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1. Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical composition and use a simple model to
describe their specificity on substrates
Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions occurring in the body
There are two types of metabolic reactions; anabolic and catabolic:
Anabolic reactions: building up large molecules from small ones.
Catabolic reactions: breaking down molecules into smaller parts.
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Role of an Enzyme in Metabolism:
The role of an enzyme in a metabolism is to increase the rate of chemical reactions by decreasing the
activation energy of a reaction. If these reactions were allowed to occur at their normal rate it would be
too slow to keep an organism alive.
Specificity on Substrates:
Enzymes act on substrates. It was once believed that only one specific enzyme (or combination of
enzymes) can react with one specific substrate (or combination of substrates).
This is demonstrated by the lock and key theory proposed by German scientist Emil Fischer in 1894.
It explains enzyme action by likening the enzyme to a lock and substrates to a key. Only a specific key is
able to open its matching lock. Just as the key is specific to the lock so is a substrate specific to an
enzyme. An enzyme will not work unless the substrate matches its active site. Only then will the reaction
be catalysed.
However it was later discovered that the substrate enters in and binds to the enzyme shaping the active
site and properly aligning the enzyme for the reaction to take place. Other substrates may fit into the
active site, but unless they are able to properly shape the enzyme, a reaction will not be catalysed.
Induced fit theory by US scientist Daniel Koshland, 1958.
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2. Identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance
pH: A measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance.
pH < 7 is acidic, pH of 7 is neutral and pH above 7 is basic or alkaline.
3. Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for optimal metabolic efficiency
Enzymes usually function at a specific temperature and pH range. Where the enzyme functions in the
body determines what its optimum temperature and pH range will be.
If an enzyme is subject to extreme pH and temperatures changes outside its normal ranges, it firstly
slows the rate of the reaction they are catalysing and then result in change shape and block the active
site of substrates.
This is called denaturing. Denaturing means that an enzyme is useless as the substrate cannot bind with
the active site and will no longer be able to function properly or catalyse reaction. Once an enzyme is
denatured the change is permanent, the enzyme cannot be reformed into its original shape.
Changes in temperature and pH can breaks bond in the protein molecule and overall disrupt their three-
dimensional shape making them unspecific to the substrate.
The maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for optimal metabolic efficiency as it
maintains the optimum level that the enzymes can react at while maintaining their specificity.
4. Describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment
Note:
Enzymes often have the prefix ase
Substrates often have the prefix ose
E.g. the substrate, cellulose is broken down by the enzyme, cellulase.
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5. Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages: detecting changes from the stable state, counteracting changes
from the stable state
Negative Feedback System: is where the response to the stimulus is to reduce and counteract the change. It
causes the body to respond so that a reversal in the direction of a change occurs.
Positive Feedback System: is where the response to a stimulus is to amplify the change instead of reducing it.
This does not result in homeostasis.
1. Stimulus: All organisms receive information from the various parts of their bodies and from their
environment in the form of stimuli. It can be either external or internal.
2. Receptor: A variation in either the internal or external environment is detected by a receptor. Sight, sound,
touch, taste and smell are all receptors.
3. Control Centre (Central Nervous System CNS): Once a variation is detected, a message is sent to the control
centre. This then replies by sending a message to the effector to counteract the variation.
4. Effector: The effector is normally either a muscle or gland that responds to the message and counteracts the
variation.
5. Response: This is the action of counteracting the variation.
6. Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to environmental changes
The nervous system is made of the brain, the spinal cord and sensory and motor neurons.
The nervous system enables the detection of external and internal environmental changes to the body and
then coordinates the responses the body will make to counteract these changes.
It is made up of two interacting elements, the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system:
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When one of these regions receives stimuli from the sensory neurons it then coordinates the correct
response necessary to counteract the change by sending out messages to the effector organs via the motor
neurons.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
Composed of all neurons outside the Central Nervous System (CNS). These include sensory and motor
neurons as well as the cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
Sensory neurons are nerve cells within the nervous system responsible for converting external stimuli from
the organism's environment into internal electrical impulses e.g. touch, smell, sight.
Sensory neurons transmit messages from the receptor organs to the CNS (brain).
Motor Neurons transmit messages from the CNS (brain) to the effector organs to activate a response.
