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EmilyDickinson
18301886
http://www.edickinson.org

EmilyDickinsonisoneof
Americasgreatestandmost
originalpoetsofalltime.She
tookdefinitionasher
provinceandchallengedthe
existingdefinitionsofpoetry
andthepoetswork.Like
writerssuchasRalphWaldo
Emerson,HenryDavid
Thoreau,andWaltWhitman,
sheexperimentedwith
expressioninordertofreeit
fromconventionalrestraints.
LikewriterssuchasCharlotte
BrontandElizabethBarrettBrowning,shecraftedanewtypeofpersonaforthefirstperson.
ThespeakersinDickinsonspoetry,likethoseinBrontsandBrowningsworks,aresharp
sightedobserverswhoseetheinescapablelimitationsoftheirsocietiesaswellastheirimagined
andimaginableescapes.Tomaketheabstracttangible,todefinemeaningwithoutconfiningit,
toinhabitahousethatneverbecameaprison,Dickinsoncreatedinherwritingadistinctively
ellipticallanguageforexpressingwhatwaspossiblebutnotyetrealized.LiketheConcord
Transcendentalistswhoseworkssheknewwell,shesawpoetryasadoubleedgedsword.While
itliberatedtheindividual,itasreadilylefthimungrounded.Theliterarymarketplace,however,
offerednewgroundforherworkinthelastdecadeofthe19thcentury.Whenthefirstvolumeof
herpoetrywaspublishedin1890,fouryearsafterherdeath,itmetwithstunningsuccess.
Goingthrougheleveneditionsinlessthantwoyears,thepoemseventuallyextendedfarbeyond
theirfirsthouseholdaudiences.

EmilyElizabethDickinsonwasborninAmherst,Massachusetts,onDecember10,1830to
EdwardandEmily(Norcross)Dickinson.Atthetimeofherbirth,Emilysfatherwasan
ambitiousyounglawyer.EducatedatAmherstandYale,hereturnedtohishometownand
joinedtheailinglawpracticeofhisfather,SamuelFowlerDickinson.Edwardalsojoinedhis
fatherinthefamilyhome,theHomestead,builtbySamuelDickinsonin1813.Activeinthe
WhigParty,EdwardDickinsonwaselectedtotheMassachusettsStateLegislature(18371839)
andtheMassachusettsStateSenate(18421843).Between1852and1855heservedasingle
termasarepresentativefromMassachusettstotheU.S.Congress.InAmhersthepresented
himselfasamodelcitizenandpridedhimselfonhiscivicworktreasurerofAmherstCollege,
supporterofAmherstAcademy,secretarytotheFireSociety,andchairmanoftheannualCattle
Show.ComparativelylittleisknownofEmilysmother,whoisoftenrepresentedasthepassive
wifeofadomineeringhusband.Herfewsurvivingletterssuggestadifferentpicture,asdoesthe
scantinformationaboutherearlyeducationatMonsonAcademy.Academypapersandrecords
discoveredbyMarthaAckmannrevealayoungwomandedicatedtoherstudies,particularlyin
thesciences.

BythetimeofEmilysearlychildhood,therewerethreechildreninthehousehold.Herbrother,
WilliamAustinDickinson,hadprecededherbyayearandahalf.Hersister,LaviniaNorcross
Dickinson,wasbornin1833.Allthreechildrenattendedtheoneroomprimaryschoolin
AmherstandthenmovedontoAmherstAcademy,theschooloutofwhichAmherstCollegehad
grown.Thebrotherandsisterseducationwassoondivided.AustinwassenttoWilliston
Seminaryin1842EmilyandVinniecontinuedatAmherstAcademy.ByEmilyDickinsons
account,shedelightedinallaspectsoftheschoolthecurriculum,theteachers,thestudents.
TheschoolprideditselfonitsconnectionwithAmherstCollege,offeringstudentsregular
attendanceatcollegelecturesinalltheprincipalsubjectsastronomy,botany,chemistry,
geology,mathematics,naturalhistory,naturalphilosophy,andzoology.Asthislistsuggests,the
curriculumreflectedthe19thcenturyemphasisonscience.Thatemphasisreappearedin
Dickinsonspoemsandlettersthroughherfascinationwithnaming,herskilledobservationand
cultivationofflowers,hercarefullywroughtdescriptionsofplants,andherinterestinchemic
force.Thoseinterests,however,rarelycelebratedscienceinthesamespiritastheteachers
advocated.Inanearlypoem,shechastisedscienceforitspryinginterests.Itssysteminterfered
withtheobserverspreferencesitsstudytookthelifeoutoflivingthings.InArcturusishis
othernameshewrites,Ipullaflowerfromthewoods/Amonsterwithaglass/Computes
thestamensinabreath/Andhasherinaclass!Atthesametime,Dickinsonsstudyof
botanywasclearlyasourceofdelight.SheencouragedherfriendAbiahRoottojoinherina
schoolassignment:Haveyoumadeanherbariumyet?Ihopeyouwill,ifyouhavenot,itwould
besuchatreasuretoyou.Sheherselftookthatassignmentseriously,keepingtheherbarium
generatedbyherbotanytextbookfortherestofherlife.Behindherschoolbotanicalstudieslay
apopulartextincommonuseatfemaleseminaries.WrittenbyAlmiraH.Lincoln,Familiar
LecturesonBotany(1829)featuredaparticularkindofnaturalhistory,emphasizingthe
religiousnatureofscientificstudy.Lincolnwasoneofmanyearly19thcenturywriterswho
forwardedtheargumentfromdesign.Sheassuredherstudentsthatstudyofthenaturalworld
invariablyrevealedGod.ItsimpeccablyorderedsystemsshowedtheCreatorshandatwork.

LincolnsassessmentaccordedwellwiththelocalAmherstauthorityinnaturalphilosophy.
EdwardHitchcock,presidentofAmherstCollege,devotedhislifetomaintainingtheunbroken
connectionbetweenthenaturalworldanditsdivineCreator.Hewasafrequentlectureratthe
college,andEmilyhadmanyopportunitiestohearhimspeak.Hisemphasiswasclearfromthe
titlesofhisbooksReligiousLecturesonPeculiarPhenomenaintheFourSeasons(1861),The
ReligionofGeologyandItsConnectedSciences(1851),andReligiousTruthIllustratedfrom
Science(1857).LikeLouisAgassizatHarvard,HitchcockarguedfirmlythatSirCharlesLyells
beliefshakingclaimsinthePrinciplesofGeology(18301833)werestillexplicablethroughthe
carefulinterventionofadivinehand.

