of Another ‘ype of meta permeates rocks and adde or Moves chemical compounds agents of metamorphism inelaSLIGURE 3.16 The Nawjo Sunduone in Zio National Park, Uh. The large cro-bes and ober fentures ofthe rok indicate depoion in a dst ane eovionment ( Fi 3.17), Conace metamorphic effcs rly extend | mor than akilomete (046 il) fom thesource ofheatand gy [pbpinh in imecniy with diane ftom the sour Mam of Suc ae cdty Goes aT Ear metamorphic rocks formed by regional metamor- | phism, sling fom intense presse and lagen heat tog of the crustal related to pate tectonic proceaes ue zoe {Chapter Regional metamorphism extends ver vat ee area ands mos ofea accompanied by deformation of the OC zn of Another type of meanorpism, Pate somecins called maromatin, kes MEanorhi Bee when water rich in mises Permestes roeks and add or | mows chemical compounds. Thus, the agen of metamorphism include press rat, and chemical fu. The changes that occur during metrnr- Pian depend ot only on te agents of Granite neiamorphism bt abo on che pe of rock pei thn is afeced. Pare limexone and nd Stone ae made mos of single miner D limecone is made of et, and mest snd Stone is made of gust, Nether miner Mevemerysm snd Mewmamphic Becks 47v= @ FIGURE 3.18 (4) Mable i mecamorphoted in of quar andsone much affected by metamorphitm, so the only change that takes place in pure limestone or sandicone uring metamoe phism is 2 change in grain structure, Limettone metamor~ Doses by rcrysalizing to mare and wndstone metamoe hoses to quarts (@ Fig. 3.18). Coal metamorphose at iow temperature into anni, a hard dark gray, metallic-looking cosl, At somevshat higher temperoureanhraitewarsforms into gp, Contrary to popular misconception, the nal tage in the metamorphism ‘of coal is noe diamond. No coal i ever Buried deeply ‘enough to reach the temperature and presse (correspond ing co depths of more than 100 km (62 mi) at which dia mond forms. Musstone the most abundant sedimentary tock, under- (8 Fig, 3.19) At low temperate ly pats in the muons rere ght angles othe greatest presire,and the mudstone takes on 2 grain, called fotton, and becomes ra presse the play ene themseles vers quart (8 real om he maori {© FIGURE 3.19 Thee metmorpic racks poses the pope ee falas: (a) alte) seis) gets Bb Soy os ed fo Co Thc mon inp sons rng mec sons whch way enc racion eno I ae neem ings | etmlnscnon wean EAL Sometimes cna | metamorphism aay bres: bak, Revere metamorphisn Ft rtogate metemorpion, Inde aii transformed to ‘are and presure increase, the row big enough to be ws Incaled his, which abo posin water and thea evaporate the wate to get back So why dont metamorphic rocks “de- sand revert to eis original forms as "The most important reson that mor uring metamorphism relene water o erbon which usually caper When the rocks cool the necessry ingredients is gone. Lost of Buds is Simin reason we can observe metamorphic rocks at ll Sometimes enough fluid is present during the ing stages of metamorphiten for mineral reactions [fun in reverse, In other cases, 3 ater episode of may break down metamorphic miner ‘Reverse metamorphism (fom high to low grade) A rmde nonorphin. >emorphism _neamorphic rocks poses the prope 2 chs es. harer as it is wansfrmed to slit (Fig. 3.19). As tempera fore and presre increase, the platy mica miners form and row big enough tobe wile tothe wnided ey. This rock. ale shit, which ako poses foliation (Fig. 3.196). At sal higher pressure and temperature lange erst of garnet snd other minerals may form in chs. “When bast and andesite metamorphose, the fst new mineral to form impar a greenish appeacancs tothe rock, 10 the rock is called greenstone, During moce intense mete” ‘morphism, abundant black amphibole minerals farm, and the tock becomes black, coarely crystalline ork known 3s nphiolie. Schist amphibolite and other rock types ean be ‘metamorphosed at vey high temperature and presute 0 forma rock in which diferent minerals separate into banc ‘orstreaks, whichis yer another type of eliston, This rock is ges (pronounced "nice"; Fig. 3:19. Geis can also form ‘when granite i deformed and metamorphoted. The ations ‘ype of mesamorphic rocks are summarized in © Table 3.2 ‘Heat and Pressure in the Earth Most ofthe heat inthe Earth reul fom the decay of ra- dicacive elemens, most importantly isotopes of uranium, thorium, and potssium. When