A motor neuron conveys impulses from the CNS to a muscle, gland, or other effector tissue.
7. Identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared with the narrow limits for individual
species.
Life is found over a broad range of temperatures on planet earth. Where climatic temperature can vary from
-75oC to above 50oC.
However, most individual species have narrow temperature limits and they cannot exist in habitats that have
great varying temperatures.
This is because they possess behavioural and physiological adaptations that enable them to maintain their
temperature within this narrow range.
8. Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic organisms to changes in the ambient
temperature and explain how these responses assist temperature regulation.
Ectotherms: are organisms whose body temperature is determined by their surroundings. e.g. plants,
invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles and fish
Endotherms: are mammals that have physiological structures that enable them to maintain their body
temperature within a narrow range irrespective of the ambient temperature. e.g. birds and mammals
Physiological Adaptations: referring to adaptations in relation to how the organism functions
Structural Adaptations: referring to adaptations in relation to the organisms shape and size
Behavioural Adaptations: referring to adaptations in relation to how the organism acts.
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Diamond Python (Ectotherm):
The diamond python lives in a variety of habitats including rainforests, temperate forest, grassland, caves and
hollow trees. It eats small mammals, bats, birds and lizards. Its optimum temperature range is around 20oC
however this depends on the ambient temperature the pythons surroundings.
Plants are ectothermic and so cannot maintain a constant temperature. Therefore they have a range of
adaptations to help them survive in a variety of temperatures.
Response to
Reason
Temperature Change
Many plants in hot conditions reduce their surface area that is exposed to the sun by
Leaf Fall
dropping their leaves. This reduces the amount of water lost in transpiration.
Some plants reduce the amount of heat received by having shiny leaves that reflect solar
Radiation
radiation.
Produced by plants when they are under stress from very high temperatures. They are
Heat-shock Proteins thought to stop the denaturing of the enzymes within the cell, so allow normal cell
reactions to continue.
The movement of water through the plant helps to cool the plant during hot conditions.
Transpiration
This is also effecting when evaporation of water occurs from the stomates of the leaf
In harsh conditions, shoots of a plant may die. However the soil and roots will begin to
Die back
grow again when favourable conditions return
Some plants orientate their leaves in such a way that it reduces the amount of sun rays
Orientation of leaves
that make contact with the surface area of the leaf. e.g. eucalyptus
Most plants are able to tolerate fairly low temperatures compared to animals. This is due
in part to their cell walls as when temperatures drop bellowing freezing, ice will form
Ice formation between outside of the plant cells. This is because the solution within the plant cells is higher in
cells solutes (and therefore higher freezing point) than the solution between the cells. Ice will
therefore form between the plant cells, which are protected from ice crystals by cell
walls. However this is ineffective if temperatures drop too quickly, such as during a frost.
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10. Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to test the
effect of: increased temperature, change in pH, change in substrate concentrations on the activity of named
enzyme(s)
--------------------------------See Enzyme Action Prac Experiment-----------------------------
11. Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to develop a model of
a feedback mechanism
12. Analyse information from secondary sources to describe adaptations and responses that have occurred in
Australian organisms to assist temperature regulation
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Chapter 2: Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a fluid medium.
1. Identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood: carbon dioxide, oxygen, water,
salts, lipids, nitrogenous waste, other products of digestion
3. Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function
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arteries and overlapping wastes between the blood and the tissue cells. In this way the bodys tissues are
veins, surround cells efficiently supplied with the substances they need while wastes are removed.
all tissue cells.
4. Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves around the body and identify
tissues in which these changes occur.
The chemical composition of blood changes as it moves around the body. This is as a result from the
continuous exchange of substances between the blood and the surrounding tissues.
In general, blood moving through/towards the bodys tissues delivers oxygen and glucose for cellular
respiration as well as nutrients.
In general, blood moving away from the bodys tissues carries carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes
for disposal.
Tissue Main Changes in Blood
Increase in oxygen
Lung
Decrease in carbon dioxide
Increase in glucose and other products of digestion (amino acids, lipids,
Villi of small intestine
vitamins, minerals, water)
Kidneys Decrease in nitrogenous wastes (salts and water to form urea)
Decrease in oxygen
Other body tissues Decrease in glucose
Increase in carbon dioxide
5. Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon dioxide from cells is essential
Need for oxygen in living cells:
Oxygen is transported from the lungs to the tissues throughout a body.