Dickinsonfoundtheconventionalreligiouswisdomtheleastcompellingpartofthese
arguments.FromwhatshereadandwhatsheheardatAmherstAcademy,scientificobservation
proveditsexcellenceinpowerfuldescription.Thewriterwhocouldsaywhathesawwas
invariablythewriterwhoopenedthegreatestmeaningtohisreaders.Whilethisdefinitionfit
wellwiththesciencepracticedbynaturalhistorianssuchasHitchcockandLincoln,italso
articulatesthepoetictheorythenbeingformedbyawriterwithwhomDickinsonsnamewas
oftenlaterlinked.In1838EmersontoldhisHarvardaudience,Alwaystheseerisasayer.
Acknowledgingthehumanpenchantforclassification,heapproachedthisphenomenonwitha
differentintent.Lessinterestedthansomeinusingthenaturalworldtoproveasupernatural
one,hecalledhislistenersandreadersattentiontothecreativepowerofdefinition.The
individualwhocouldsaywhatiswastheindividualforwhomwordswerepower.

WhilethestrengthofAmherstAcademylayinitsemphasisonscience,italsocontributedto
Dickinsonsdevelopmentasapoet.Thesevenyearsattheacademyprovidedherwithherfirst
Master,LeonardHumphrey,whoservedasprincipaloftheacademyfrom1846to1848.
AlthoughDickinsonundoubtedlyesteemedhimwhileshewasastudent,herresponsetohis
unexpecteddeathin1850clearlysuggestshergrowingpoeticinterest.ShewroteAbiahRoot
thatheronlytributewashertears,andshelingeredovertheminherdescription.Shewillnot
brushthemaway,shesays,fortheirpresenceisherexpression.So,ofcourse,isherlanguage,
whichisinkeepingwiththememorialversesexpectedof19thcenturymourners.

HumphreysdesignationasMasterparallelstheotherrelationshipsEmilywascultivatingat
school.Attheacademyshedevelopedagroupofclosefriendswithinandagainstwhomshe
definedherselfanditswrittenexpression.AmongthesewereAbiahRoot,AbbyWood,and
EmilyFowler.OthergirlsfromAmherstwereamongherfriendsparticularlyJaneHumphrey,
whohadlivedwiththeDickinsonswhileattendingAmherstAcademy.Aswascommonfor
youngwomenofthemiddleclass,thescantformalschoolingtheyreceivedintheacademiesfor
youngladiesprovidedthemwithamomentaryautonomy.Asstudents,theywereinvitedto
taketheirintellectualworkseriously.Manyoftheschools,likeAmherstAcademy,requiredfull
dayattendance,andthusdomesticdutiesweresubordinatedtoacademicones.Thecurriculum
wasoftenthesameasthatforayoungmanseducation.AttheirSchoolforYoungLadies,
WilliamandWaldoEmerson,forexample,recycledtheirHarvardassignmentsfortheir
students.Whenaskedforadviceaboutfuturestudy,theyofferedthereadinglistexpectedof
youngmen.ThecelebrationintheDickinsonhouseholdwhenAustincompletedhisstudyof
DavidHumesHistoryofEngland(1762)couldwellhavebeenrepeatedfordaughters,whoalso
soughttomasterthattext.Thus,thetimeatschoolwasatimeofintellectualchallengeand
relativefreedomforgirls,especiallyinanacademysuchasAmherst,whichprideditselfonits
progressiveunderstandingofeducation.Thestudentslookedtoeachotherfortheirdiscussions,
grewaccustomedtothinkingintermsoftheiridentityasscholars,andfacedamarkedchange
whentheyleftschool.

DickinsonslasttermatAmherstAcademy,however,didnotmarktheendofherformal
schooling.Aswascommon,Dickinsonlefttheacademyattheageof15inordertopursuea
higher,andforwomen,final,levelofeducation.Inthefallof1847DickinsonenteredMount
HolyokeFemaleSeminary.UndertheguidanceofMaryLyon,theschoolwasknownforits
religiouspredilection.PartandparcelofthecurriculumwereweeklysessionswithLyonin
whichreligiousquestionswereexaminedandthestateofthestudentsfaithassessed.The
youngwomenweredividedintothreecategories:thosewhowereestablishedChristians,those
whoexpressedhope,andthosewhowerewithouthope.MuchhasbeenmadeofEmilys
placeinthislattercategoryandinthewidelycirculatedstorythatshewastheonlymemberof
thatgroup.YearslaterfellowstudentClaraNewmanTurnerrememberedthemomentwhen
MaryLyonaskedallthosewhowantedtobeChristianstorise.Emilyremainedseated.Noone
elsedid.TurnerreportsEmilyscommenttoher:TheythoughtitqueerIdidntriseadding
withatwinkleinhereye,Ithoughtaliewouldbequeerer.Writtenin1894,shortlyafterthe
publicationofthefirsttwovolumesofDickinsonspoetryandtheinitialpublicationofher
letters,Turnersreminiscencescarrytheburdenofthe50interveningyearsaswellasthe
reviewersandreadersdelightintheapparentstrangenessofthenewlypublishedDickinson.
Thesolitaryrebelmaywellhavebeentheonlyonesittingatthatmeeting,buttheschoolrecords
indicatethatDickinsonwasnotaloneinthewithouthopecategory.Infact,30students
finishedtheschoolyearwiththatdesignation.

ThebrevityofEmilysstayatMountHolyokeasingleyearhasgivenrisetomuchspeculation
astothenatureofherdeparture.Somehavearguedthatthebeginningofhersocalled
reclusivenesscanbeseeninherfrequentmentionsofhomesicknessinherletters,butinnocase
dotheletterssuggestthatherregularactivitiesweredisrupted.Shedidnotmakethesamekind
ofclosefriendsasshehadatAmherstAcademy,butherreportsonthedailyroutinesuggest
thatshewasfullyapartoftheactivitiesoftheschool.Additionalquestionsareraisedbythe
uncertaintyoverwhomadethedecisionthatshenotreturnforasecondyear.Dickinson
attributedthedecisiontoherfather,butshesaidnothingfurtherabouthisreasoning.Edward
Dickinsonsreputationasadomineeringindividualinprivateandpublicaffairssuggeststhat
hisdecisionmayhavestemmedfromhisdesiretokeepthisparticulardaughterathome.
Dickinsonscommentsoccasionallysubstantiatesuchspeculation.Shefrequentlyrepresents
herselfasessentialtoherfatherscontentment.Butinotherplacesherdescriptionofherfather
isquitedifferent(theindividualtoobusywithhislawpracticetonoticewhatoccurredathome).
TheleastsensationalexplanationhasbeenofferedbybiographerRichardSewall.Lookingover
theMountHolyokecurriculumandseeinghowmanyofthetextsduplicatedthoseDickinson
hadalreadystudiedatAmherst,heconcludesthatMountHolyokehadlittlenewtoofferher.
Whateverthereason,whenitcameVinniesturntoattendafemaleseminary,shewassentto
Ipswich.