these iotopes decsy, they emit energetic particles and gamma ry the surrounding rock absotbs this energy and ie ested by it, Rock is such 2 poor conductor of heat that i doesnot take much eadioac~ {wity w© produce appreciable hest, given enovgh time (Obseevatons from deep mines and del holes indicate that ‘Earth’ temperature increses with depth. Tis temperature increase with depth, or geothomal gradients about 25°Ckm near the sufice ‘cuanacrenisrics Sabe orate ranenrnoce | Sis (Chay, micas, Low Fne-grind.wlis Mudsck crones | chore cot “acest | ‘Schist ‘Micss, chlorite, quartz, Low to high Distinct foliation, “Madrocks, carbon- | ic home mnie Se ma cos aces a enti Gneiss ‘Quarte, fldspars, hora= High, ‘Segregated light and Mudrocks, sandstones, | ‘ede mes “ekbadvidie 'ftncigieonme | Amphibolte orbs paginee Metin o igh Du-aoed wey Matcgnoue rcs | ‘ta! | ‘Marble Caleite, dolomite ‘Low to high Interlocking grains of Limestone or dolo- | dat lenin oe ‘cu wi CL Quests uae Median which Imeocinggera_ Qu dene oashactiene Geemwone Chri. ciomhors Lew to igh neg ren Ma igeout ie nde ee : Aniecte ——Cabon Hig Buckeroo Coal Metmombism and Mataneeic Rocks 49{§ FIGURE 3.20 Presure sapped equal inl recon a the Exh cast due to the weight ofthe vering orks. Asm Tarstuson ecu when 200ml eof cps ee lowered to ‘ocean dep of proximately 750m an 1.308 m Incesed rer ened equi al dren othe ap snd hey onsequendy decree in volome, whe sil ninainng their’ ver cape, ‘When rocks are buried, shey ae subjected to pres fom the weight of che ovelying rock, and with increasing depth, presure increases. Presre of this type i applied equally in all directions. much a isan an object immersed jn water (@ Fig, 3.20). Ina simile fshion, deeply ried rocks are subjected to inereating prewte with depth and under these conditions the minerals become riore closely packed together In addition t the pressure for deep bur ial rocks may ao be subjected to diferent pre ie, which 's ot applied equally from all sides, and the rock conse~ quently divorted Te s posible t0 duplicate the conditions of metamor phism in the laborstory In contrat the wes of many seologie process, the chemical reactions in metamorphic rocks ofien take place within afew hove or days. One linge hydraulic presses were used 10 generate the preres needed for such sade, but recent, revohationary device has ap- peared that surpases the performance of lange proses weighing mn tons, yer itera isn the palm ofthe hand ‘The diamond-aml pres all onsite of pote js, cach ‘equipped wih a gem-quslty diamond window, By aghten ing the javs witha simple sre iis possibe to create pes- sures between the jaws approaching thot inthe Earth's cor, Becaose che windows are raneparent, the spe ean be ob served Utough = micorcape files being tested ‘Metamorphic Minerals and Factes The specific minerak formed during metamorphism de pend of the compostion of the original rock sh peratures and pessre mvoved The degree of change peo Guced by metsnorphism called Slate, for et ce metanorp grade of che ahale 138 low ich which ie forms is Horsewer sil cu lo be 164 7 c ae - 28 ° . 5 Bc sce ito sn ss so eo TH 80 of wis Verpeatee ©) FIGURE 321 Meso ii hanced ye ticular mine that form under the same bond empersare prestre conditions Each Ele mared for mom carci Tero or miner erably diferent in texture om its source material and ac- cordingly epresent higher prade of metamorphism, The range of rock types and minerals that fort under the same broad conditions of temperature an presse rpre= sents a metamorphic fucies (8 Fig. 3.21). Each fais is named for is most characteristic rock or mineral For ex ample, the green metamorphic mineral chlorite, which forms under fay low temperate and presse, found in rocks belonging to the ares fies The blue-gray min eral glacophane, on the other hand, occurs in rocks of the schist faces, representing metamorphic rocks formed une er conditions of low temperature and high presure ‘Mineral elle amphiboles ae common in rocks forred st igh temperatures and presures, the so-called empire f sis, Accordingly, by examining minerals in metamerphic rocks, scientists can determine the temperature conditions responsible fr the racks metaor ROCKS AND GEOLOGIC ARP REsouRcES Ina seme, most geologic rexources ae ulimately fom igneous rocks, because igneous activity i the mecha nism by which