These cells need oxygen so that the process of cell respiration can occur.
Cell respiration is essential as it provides energy that is needed for metabolic process (e.g. protein synthesis)
and if these processes do not occur it can result in fatality.
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6. Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of materials through plants in xylem and
phloem tissue
A high concentration of water in the soil is absorbed by the root When the sugar leaves the phloem to
hairs which have a lower concentration of water. This is caused by enter a sink (a place that uses organic
osmosis and is called osmotic pressure. material made elsewhere) there is an
The water then moves through the cortex into the xylem in the increase of water in the sieve tube in
vascular tissue and transported through the plant. This overall that region. This increases pressure in
process is called root pressure. the sieve tubes.
Gases enter and leave the leaf through the stomata. Most of the Water then moves out of the sink tubes
water lost by the plant is in transpiration through the stomata. and this results in higher pressure in the
The walls of the mesophyll cells are moist and when the sun shines sieve tube and lower pressure at the sink
the air spaces around them evaporate the water. tube.
As water evaporates, water moves out of the cells to ensure that the The difference in pressure pushes the
walls of the mesophyll are kept moist. In turn, water moves from the materials to move to the sink to be used
small xylem vessels into the mesophyll cells. This is called in different ways.
transpiration pull. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
7. Perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water
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8. Perform a first-hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared slides to gather information to estimate
the size of red and white blood cells and draw scaled diagrams of each
Method:
The diameter of the LP field was determined using a grid
A diameter of the HP field was calculated
A prepared slide of blood cells was observed at HP, and the diameter of red blood cell and white
blood cells estimated
Diagrams of each were drawn.
o Red blood cells: 6-8 microns
o White blood cells: 7-21 microns
Results:
Red blood cells are generally smaller than white blood cells
Red blood cells appear biconcave, while white blood cells usually appear disk shaped, and are
spherical
Red blood cells have no nucleus, while white cells have a darkly staining nucleus
9. Analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that allow measurement of oxygen
saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood and describe and explain the conditions under which these
technologies are used
What is oxygen Oxygen saturation is relating to the measured amount of oxygen in the blood.
saturation? Normal oxygen saturation in the human body is about 96%.
Helps doctors in diagnosis of patients and in monitoring them while in hospital.
How does
Gives information about the ability of the lungs both in providing oxygen to the body and
measuring these
removing carbon dioxide from the body.
concentrations
help? Gives information on the kidneys ability to reabsorb or excrete bicarbonate ions to maintain
normal body pH.
Patients:
undergoing any procedure that requires anaesthesia or sedation
Who needs this
with abnormal breathing
tested
in intensive care
/monitored?
who are premature new born babies
who shows dangerously low oxygen levels or high levels of carbon dioxide
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Advances in biotechnology and electronics have resulted in the production of biosensors that have
How is it made analysing blood more accurate.
measured? In hospitals, a Pulse Oximeter is used to monitor the oxygen saturation of the blood and in dramatic
cases, blood is taken from an artery for Arterial Blood Gas Analysis.
A sensor is a device that translates a physical or chemical property into an electrical signal that can
What is a
be measured. The key component is the transducer or signal-converting element that converts the
biosensor?
property to be measured into a signal.
Pulse oximeters measure the amount of oxygen in arterial blood (blood being pumped from the
heart to the body cells).
They consist of a sensor or probe that is attached to a part of the body such as a fingertip.
When oxygen combines with haemoglobin the colour of the blood changes from dark red
(unsaturated) to bright red (saturated).
Light from two light emitting diodes is passed through the finger and the amount of light energy
transmitted is detected by two light detecting sensors. The light energy varies depending on the
level of oxygenation of haemoglobin in the blood.
What is a Pulse Two diodes are commonly used, one emitting red light (650nm) and the other infrared (940nm).
Oximeter? Oxygenated blood absorbs red light whereas deoxygenated blood absorbs more infrared light.
There is a large difference in the amount of red light absorbed by the oxyhaemoglobin compared
to haemoglobin.
By calculating the absorption at the two wavelengths the processor can compute the proportion
of haemoglobin which is oxygenated.