DickinsonsdeparturefromMountHolyokemarkedtheendofherformalschooling.Italso
promptedthedissatisfactioncommonamongyoungwomenintheearly19thcentury.Upon
theirreturn,unmarrieddaughterswereindeedexpectedtodemonstratetheirdutifulnatureby
settingasidetheirowninterestsinordertomeettheneedsofthehome.ForDickinsonthe
changewashardlywelcome.Herlettersfromtheearly1850sregisterdislikeofdomesticwork
andfrustrationwiththetimeconstraintscreatedbytheworkthatwasneverdone.Godkeep
mefromwhattheycallhouseholds,sheexclaimedinalettertoRootin1850.

ParticularlyannoyingwerethenumberofcallsexpectedofthewomenintheHomestead.
EdwardDickinsonsprominencemeantatacitsupportwithintheprivatesphere.Thedaily
roundsofreceivingandpayingvisitsweredeemedessentialtosocialstanding.Notonlywere
visitorstothecollegewelcomeatalltimesinthehome,butalsoweremembersoftheWhig
PartyorthelegislatorswithwhomEdwardDickinsonworked.EmilyNorcrossDickinsons
retreatintopoorhealthinthe1850smaywellbeunderstoodasoneresponsetosucharoutine.

ForDickinson,thepaceofsuchvisitswasmindnumbing,andshebeganlimitingthenumberof
visitsshemadeorreceived.Shebakedbreadandtendedthegarden,butshewouldneitherdust
norvisit.Therewasoneotherdutyshegladlytookon.AstheelderofAustinstwosisters,she
slottedherselfintotheexpectedroleofcounselorandconfidante.Inthe19thcenturythesister
wasexpectedtoactasmoralguidetoherbrotherDickinsonrosetothatrequirementbuton
herownterms.Knownatschoolasawit,sheputasharpedgeonhersweetestremarks.Inher
earlyletterstoAustin,sherepresentedtheeldestchildastherisinghopeofthefamily.She
promotedtwovirtues,onlyoneofwhichwascentraltothemoralguidesprovenance.From
Dickinsonsperspective,Austinssafepassagetoadulthooddependedontwoaspectsofhis
character.Withthefirstshewasinfirmagreementwiththewisdomofthecentury:theyoung
manshouldemergefromhiseducationwithafirmloyaltytohome.ThesecondwasDickinsons
owninvention:Austinssuccessdependedonaruthlessintellectualhonesty.Ifheborrowedhis
ideas,hefailedhertestofcharacter.Thereweretobenopietiesbetweenthem,andwhenshe
detectedhisownrelianceonconventionalwisdom,sheusedherlanguagetochallengewhathe
hadleftunquestioned.

InherletterstoAustinintheearly1850s,whilehewasteachingandinthemid1850sduringhis
threeyearsasalawstudentatHarvard,shepresentedherselfasakeencritic,usingextravagant
praisetoinvitehimtoquestiontheworthofhisownperceptions.Shepositionedherselfasa
spurtohisambition,readilyremindinghimofherownworkwhenshewonderedaboutthe
extentofhis.Dickinsons1850sletterstoAustinaremarkedbyanintensitythatdidnotoutlast
thedecade.AsAustinfacedhisownfuture,mostofhischoicesdefinedanincreasingseparation
betweenhissistersworldandhis.InitiallyluredbytheprospectofgoingWest,hedecidedto
settleinAmherst,apparentlyathisfathersurging.Notonlydidhereturntohishometown,but
healsojoinedhisfatherinhislawpractice.AustinDickinsongraduallytookoverhisfathers
role:HetoobecamethecitizenofAmherst,treasureroftheCollege,andchairmanoftheCattle
Show.Inonlyonecase,andanincreasinglycontroversialone,AustinDickinsonsdecision
offeredDickinsontheintensityshedesired.HismarriagetoSusanGilbertbroughtanew
sisterintothefamily,onewithwhomDickinsonfeltshehadmuchincommon.ThatGilberts
intensitywasfinallyofadifferentorderDickinsonlearnedovertime,butintheearly1850s,as
herrelationshipwithAustinwaswaning,herrelationshipwithGilbertwasgrowing.Gilbert
wouldfigurepowerfullyinDickinsonslifeasabelovedcomrade,critic,andalterego.

BornjustninedaysafterDickinson,SusanGilbertenteredaprofoundlydifferentworldfrom
theoneshewouldonedaysharewithhersisterinlaw.Thedaughterofatavernkeeper,Sue
wasbornatthemarginsofAmherstsociety.Herfathersworkdefinedherworldasclearlyas
EdwardDickinsonsdidthatofhisdaughters.Hadherfatherlived,Suemightneverhavemoved
fromtheworldoftheworkingclasstotheworldofeducatedlawyers.Suesmotherdiedin1837
herfather,in1841.Afterhermothersdeath,sheandhersisterMarthaweresenttolivewith
theirauntinGeneva,NewYork.TheyreturnedperiodicallytoAmhersttovisittheirolder
marriedsister,HarrietGilbertCutler.Sue,however,returnedtoAmhersttoliveandattend
schoolin1847.EnrolledatAmherstAcademywhileDickinsonwasatMountHolyoke,Suewas
graduallyincludedintheDickinsoncircleoffriendsbywayofhersisterMartha.

TheendofSuesschoolingsignaledthebeginningofworkoutsidethehome.Shetookateaching
positioninBaltimorein1851.Ontheeveofherdeparture,Amherstwasinthemidstofa
religiousrevival.Thecommunitywasgalvanizedbythestrongpreachingofbothitsregularand
itsvisitingministers.TheDickinsonhouseholdwasmemorablyaffected.EmilyNorcross
Dickinsonschurchmembershipdatedfrom1831,afewmonthsafterEmilysbirth.Bytheend
oftherevival,twomoreofthefamilymemberscountedthemselvesamongthesaved:Edward
Dickinsonjoinedthechurchon11August1850,thedaythatSusanGilbertalsobecameoneof
thefold.VinnieDickinsondelayedsomemonthslonger,untilNovember.AustinDickinson
waitedseveralmoreyears,joiningthechurchin1856,theyearofhismarriage.Theother
daughternevermadethatprofessionoffaith.AsDickinsonwrotetoherfriendJaneHumphrey
in1850,Iamstandingaloneinrebellion.