material from the Earch deep interior each the crust. Some igneous rocks, such a granite sor Ing sone, are resources jn their own right wher neous teks are sources of porta minerals. for example, are ore nines tat frm a cout neous eoeks. In some cases, the ore minerals denser than the rppidy © the floor of came concentrated chromite an plats her ig for man oss, Other ofet cer ur as mie als diseminated throughout igneous intrusions. The capper minerals found in small yrniceinrasions ae most porn ofthe FIGURE 3.22 A quary fo § tnsome granitic intrusions ite to solidity i wich in wate ‘ex into the major ck for material hardens to form pg ‘composition silat to that © coarse-grained rock, and ite very large size, several me Pegmatites commonly inclu tunusual ingredients detived fi result pegmatites are majo so of some rare elements tach common materials including | cas for leetricl insulation, Voleanic rocks are alos sources. Pumice fr exsimpe siveand pyroclastic materi ¢ constuétion, decoraive stone Some metal deposi, notably bearing soluions preciptaced ‘ween lv ows Sediments and sedimentary many resources, Sand and struction industry, pure clay ¢ fey and the manatee of pa cement and in bist frnaces make tel Rock st isa son numberof chemical compoun smanuficroe wallboard‘ein km hi cies an hace by par the smc brad tenpersite= is mamed fo its os characterise rom ts source material and ac- er gnde of lmaperature and presse repre= ies (@ Fig 3.21). Each fics triste rock or mineral, For ex- pephic mineral chlorite, which perature and pres, is found in schist fia The blve-gray min fer hand, occurs in rocks ofthe metamorphic rocks formed n= smperature and high presute, axe common in rocks formed a uses, the so-called wphiblie fe fing miners ia metame phic ne the tempernture-preite he rocks metamorphism, ) GEOLOGIC resources ate ultimately derived igneous activity is the mecha- rm the Earth’ deep imserior reich chs such as granite cor bing where acer i FIGURE 3.22 A quarry forthe excarion of prosaic materials knowns inden * Insome granitic intrusions, the very a part ofthe gran ite co solidify i rich in water and elements that do not 8 ‘aly into che major rock-forming miners, This “Ieiove” ‘material hardens to form pegmatite, which generally has & ‘composition similar to that of granite. Pegmutit ia very oare-grained rock, and its ceyals sometimes grow to + very lnnge size, several meter: across in some’ cat, Pegmattes commonly include sare minerals that contain | unusual ingredients derived fom the leftover magma Av rel, pegmatts are major sources of gem mies and ores ‘of some rare elements such 2 berylum, a5 well 2s more common materials including feldspar for porcelain and mie as for elecerial elation Volcanic rocks are ako sources of some geologic re- sources, Pumice, fr examples eshed and uselas an abea- sive, and pyroclastic materials erembling cinders ae sed for consruéton, decorative stones, and roadheds (8 Fig, 3.22). ‘Some metal deposi notably copper, formed when mineral bearing solutions precipitated ore minerals within and be- ween va flows Sediments and sedimentary rock ae alsa the sources of many resources. Sand and grvel are exential to the con struction industry, pure clay deposits ate needed for ceram= fs and che manufzcrure of paper and limestone is used for cement and in blat farnaces where iron ote is tefined to ‘make steel. Rocks 2 source of common ee sale and a -number of chemical compounds and tock gypsum used to ‘manucrore walboss, Because of thet greater density gold, plainum, tin, and diamonds ae commonly separsted form other mineral dar- ing sediment wanspor and frm local concensations called placer deposits in seam channels and om beaches (® Fig 53.23). Much ofthe gold recovered daring the gold rushes California and the Yukon Territory of Canada came from Pacers. Currently, South Afric ithe leading producer of gold with the United Staesa distant second, Most US, gold production comes from minet in Nevads, California, South Dako, and Usa, Most ofthe uranium used in nuclear reactors in North America comes ffom uraniur-bearing minerals in sedi mentary rocks. ated in formations which ae chemical sedimentary rocks with akerating thin layers of cher and iron mineral ae a source of ion ones, North America as vast ion ore deposit in the Lake Supeciorsegion and in eastern Canad. Coal, i