The signal is first amplified, then the oxygen saturation is calculated and the result displayed on
the screen. An alarm rings if oxygen saturation falls below a certain level, usually about 90%.
Oximeters give no information about the level of carbon dioxide and therefore have limitations in
the assessment of patients developing respiratory failure due to carbon dioxide retention.
An ABG analysis is a blood test that is performed using blood from an artery.
The test is used to determine the pH of the blood, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and
oxygen, and the bicarbonate level. Many blood gas analyzers will also report concentrations of
What is Arterial lactate, hemoglobin, several electrolytes, oxyhaemoglobin, carboxyhaemoglobin.
Blood Gas (ABG) Arterial blood for blood gas analysis is drawn from an artery. The radial artery is easily accessible,
Analysis? can be compressed to control bleeding, and has less risk for occlusion.
Once the sample is obtained, care is taken to eliminate visible gas bubbles, as these bubbles can
dissolve into the sample and cause inaccurate results. The sealed syringe is taken to a blood gas
analyser and analysed within 30 minutes (generally).
10. Analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted from donated blood and discuss
the uses of these products
Most donated blood is separated into its componentsplasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and
plateletsbefore being stored. This allows the blood of a single donor to be used for several patients who have
different needs. Blood is separated by means of centrifugation, a process in which the blood is rapidly spun so
that the heavier blood cells and platelets separate out from the lighter plasma. Whole blood is given to patients
where major functions of the blood, such as oxygen carrying capacity, are impaired, or where more than 20% of
blood has been lost and there is a decrease in blood pressure.
Plasma, the liquid part of blood, can be dried into a powder or frozen. Fresh frozen plasma and freeze-dried
preparations containing clotting factors are used to treat patients with hemophilia. Hemophilia is an inherited
disorder in which certain clotting factors are missing in the blood, resulting in excessive bleeding. Concentrated
red blood cells are used to transfuse patients with anemia, a condition in which the blood contains an
insufficient number of red blood cells. White blood cells and platelets are used for transfusions in patients who
have a deficiency of these components in their blood.
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Component Composition Use
Whole blood Cell and plasma Volume replacement in cases with large blood loss
Red blood cells, white blood cells, come Anaemia
Blood cells
platelets and little plasma
Platelets Platelets Severe bleeding
Plasma Plasma, all coagulation factor Bleeding, where there is a deficiency in coagulation
Lymphocytes, neutrophils, some red Low neutrophil count
Granulocytes
blood cells and platelets
11. Analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in the production of artificial blood
and use available evidence to propose reasons why such research is needed
What is A blood substitute that can be used to provide fluid volume and carry oxygen in the vessels. It
artificial remains in circulation until blood volume is restored and then artificial is safely excreted.
blood?
Why is it not Is routinely used but not commonly. This is because it only transmits oxygen but not
always used? nutrients, so cannot be used in long term treatments.
Also it does not contain white blood cells, so cannot resist viruses from external
environment.
Why does it There are not enough blood donors
exist? There is a shortfall in blood supply
It has a longer shelf life than donated blood
It is easily produced and developed at a fast rate and works for all blood types
What is the Scientists have been trying to develop a blood substitute since the 1930s. The military have
demand for been seeking a viable product since the 1970s and commercial ventures have added to this
it? research since the early 1980s.
What Northfield Laboratories Inc in Chicago have developed Poly Home. This is basically recycled
research human blood that is universally compatible, substantially free of viral contamination and has a
exists today? one-year shelf life.
What has Perfluorocarbons:
been These are compounds derived from hydrocarbons by replacement of hydrogen atoms by
achieved fluorine atoms. They are commonly used in eye surgery as temporary replacements of the
today? vitreous humour in retinal detachment surgery.
Plasma substitutes:
Any liquid used to replace blood plasma and volume of blood. It is also used to treat
dehydration.
12. Choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to gather first-hand data to draw transverse
and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissue
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Chapter 3: Plants and animals regulate the concentration of gases, water and waste
products of metabolism in cells and in interstitial fluid.
1. Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a narrow range for optimal function
Water inside a cell is essential for life. Too little or too much can result in serious problems and most cells will die
if their water content is changed significantly.
2. Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity
Metabolic wastes, particularly nitrogenous wastes that are the by-products of the breakdown of
proteins and nucleic acids, are toxic to cells and must therefore be removed quickly. Nitrogenous wastes
have the ability to change the pH of cells and interfere with membrane transport functions and may
denature enzymes.
Metabolic wastes are the product of metabolic reactions. If they are not removed their concentration in
the cell increases. This inhibits the reactions that produce them, interfering with normal metabolic
activity.
3. Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals
The kidney is part of the urinary system and is the main organ involved in the excretion of wastes and
osmoregulation in fish and mammals.
Osmoregulation: maintenance of a constant concentration of salt ions and therefore water
levels within the body regardless of the concentrations within the environment
The role of the kidney is to:
Excrete wastes
Maintain osmoregulation
Maintain appropriate pH levels in the blood
4. Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes in
some organisms
In unicellular organisms, the excretion of dissolved nitrogenous wastes occurs solely by the processes of
diffusion and osmosis. These are both forms of passive transport.
The cell membrane is selectively permeable, allowing water molecules to enter by osmosis when necessary
and nitrogenous wastes to exit by diffusion.
However, multicellular organisms are too large to rely on the processes of diffusion and osmosis to excrete
their nitrogenous wastes. They are made up of millions of cells so therefore must rid themselves of their
wastes by other methods.
Active transport is one method whereby ions are moved against a concentration gradient through proteins.
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5. Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes occurring in the mammalian kidney
Passive Transport: diffusion of molecules from regions of high concentration to low concentration without
the expenditure of energy
Active Transport: The net movement of particles against a concentration gradient from an area of high
concentration, with the expenditure of energy
The mammalian kidney is designed to use active transport to move ions against their concentration gradient and
therefore excrete wastes.
Process Definition Application to kidney function
The movement of substances from areas Solutes in the filtrate will tend to diffuse out through the
where they are in high concentration to tubule walls into the tissue fluid and the blood, but once the
Diffusion regions where they are in low concentrations are equal there will be no further net
concentration. diffusion. If all of a substance needs to be reabsorbed then
active uptake must occur.
Osmosis is the movement of water only 98% of water needs to be reabsorbed from the filtrate and
through a semi-permeable membrane returned to the blood. It can move by osmosis only if there
from a region where there are less solutes are more solutes outside the tubule than inside the tubule.
Osmosis
in the water to a region where there are
more solutes. (Region from higher to lower
concentration)
Where the cell membrane actively selects In order to absorb all the useful molecules from the filtrate,
Active which substances can pass through it into active uptake must be involved. This is because diffusion will
uptake the cell. Large protein molecules in the cell no longer work once the concentration of the substance is
membrane are involved in this. the same of the inside and outside of the tubule.
The cells lining the tubule can actively Drugs such as penicillin and aspirin and other poisons are
secrete harmful substances into the tube. added to the fluid in the tube. Because a lot of the urea
Secretion
which forms part of the glomerulus filtrate diffuses out of the
tubule, this must be secreted back into the tubule.
Most of the process of reabsorption is by active uptake. This is why the kidney has such a high respiration rate.
Water can only move by osmosis so the kidney must ensure that there is a high enough salt concentration
around the Loop of Henle to absorb the sufficient amounts of water.
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6. Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron regulate body fluid
composition
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7. Outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) in the regulation of water and salt
levels in blood
The kidneys play a major role in maintaining water and salt levels in the blood. They are aided by hormones
produced by the bodys endocrine system. The two main hormones involved in osmoregulation are Anti-diuretic
hormone (ADH) and Aldosterone.
Aldosterone: hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that regulates salt and water balance
Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH): hormone produced by the hypothalamus that control reabsorption of water in
the kidneys
Aldosterone Anti-diuretic Hormone
A consequence of low water levels is low blood The hypothalamus has osmoreceptors that detect a rise
pressure, as a result of lessened blood volume. This in the concentrations of solutes in the blood (low
change in blood pressure is detected by the receptors concentration of water).
in the kidnies resulting in the release of Aldosterone As a result ADH is released into the blood stream by the
Produced by the adrenal glands located just above pituitary gland
each kidney Travels in blood to distal tubule of kidney
Aldosterone acts to control the reabsorption of Increase the permeability of distal and collecting tubule
solutes, specifically sodium. The higher the level of walls so that more water is reabsorbed
aldosterone, the more permeable the walls of the This results in an increase in the amount of water
nephrons are to sodium. So sodium ions and returned to the blood and a decrease in the amount of
therefore water are absorbed back into the blood. urine produced.