TogaugetheextentofDickinsonsrebellion,considerationmustbetakenofthenatureof
churchmembershipatthetimeaswellastheattitudestowardrevivalistfervor.Asshownby
EdwardDickinsonsandSusanGilbertsdecisionstojointhechurchin1850,church
membershipwasnottiedtoanyparticularstageofapersonslife.Tobeenrolledasamember
wasnotamatterofagebutofconviction.Theindividualshadfirsttobeconvincedofatrue
conversionexperience,hadtobelievethemselveschosenbyGod,ofhiselect.Inkeepingwith
theoldstyleCalvinism,theworldwasdividedamongtheregenerate,theunregenerate,and
thoseinbetween.ThecategoriesMaryLyonusedatMountHolyoke(establishedChristians,
withouthope,andwithhope)werethestandardoftherevivalist.ButunliketheirPuritan
predecessors,themembersofthisgenerationmovedwithgreaterfreedombetweenthelatter
twocategories.Thosewithouthopemightwellseeadifferentpossibilityforthemselvesaftera
seasonofintensereligiousfocus.The19thcenturyChristiansofCalvinistpersuasioncontinued
tomaintaintheabsolutepowerofGodselection.Hisomnipotencecouldnotbecompromised
byanindividualsefforthowever,theindividualsunquestioningsearchforatruefaithwasan
unalterablepartofthesalvificequation.WhileGodwouldnotsimplychoosethosewhochose
themselves,healsowouldonlymakehischoicefromthosepresentandaccountedforthus,the
importanceofchurchattendanceaswellasthecentralityofreligiousselfexamination.Revivals
guaranteedthatbothwouldbeinescapable.

AsDickinsonwroteinapoemdatedto1875,EscapeissuchathankfulWord.Infact,her
referencestoescapeoccurprimarilyinreferencetothesoul.Inherschemeofredemption,
salvationdependeduponfreedom.Thepoemendswithpraiseforthetrustywordofescape.
Contrastingavisionofthesaviorwiththeconditionofbeingsaved,Dickinsonsaysthereis
clearlyonechoice:AndthatiswhyIlaymyHead/OponthistrustywordSheinvitesthe
readertocompareoneincarnationwithanother.UpendingtheChristianlanguageaboutthe
word,Dickinsonsubstitutesherownagencyfortheincarnatesavior.Shewillchooseescape.
Adecadeearlier,thechoicehadbeenasapparent.Inthepoemsfrom1862Dickinsondescribes
thesoulsdefiningexperiences.Figuringtheseeventsintermsofmoments,shepassesfrom
thesoulsBandagedmomentsofsuspectthoughttothesoulsfreedom.Inthesemomentsof
escape,thesoulwillnotbeconfinednorwillitsexplosivepowerbecontained:Thesoulhas
momentsofescape/Whenburstingallthedoors/ShedanceslikeaBomb,abroad,/And
swingsopontheHours,

Likethesoulofherdescription,Dickinsonrefusedtobeconfinedbytheelementsexpectedof
her.Thedemandsofherfathers,hermothers,andherdearfriendsreligioninvariably
promptedsuchmomentsofescape.Duringtheperiodofthe1850revivalinAmherst,
Dickinsonreportedherownassessmentofthecircumstances.Farfromusingthelanguageof
renewalassociatedwithrevivalistvocabulary,shedescribedalandscapeofdesolation
darkenedbyanafflictionofthespirit.InherrebellionlettertoHumphrey,shewrote,How
lonelythisworldisgrowing,somethingsodesolatecreepsoverthespiritandwedontknowits
name,anditwontgoaway,eitherHeavenisseeminggreater,orEarthagreatdealmoresmall,
orGodismoreOurFather,andwefeelourneedincreased.Christiscallingeveryonehere,all
mycompanionshaveanswered,evenmydarlingVinniebelievessheloves,andtrustshim,andI
amstandingaloneinrebellion,andgrowingverycareless.Abby,Mary,Jane,andfarthestofall
myVinniehavebeenseeking,andtheyallbelievetheyhavefoundIcanttellyouwhatthey
havefound,buttheythinkitissomethingprecious.Iwonderifitis?

Dickinsonsquestionframesthedecade.Withinthosetenyearsshedefinedwhatwas
incontrovertiblyprecioustoher.Notreligion,butpoetrynotthevehiclereducedtoitstenor,
buttheprocessofmakingmetaphorandwatchingthemeaningemerge.Asearlyas1850her
letterssuggestthathermindwasturningoverthepossibilityofherownwork.Extendingthe
contrastbetweenherselfandherfriends,shedescribedbutdidnotspecifyanaimtoherlife.
Sheannounceditsnovelty(Ihavedaredtodostrangethingsboldthings),assertedher
independence(andhaveaskednoadvicefromany),andcoucheditinthelanguageof
temptation(Ihaveheededbeautifultempters).Shedescribedthewinterasonelongdream
fromwhichshehadnotyetawakened.ThatwinterbeganwiththegiftofRalphWaldo
EmersonsPoemsforNewYears.Herlettersoftheperiodarefrequentandlong.Their
heightenedlanguageprovidedworkingspaceforherselfaswriter.Inthesepassionatelettersto
herfemalefriends,shetriedoutdifferentvoices.Attimesshesoundedlikethefemale
protagonistfromacontemporarynovelattimes,shewasthenarratorwhochastisesher
charactersfortheirfailuretoseebeyondcomplicatedcircumstances.Sheplayedthewitand
soundedthedivine,exploringthepossibilityofthenewconvertsreligiousfaithonlytocomeup
shortagainstitsdistinctunrealityinherownexperience.Andfinally,sheconfrontedthe
differenceimposedbythatchallengingchangeofstatefromdaughter/sistertowife.