and maturat gas are collectively termed fos ues they ae iterally the fos chemical remains of ancient ‘otganisms. Much of the energy needed to generate electic= sry & produced by burning coal, and coke purified carbon fel made ftom col, suse wo fire Bast furnaces where see §s produced, Most pewolevin and natural gas ae recovered fom porous sedimentary rocks in which they were tapped mn saifciet quanttes. for profitable exeaction, ther sources of oil and natural gat chat will probably become ine ceaingly imporaneinchide of shale (Perspective 31) and ‘ar sands The Unived Sates hat sbout owo-thinls of the -@ FIGURE 3.23 Boca ofis grat ens gol sometimes concent by ‘eum action. Recovery method la make gol ret devs. (Gal panning ised on aul set cover gd A ‘seam gel and Water ae agate in un he gol sink othe boom and lighter ‘teil swathed sway.) Hyde mins sgoktbenringedmene The sediment ‘eases hough a series of tape The beaey SHE caghe by he tp whe Hes miners re sed on trough Tancous rocks ocgiite when mags or bea coos and esis or hen pyroclastic mae alae comslidsted. The tao cegoic of pe neous rocks ae plese rock, ch form within she Echt ‘estan vole rock, wich form st the trace “Most igneous rock ar lied aecowtng to det che iene. Mai goo rocks ar poor aes where fs gems orks se ih composition, pecially thee slice 52 cyuerend Rocks | caren Gs Gurr oe nee ‘world ol shale deposi and the mot extensive deposits of ‘arsands are ia Canad Mecamocphism is responsible for « number of geologic resources. In addition co metamorphic building and orna- mental ones such as marble and site a number of meta ‘morphic minenls ae valuable, Thete include garnet (aben- sives and jewel), ale (alcum poviden,kyanie (porcelain), and graphite Gubrcation and electial products). The mont Jmporant mecamorphie resources are those created by hot ‘ids derived fiom lies intusons tht ciel through rocks, changing them chemically and precipitating ore min cra Insome cases, the mineral form in or very nese the n= ‘usion. Other deposit form from Suid that have migited fac Gom thee source. For example, many gold deposits are found in quartz veins in metamorphic rocks, Some fds may travel hundreds of kilometers and deposi ther inet als at temperatures below the normal rnge of metamorphic temperatures. Lead and zine depois in the central United Sates, for instance, were deposited by Guid at only about 200°C GI2"F), Ile and fic rocks ze charcerza te mode 3. A fe igneous rocks nding obs, pumice an a are las onthe bas of th sexe 4 Acconing co Bowen series mine ersalice fom magna in s specie sequence. Some properties af neous rocks can be seated Bowen see, 5. Dera sedimentary rocks during weathering, wheres made op of mineral ext chemical process an the Liifcaion i the proceso rentary rock through com ‘alia carbonate, ad on entry mck Sedimentary suctre sch and muerte form he strc, long with fy ing ancien depositional enn Metamorphisn niles th of vorks by hes, pemure. Een, 9. Meemompic process in roak extra — Bowen’ series ‘chemical sedimetary tock Contace metamorp in, epesiional envionment Aerial sediment rock Fase 1 Woleanie rocks can usually rocks + olor, & compos ous cs compote age sarcterzed : ce pected as voile ie in which of he flowing pis be the sine mie ean 2 gaint bed Soria baat gitbore Themeniophic wakes a are the eis Which meer ig morphic 2 gb herb Semomateme. Thea Wich ofthe loving mea edie 2. able; b, quer sche sande,and the most extensive deposi of in sedimentary rocks eons of sold arcs yielded Weathering. wheres chemical edienary teks are Metmorphism is wualy not reveble bees water ow daring the process. Say rs aero Be OP of miner exc fom lain by noc 10, Th Bar eel pil Somat akon tmetmorphic bling ado el roe nh sti opin et tops of pot trom, and thoi rane aoe eee Ss he pce of emergent into ed the Eat caed bye ghee eke ee Bly eck trough compaction and conetton Shica, 11, Comat meumorphan ees esr are le Tae cel ran Peo edo we common cone eds" Soar itn cei oe oe mere ane Shing omnes reverend econ fr ne aes el Tee soci ch m cowrbding ple mais, __porpiemcin Chemie dusts oh ee sures a ton ated encs frm when sediment sw cepoviel Thee ontmancn Sea along with fos sid Earth scents in interpret 12. The presence of cern mines n metamorphic rock indl- ssc and precptrig oem futon! enone ‘atthe oad conor of pees semper ta ‘ineral form in or very near the: rphisen involves the chemical and physica alteration ‘caused metamorphism, ar ir mr by Re emer, chemi fut wiin the 19. May gto mesa tamrphic oko mt ‘example any gld depos el ‘icone within ha mae oe seeemorphie rock. Some fas Bsr pocoe nid che econ changer icone ot en teste ton oreo cnc Ba ‘he nora ange of meamon ine depos nthe cna Ue deposed by Dis at only about IMPORTANT TERMS fet agi sonal metmorhim pres rock smeamorpic facies mtoee andes ‘meson ek setistry oe ie poe ck tedinenary cre Fehon Prolene, ‘Siemic ree me singed fom plone rors by: eal b. __ compotion; «.