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8. Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to variations in the
environment and discuss its importance to estuarine organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations
9. Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in minimising water loss
Water loss generally occurs as a by-product of transpiration. If a plant needs to reduce water loss it must close its stomata
to do this. However, the plant also needs to photosynthesise and respire, processes that need the stomata to be open for
gas exchange.
10. Perform a first-hand investigation of the structure of a mammalian kidney by dissection, use of a model
or visual resource and identify the regions involved in the excretion of waste products
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11. Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare the process of renal
dialysis with the function of the kidney
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12. Present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in people who cannot
secrete aldosterone
The pituitary gland produces a hormone that influences the secretion of hormones from the
adrenal cortex, including aldosterone. If the adrenal cortex gland is affected by a disease (e.g.
Addisons disease) it can result in the gland producing insufficient levels of all adrenal cortex
hormones. This includes the hormone aldosterone.
The pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure located at the base of the brain, just below the
hypothalamus and attached to it by nerve fibres. It is part of the endocrine system and produces
hormones which control other glands as well as various bodily functions.
As a result people with insufficient levels of adrenal cortex hormones require multiple hormone
replacement therapy.
This includes a synthetic form of aldosterone which is called fludrocortisone.
The replacement is needed because the aldosterone secreted from the adrenal gland carries out
the vital process of the control of blood pressure and body fluid composition.
13. Analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the differences in urine
concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish
Isotonic: When the two solutions have the same concentration of solutes. There is therefore no
net movement of solutes by diffusion and no net movement of water by osmosis
Hypertonic: The name given to the fluid which contains the greater amount of solutes. Water will
flow into a hypertonic solution by osmosis
Hypotonic: The name given to the solution which contains the lesser amount of solutes. Water
will flow out of this solution by osmosis.
Nitrogenous waste product Toxicity Solubility in water Types of animals producing this waste
Ammonia High High Fish
Urea Medium Medium Terrestrial mammals
Uric acid Low Low Insects, reptiles, birds
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14. Use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation of water and the
production and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian insects and
terrestrial mammals
Ammonia is very toxic and must be removed immediately, either by diffusion or in very dilute
urine.
It is the waste product of most aquatic animals, including many fish and tadpoles.
Ammonia is the immediate product of breakdown of amino acids no energy is required
to make it. It is highly soluble in water and diffuses rapidly across the cell membrane.
However, it needs large quantities of water to be constantly and safely removed.
Ammonia does not diffuse quickly in air.
Urea is toxic, but 10 000 times less toxic than ammonia, so it can be safely stored in the body for a
limited time.
It is the waste product of mammals, and some other terrestrial animals, but also of adult
amphibians, sharks and some bony fish.
It is made from amino acids but requires more steps and energy to make than does
ammonia.
It is highly soluble in water, but being less toxic than ammonia, it can be stored in a more
concentrated solution and so requires less water to remove than ammonia.
It is a source of water loss for these species.
Uric acid is less toxic than ammonia or urea, so can be safely stored in or on the body for
extended periods of time.
It is the waste product of terrestrial animals such as birds, many reptiles, insects and land
snails.
It is a more complex molecule than urea so it requires even more energy to produce.
It is thousands of times less soluble than ammonia or urea and has low toxicity, which
means that little water is expended to remove it. This is a great advantage for survival.
The longer the loop of henle for the animal the greater water preservation (live in desert)
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15. Process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to discuss
processes used by different plants for salt regulation in saline environments
Halophytes: A plant that successfully inhibits areas of high salinity. Possess various adaptations to
assist them in surviving high salt level in their surroundings.
Most plants cannot tolerate salty condition in saline environments the solute concentration in the
soil is greater than it is inside the plants root and so water tends to move out by osmosis.
In addition, an excess of sodium ions inside cells inhibits enzymes activity and can result in a
decrease in the uptake of essential potassium ions.
16. Perform a first-hand investigation to gather information about structures in plants that assist in the
conservation of water
------See Investigating Water Conserving Structures in Plants Prac Experiment-------
Use Assignment
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