LackingtheletterswrittentoDickinson,readerscannotknowwhetherthelanguageofher
friendsmatchedherown,butthefreedomwithwhichDickinsonwrotetoHumphreyandto
Fowlersuggeststhattheirownresponsesencouragedhers.Perhapsthissenseof
encouragementwasnowherestrongerthanwithGilbert.Althoughlittleisknownoftheirearly
relations,theletterswrittentoGilbertwhileshewasteachingatBaltimorespeakwithakindof
hopeforasharedperspective,ifnotasharedvocation.Recentcriticshavespeculatedthat
Gilbert,likeDickinson,thoughtofherselfasapoet.SeveralofDickinsonslettersstandbehind
thisspeculation,asdoesoneofthefewpiecesofsurvivingcorrespondencewithGilbertfrom
1861theirdiscussionanddisagreementoverthesecondstanzaofDickinsonsSafeintheir
AlabasterChambers.WritingtoGilbertin1851,Dickinsonimaginedthattheirbookswould
onedaykeepcompanywiththepoets.Theywillnotbeignominiouslyjumbledtogetherwith
grammarsanddictionaries(thefateassignedtoHenryWadsworthLongfellowsinthelocal
stationers).SueandEmily,shereports,aretheonlypoets.
WhateverGilbertspoeticaspirationswere,DickinsonclearlylookedtoGilbertasoneofher
mostimportantreaders,ifnotthemostimportant.ShesentGilbertmorethan270ofher
poems.GilbertmaywellhavereadmostofthepoemsthatDickinsonwrote.Inmanycasesthe
poemswerewrittenforher.Theyfunctionedasletters,withperhapsanadditionallineof
greetingorclosing.Gilbertsinvolvement,however,didnotsatisfyDickinson.In18501851
therehadbeensomeminorargument,perhapsaboutreligion.Inthemid1850samoreserious
breakoccurred,onethatwashealed,yetonethatmarkedachangeinthenatureofthe
relationship.Inaletterdatedto1854Dickinsonbeginsbluntly,SueyoucangoorstayThere
isbutonealternativeWedifferoftenlately,andthismustbethelast.Thenatureofthe
differenceremainsunknown.Criticshavespeculatedaboutitsconnectionwithreligion,with
AustinDickinson,withpoetry,withtheirownloveforeachother.Thenatureofthatlovehas
beenmuchdebated:WhatdidDickinsonspassionatelanguagesignify?Herwordsarethe
declarationsofalover,butsuchlanguageisnotuniquetotheletterstoGilbert.Itappearsinthe
correspondencewithFowlerandHumphrey.AsCarrollSmithRosenberghasillustratedin
DisorderlyConduct:VisionsofGenderinVictorianAmerica(1985),thepassionatenatureof
femalefriendshipsissomethingthelate20thcenturywaslittlepreparedtounderstand.Modern
categoriesofsexualrelations,finally,donotfitneatlywiththeverbalrecordofthe19thcentury.
Thelovethatdarenotspeakitsnamemaywellhavebeenakindofcommonparlanceamong
mid19thcenturywomen.

Dickinsonsownambivalencetowardmarriageanambivalencesocommonastobeubiquitous
inthejournalsofyoungwomenwasclearlygroundedinherperceptionofwhattheroleof
wiferequired.Fromherownhouseworkasdutifuldaughter,shehadseenhowsecondaryher
ownworkbecame.Inherobservationofmarriedwomen,hermothernotexcluded,shesawthe
failinghealth,theunmetdemands,theabsentingofselfthatwaspartofthehusbandwife
relationship.Thewifepoemsofthe1860sreflectthisambivalence.Thegoldwearsaway
amplitudeandaweareabsentforthewomanwhomeetstherequirementsofwife.Theloss
remainsunspoken,but,liketheirritatinggrainintheoystersshell,itleavesbehindample
evidence.

SherosetoHisRequirementdropt
ThePlaythingsofHerLife
TotakethehonorableWork
OfWoman,andofWife

IfoughtShemissedinHernewDay,
OfAmplitude,orAwe
OrfirstProspectiveOrtheGold
Inusing,wearaway,
 ItlayunmentionedastheSea
DevelopePearl,andWeed,
ButonlytoHimselfbeknown
TheFathomstheyabide

Littlewonderthatthewordsofanotherpoemboundthewomanslifebythewedding.Inone
linethewomanisBornBridalledShrouded.

Suchthoughtsdidnotbelongtothepoemsalone.WritingtoGilbertinthemidstofGilberts
courtshipwithAustinDickinson,onlyfouryearsbeforetheirmarriage,Dickinsonpainteda
hauntingpicture.Shebeganwithadiscussionofunionbutimpliedthatitsconventional
connectionwithmarriagewasnothermeaning.Shewrote,Thoseunions,mydearSusie,by
whichtwolivesareone,thissweetandstrangeadoptionwhereinwecanbutlook,andarenot
yetadmitted,howitcanfilltheheart,andmakeitgangwildlybeating,howitwilltakeusone
day,andmakeusallitsown,andweshallnotrunawayfromit,butliestillandbehappy!The
useevokestheconventionalassociationwithmarriage,butasDickinsoncontinuedher
reflection,shedistinguishedbetweentheimaginedhappinessofunionandtheparchedlifeof
themarriedwoman.Shecommented,Howdullourlivesmustseemtothebride,andthe
plightedmaiden,whosedaysarefedwithgold,andwhogatherspearlseveryeveningbuttothe
wife,Susie,sometimesthewifeforgotten,ourlivesperhapsseemdearerthanallothersinthe
worldyouhaveseenflowersatmorning,satisfiedwiththedew,andthosesamesweetflowers
atnoonwiththeirheadsbowedinanguishbeforethemightysun.Thebrideforwhomthegold
hasnotyetwornaway,whogatherspearlswithoutknowingwhatliesattheircore,cannot
fathomthevalueoftheunmarriedwomanslife.Thatremainstobediscoveredtoolatebythe
wife.HerwiltednoonishardlythehappinessassociatedwithDickinsonsfirstmentionof
union.Rather,thatbondbelongstoanotherrelationship,onethatclearlyshebroachedwith
Gilbert.Definedbyanilluminatingaim,itisparticulartoitsholder,yetshareddeeplywith
another.Dickinsonrepresentsherownposition,andinturnasksGilbertwhethersucha
perspectiveisnotalsohers:Ihavealwayshopedtoknowifyouhadnodearfancy,illumining
allyourlife,nooneofwhomyoumurmuredinthefaithfulearofnightandatwhosesidein
fancy,youwalkedthelivelongday.Dickinsonsdearfancyofbecomingpoetwouldindeed
illumineherlife.WhatremainedlessdependablewasGilbertsaccompaniment.