__inn-magsom found. se of mune eoplga ene Bae x Igneous ck composed lily offromagnean sce ancteritd a 2 pyle: obi; «© intermediates Tite mad f, > Hphich of ietallowing pts tinea oeks o bth aks ethene nine compose? 2 gntesit —sndenerthyolie c, _~ pumicee Seti bale giiere = pomice pepmate ‘The meanorphic rk med om lone Sc qurate: bs mnble cgerntons Sie pre 5 Which ip of meunorphiom rads te major of et fc chs a chamctered nee wpe ks He. 2 ve having + sca consent between hi tee 5 sete, minenke crate fom a uence. Some properties of igneous Bowes ei |B Which ofthe flowing metmorpic rocks poses a fal © aed texte! 4, mathe; b__ quart; ¢. greenstone; saline sndione REVIEW QUESTIONS Which of the folowing i detitl sediment? 4. senbels; br ded miner; ‘sndid. —cmubelage a bone, ‘The proces whereby disohed miner ar precipitated in ote pues of tdiment and bing together 2% rounding: boring &ayering: ‘Most hmexones have a age companen of cite (CxC0,) that was exeacted fom eawae y + am inowgnic chemical roces;b. __werhering and compaction 1 artis of enna tmapane Some. — hia The broad conditions of premure and temperate under which metamorphic rock rm ae cal emo “—depeutonal eovirone mean © maf rock dae entre geothermal gadis, A volcanic rock composed of pyroltic mae known tah is 8. pairs, edie pumice the. __ pegmatite. ane Review Qeentone 5313, The gravel in conglomerte is in sdimentary rec quar felipr by deed alec whereas he grave ‘ounded/agasd. ——diny/dalye, —— fhi/mabic 14, Mezorphism occuring adjacent an gnc intuson i a dynamics be volar ce dieseds a prewur indcedse contact, © Wir sec is fows emch more vic tan mai lv Bown? @ Expsin why timenone and guar endtone undergo lide chemical change during metaerphi, Was bein and how does i cca? How ca scent tel om metamorphic rocks what he em- enture-presurecondisonr were when the ck Wee met morpho? ‘Whats sane by low-grade ad high-grade metimorphm? Give an example of metsmorpie sek epetenng ech nde plain how aceon can detersine the drcjon of ancient Why 3 mos limexone considered to be biochemicals mentary rock? How in imesone change 0 dalonone? Whats mean by porpiyic eat and ow doer sch & entre orgie? GB How do the setimenary rocks knows a6 evportes form? "Name ove common esprit rok SERIE 1 Why woul foited metmorphi rocks make a poor founds- on fr dar? Whae rye of metiroephi oct would make 20d foundsion? How can the color and site of mine in igo eocks give oes aout the compostion snd cooing istry of maga "POINTS TO PONDER 3. Inche United Ses abou 860 milion metric ont fos om 4 tol saere of 245 blhon metric toot ae ued annals, ‘Assuming tht ll of col ean be maine how long wl the crtent ste of eesurpeion? Why se impeabalethit of this eserve can be ine y ADDITIONAL = reapincs Mil ‘Bes M.G, 1982, gneurad tanorphic ely Son Francis: TWH, Freeman & Co, Boga. S. J 1995, Primo sediments and sigh, 2 {Calusa Ohio: Merril Publishing Co rina, 6.1991. The genes of oe, Stef Ameria 264 stot inson.D,and D.B Thompson, 1989, Setinentay rates, 2 ed. Condon: Allen & Una Friedman, GM. E Sanders and D.C, Kopaa-Mrkel. 199 rcp of iment deposit, New ork Maca. 54 currant Rec Jyraman.A. 1988, The hgh-preedmond ani cl ‘Siena 280: 54-62 afore LF 1979, Ain emonment, 24 ed. Englewood ‘Cif, NJ: Prentice-Hall Peck, DLL Wright and R, W: Decker, 1979. Te aa aes oF KGlaves. Sie Ameria 241,n0 4114-29. Rober, D190. When the qty ic mul, Swithnia 22,0 198-107 Stewart D. 1988. The quarries hum a architect enter 3 new ‘one a. Smihonon 1990.7: 86-93. BOS TAG For current updates and exerci betp [www wadeworth.com/e UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSI| ‘MUSEUM, |huip:/geclogy.wiseeds/-mus “Tis sce gues informacion about fous of Wisconsin. Waconsin roc igneous, metamorphic, nd dimes Aiplay va complete maton kel