ThatSusanDickinsonwouldnotjoinDickinsoninthewalkbecameincreasinglyclearasshe
turnedherattentiontothesocialdutiesbefittingthewifeofarisinglawyer.Betweenhosting
distinguishedvisitors(Emersonamongthem),presidingovervariousdinners,andmothering
threechildren,SusanDickinsonsdearfancywasfarfromDickinsons.AsDickinsonhad
predicted,theirpathsdiverged,butthelettersandpoemscontinued.Thelettersgrowmore
cryptic,aphorismdefiningthedistancebetweenthem.Dickinsonbegantodivideherattention
betweenSusanDickinsonandSusanschildren.InthelastdecadeofDickinsonslife,she
apparentlyfacilitatedtheextramaritalaffairbetweenherbrotherandMabelLoomisTodd.
Regardlessofoutwardbehavior,however,SusanDickinsonremainedacentertoDickinsons
circumference.

AstherelationshipwithSusanDickinsonwavered,otheraspectsinDickinsonslifewerejust
comingtothefore.The1850smarkedashiftinherfriendships.Asherschoolfriendsmarried,
shesoughtnewcompanions.Definedbythewrittenword,theydividedbetweentheknown
correspondentandtheadmiredauthor.NonewsourceofcompanionshipforDickinson,her
bookswereprimaryvoicesbehindherownwriting.Regardlessofthereadingendorsedbythe
masterintheacademyorthefatherinthehouse,Dickinsonreadwidelyamongthe
contemporaryauthorsonbothsidesoftheAtlantic.AmongtheBritishweretheRomantic
poets,theBrontsisters,theBrownings,andGeorgeEliot.OntheAmericansidewasthe
unlikelycompanyofLongfellow,Thoreau,NathanielHawthorne,andEmerson.Witha
knowledgeboundsentencethatsuggestedsheknewmorethansherevealed,sheclaimednotto
havereadWhitman.ShereadThomasCarlyle,CharlesDarwin,andMatthewArnold.Her
contemporariesgaveDickinsonakindofcurrencyforherownwriting,butcommandingequal
groundweretheBibleandShakespeare.Whiletheauthorswereheredefinedbytheir
inaccessibility,theallusionsinDickinsonslettersandpoemssuggestjusthowvividlyshe
imaginedherwordsinconversationwithothers.

Includedintheseepistolaryconversationswereheractualcorrespondents.Theirnumberwas
growing.Intwocases,theindividualswereeditorslatergenerationshavewonderedwhether
DickinsonsawSamuelBowlesandJosiahHollandasmenwhowerelikelytohelpherpoetry
intoprint.BowleswaschiefeditoroftheSpringfieldRepublicanHollandjoinedhiminthose
dutiesin1850.WithbothmenDickinsonforwardedalivelycorrespondence.Toeachshesent
manypoems,andsevenofthosepoemswereprintedinthepaperSictransitgloriamundi,
Nobodyknowsthislittlerose,ITastealiquorneverbrewed,SafeintheirAlabaster
Chambers,FlowersWellifanybody,Blazingingoldandquenchinginpurple,andA
narrowfellowinthegrass.ThelanguageinDickinsonsletterstoBowlesissimilartothe
passionatelanguageofherletterstoSusanGilbertDickinson.Shereadilydeclaredherloveto
himyet,asreadilydeclaredthatlovetohiswife,Mary.Ineachshehopedtofindananswering
spirit,andfromeachshesettledondifferentconclusions.JosiahHollandneverelicited
declarationsoflove.Whenshewrotetohim,shewroteprimarilytohiswife.Incontrasttothe
friendswhomarried,MaryHollandbecameasistershedidnothavetoforfeit.

Thesefriendshipswereintheirearlymomentsin1853whenEdwardDickinsontookup
residenceinWashingtonasheenteredwhathehopedwouldbethefirstofmanytermsin
Congress.Withtheirfathersabsence,VinnieandEmilyDickinsonspentmoretimevisiting
stayingwiththeHollandsinSpringfieldorheadingtoWashington.In1855afteronesuchvisit,
thesistersstoppedinPhiladelphiaontheirreturntoAmherst.StayingwiththeirAmherst
friendElizaColeman,theylikelyattendedchurchwithher.Theministerinthepulpitwas
CharlesWadsworth,renownedforhispreachingandpastoralcare.Dickinsonfoundherself
interestedinboth.SheeventuallydeemedWadsworthoneofherMasters.Nolettersfrom
DickinsontoWadsworthareextant,andyetthecorrespondencewithMaryHollandindicates
thatHollandforwardedmanylettersfromDickinsontoWadsworth.Thecontentofthoseletters
isunknown.ThatDickinsonfelttheneedtosendthemunderthecoveringhandofHolland
suggestsanintimacycriticshavelongpuzzledover.AswithSusanDickinson,thequestionof
relationshipseemsfinallyirreducibletofamiliarterms.Whilemanyhaveassumedalove
affairandincertaincases,assumptionextendstoaconsummationinmorethanwordsthere
islittleevidencetosupportasensationalizedversion.Theonlysurvivingletterwrittenby
WadsworthtoDickinsondatesfrom1862.Itspeaksofthepastorsconcernforoneofhisflock:
Iamdistressedbeyondmeasureatyournote,receivedthismoment,Icanonlyimaginethe
afflictionwhichhasbefallen,orisnowbefallingyou.Believeme,bewhatitmay,youhaveall
mysympathy,andmyconstant,earnestprayers.Whetherherlettertohimhasinfactsurvived
isnotclear.TherearethreelettersaddressedtoanunnamedMasterthesocalledMaster
Lettersbuttheyaresilentonthequestionofwhetherornotthelettersweresentandifso,to
whom.Thesecondletterinparticularspeaksofafflictionthroughsharplyexpressedpain.This
languagemayhavepromptedWadsworthsresponse,butthereisnoconclusiveevidence.

EdwardDickinsondidnotwinreelectionandthusturnedhisattentiontohisAmherstresidence
afterhisdefeatinNovember1855.AtthistimeEdwardslawpartnershipwithhissonbecamea
dailyreality.HealsoreturnedhisfamilytotheHomestead.EmilyDickinsonhadbeenbornin
thathousetheDickinsonshadresidedthereforthefirsttenyearsofherlife.Shehadalsospent
timeattheHomesteadwithhercousinJohnGravesandwithSusanDickinsonduringEdward
DickinsonsterminWashington.ItbecamethecenterofDickinsonsdailyworldfromwhichshe
senthermindoutuponCircumference,writinghundredsofpoemsandlettersintherooms
shehadknownformostofherlife.Itwasnot,however,asolitaryhousebutincreasingly
becamedefinedbyitsproximitytothehousenextdoor.AustinDickinsonandSusanGilbert
marriedinJuly1856.TheysettledintheEvergreens,thehousenewlybuiltdownthepathfrom
theHomestead.

ForDickinson,thenextyearswerebothpowerfulanddifficult.Herlettersreflectthecentrality
offriendshipinherlife.AsshecommentedtoBowlesin1858,Myfriendsaremyestate.
Forgivemethentheavaricetohoardthem.Bythistimeinherlife,thereweresignificantlosses
tothatestatethroughdeathherfirstMaster,LeonardHumphrey,in1850thesecond,
BenjaminNewton,in1853.Therewerealsothelossesthroughmarriageandthemirrorofloss,
departurefromAmherst.WhethercomfortingMaryBowlesonastillbirth,rememberingthe
deathofafriendswife,orconsolinghercousinsFrancesandLouiseNorcrossaftertheir
mothersdeath,herwordssoughttoaccomplishtheimpossible.Splitlivesnevergetwell,
shecommentedyet,inherlettersshewroteintothatdivide,offeringimagestoholdtheselives
together.Herapproachforgedaparticularkindofconnection.Intheseyears,sheturned
increasinglytothecrypticstylethatcametodefineherwriting.Thelettersarerichinaphorism
anddensewithallusion.Sheasksherreadertocompletetheconnectionherwordsonlyimply
toroundoutthecontextfromwhichtheallusionistaken,totakethepartandimagineawhole.
Throughherletters,Dickinsonremindshercorrespondentsthattheirbrokenworldsarenota
merechaosoffragments.Behindtheseemingfragmentsofhershortstatementsliesthe
invitationtoremembertheworldinwhicheachcorrespondentsharesacertainandrich
knowledgewiththeother.Theyaloneknowtheextentoftheirconnectionsthefriendshiphas
giventhemtheexperiencespeculiartotherelation.

AtthesametimethatDickinsonwascelebratingfriendship,shewasalsolimitingtheamountof
dailytimeshespentwithotherpeople.By1858,whenshesolicitedavisitfromhercousin
LouiseNorcross,DickinsonremindedNorcrossthatshewasoneoftheonesfromwhomIdo
notrunaway.Much,andinalllikelihoodtoomuch,hasbeenmadeofDickinsonsdecisionto
restricthervisitswithotherpeople.Shehasbeentermedrecluseandhermit.Bothterms
sensationalizeadecisionthathascometobeseenaseminentlypractical.AsDickinsons
experiencetaughther,householddutieswereanathematootheractivities.Thevisitingalone
wassotimeconsumingastobeprohibitiveinitself.Assheturnedherattentiontowriting,she
graduallyeasedoutofthecountlessroundsofsocialcalls.Sometimein1858shebegan
organizingherpoemsintodistinctgroupings.Thesefascicles,asMabelLoomisTodd,
Dickinsonsfirsteditor,termedthem,comprisedfaircopiesofthepoems,severalwrittenona
page,thepagessewntogether.By1860Dickinsonhadwrittenmorethan150poems.Atthe
sametime,shepursuedanactivecorrespondencewithmanyindividuals.ForDickinson,letter
writingwasvisitingatitsbest.Itwasfocusedanduninterrupted.Othercallerswouldnot
intrude.Itwinnowedoutpoliteconversation.Thecorrespondentscouldspeaktheirminds
outsidetheformulasofparlorconversation.Foremost,itmeantanactiveengagementintheart
ofwriting.IfDickinsonbeganherlettersasakindofliteraryapprenticeship,usingthemtohone
herskillsofexpression,sheturnedpracticeintoperformance.Thegenreofferedample
opportunityfortheplayofmeaning.

Bythelate1850sthepoemsaswellasthelettersbegintospeakwiththeirowndistinctvoice.
Theyshiftfromtheearlylushlanguageofthe1850svalentinestotheirsignatureeconomyof
expression.Thepoemsdatedto1858alreadycarrythefamiliarmetricpatternofthehymn.The
alternatingfourbeat/threebeatlinesaremarkedbyabrevityinturnreinforcedbyDickinsons
syntax.Herpoemsfollowedboththecadenceandtherhythmofthehymnformsheadopted.
Thisformwasfertilegroundforherpoeticexploration.Throughitsfaithfulpredictability,she
couldplaycontentoffagainstform.Whilecertainlinesaccordwiththeirplaceinthehymn
eitherleadingthereadertothenextlineordrawingathoughttoitsconclusionthepoemsare
aslikelytoupendthestructuresothattheexpectedmomentofcadenceincludesthewordsthat
speakthegreatestambiguity.Inthefollowingpoem,thehymnmeterisrespecteduntilthelast
line.Apoembuiltfrombiblicalquotations,itunderminestheircertaintythroughbothrhythm
andimage.InthefirststanzaDickinsonbreakslinesoneandthreewithherasidestothe
impliedlistener.ThepoemisfiguredasaconversationaboutwhoentersHeaven.Itbeginswith
biblicalreferences,thenusesthestoryoftherichmansdifficultyasthegoverningimageforthe
restofthepoem.UnlikeChristscounseltotheyoungman,however,Dickinsonsimagesturn
decidedlysecular.Sheplacesthereaderinaworldofcommoditywithitsbrokersanddiscounts,
itsdividendsandcosts.Theneatfinancialtransactionendsonanoteofincompletenesscreated
byrhythm,sound,anddefinition.Thefinallineistruncatedtoasingleiamb,thefinalword
endswithanopendoublessound,andtheworditselfdescribesuncertainty:

Yourerightthewayisnarrow
AnddifficulttheGate
AndfewtherebeCorrectagain
Thatenterinthereat

TisCostlysoarepurples!
TisjustthepriceofBreath
WithbuttheDiscountoftheGrave
TermedbytheBrokersDeath!

AndafterthattheresHeaven
TheGoodmansDividend
AndBadmengotoJail
Iguess

Thelate1850smarkedthebeginningofDickinsonsgreatestpoeticperiod.By1865shehad
writtennearly1,100poems.BoundedononesidebyAustinandSusanDickinsonsmarriage
andontheotherbyseveredifficultywithhereyesight,theyearsbetweenheldanexplosionof
expressioninbothpoemsandletters.Herownstatedambitionsarecrypticandcontradictory.
Latercriticshavereadtheepistolarycommentsaboutherownwickednessasatacit
acknowledgmentofherpoeticambition.Incontrasttojoiningthechurch,shejoinedtheranks
ofthewriters,apotentiallysuspectgroup.Distrust,however,extendedonlytocertaintypes.If
DickinsonassociatedherselfwiththeWattsesandtheCowpers,sheoccupiedrespectedliterary
groundifsheaspiredtowardPopeorShakespeare,shecrossedintotheranksofthelibertine.
Dickinsonspoemsthemselvessuggestshemadenosuchdistinctionssheblendedtheformof
WattswiththecontentofShakespeare.Shedescribedpersonaeofherpoemsasdisobedient
childrenandyouthfuldebauchees.

Theplacesheenvisionedforherwritingisfarfromclear.Didshepursuethefriendshipswith
BowlesandHollandinthehopethattheseeditorswouldhelpherpoetryintoprint?Didshe
identifyherpoemsasaptcandidatesforinclusioninthePortfoliopagesofnewspapers,ordid
shealwaysimagineadifferentkindofcirculationforherwriting?Dickinsonapologizedforthe
publicappearanceofherpoemANarrowFellowintheGrass,claimingthatithadbeenstolen
fromher,butherowncomplicityinsuchtheftremainsunknown.HerApril1862lettertothe
wellknownliteraryfigureThomasWentworthHigginsoncertainlysuggestsaparticularanswer.
WrittenasaresponsetohisAtlanticMonthlyarticleLettertoaYoungContributorthelead
articleintheAprilissueherintentionseemsunmistakable.Shesenthimfourpoems,oneof
whichshehadworkedoverseveraltimes.Withthisgesturesheplacedherselfintheranksof
youngcontributor,offeringhimasampleofherwork,hopingforitsacceptance.Her
accompanyingletter,however,doesnotspeakthelanguageofpublication.Itdecidedlyasksfor
hisestimateyet,atthesametimeitcouchestherequestintermsfardifferentfromthe
vocabularyoftheliterarymarketplace:

Mr.Higginson,

AreyoutoodeeplyoccupiedtosayifmyVerseisalive?

TheMindissonearitselfitcannotsee,distinctlyandIhavenonetoask

Shouldyouthinkitbreathedandhadyoutheleisuretotellme,Ishouldfeelquickgratitude

IfImakethemistakethatyoudaredtotellmewouldgivemesincererhonortowardyou

Ienclosemynameaskingyou,ifyoupleaseSirtotellmewhatistrue?

ThatyouwillnotbetraymeitisneedlesstoasksinceHonorisitsownpawn

Higginsonsresponseisnotextant.ItcanonlybegleanedfromDickinsonssubsequentletters.
InthemshemakesclearthatHigginsonsresponsewasfarfromanenthusiasticendorsement.
Shespeaksofthesurgeryheperformedsheaskshimifthesubsequentpoemsthatshehas
sentaremoreorderly.

Higginsonhimselfwasintriguedbutnotimpressed.Hisfirstrecordedcommentsabout
Dickinsonspoetryaredismissive.InalettertoAtlanticMonthlyeditorJamesT.Fields,
Higginsoncomplainedabouttheresponsetohisarticle:IforeseethatYoungContributorswill
sendmeworsethingsthanevernow.Twosuchspecimensofverseascameyesterday&day
beforefortunatelynottobeforwardedforpublication!HehadreceivedDickinsonspoems
thedaybeforehewrotethisletter.WhileDickinsonslettersclearlypiquedhiscuriosity,hedid
notreadilyenvisionapublishedpoetemergingfromthispoetry,whichhefoundpoorly
structured.AsismadeclearbyoneofDickinsonsresponses,hecounseledhertoworklonger
andharderonherpoetrybeforesheattempteditspublication.Herreply,inturn,piquesthe
laterreaderscuriosity.Shewrote,IsmilewhenyousuggestthatIdelaytopublishthatbeing
foreigntomythought,asFirmamenttoFin.Whatlaybehindthiscomment?Thebravecover
ofprofounddisappointment?Theaccuraterenderingofherownambition?Sometimein1863
shewroteheroftenquotedpoemaboutpublicationwithitsdisparagingremarksaboutreducing
expressiontoamarketvalue.Atatimewhenslaveauctionswerepalpablyrenderedfora
Northernaudience,sheofferedanotherexampleofthecorruptingforceofthemerchants
world.Thepoembegins,PublicationistheAuction/OftheMindofManandendsby
returningitsreadertotheimageoftheopening:ButreducenoHumanSpirit/ToDisgraceof
Price.

WhileDickinsonspokestronglyagainstpublicationonceHigginsonhadsuggestedits
inadvisability,herearlierremarkstelladifferentstory.InthesamelettertoHigginsoninwhich
sheeschewspublication,shealsoassertsheridentityasapoet.MydyingTutortoldmethathe
wouldliketolivetillIhadbeenapoet.InalllikelihoodthetutorisBenNewton,thelawyer
whohadgivenherEmersonsPoems.Hisdeathin1853suggestshowearlyDickinsonwas
beginningtothinkofherselfasapoet,butunexplainedisDickinsonsviewontherelationship
betweenbeingapoetandbeingpublished.WhenshewasworkingoverherpoemSafeintheir
AlabasterChambers,oneofthepoemsincludedwiththefirstlettertoHigginson,she
suggestedthatthedistancebetweenfirmamentandfinwasnotasfarasitfirstappeared.Asshe
reworkedthesecondstanzaagain,andyetagain,sheindicatedafuturethatdidnotpreclude
publication.ShewrotetoSue,CouldImakeyouandAustinproudsometimeagreatway
offtwouldgivemetallerfeet.Writtensometimein1861,theletterpredatesherexchange
withHigginson.Again,theframeofreferenceisomitted.Onecanonlyconjecturewhat
circumstancewouldleadtoAustinandSusanDickinsonspride.Thatsuchprideisindirect
relationtoDickinsonspoetryisunquestionedthatitmeanspublicationisnot.Givenher
penchantfordoublemeanings,heranticipationoftallerfeetmightwellsignalachangeof
poeticform.Herambitionlayinmovingfrombrevitytoexpanse,butthismovementagainis
thelaterreadersspeculation.Theonlyevidenceisthefewpoemspublishedinthe1850sand
1860sandasinglepoempublishedinthe1870s.

Thisminimalpublication,however,wasnotaretreattoacompletelyprivateexpression.Her
poemscirculatedwidelyamongherfriends,andthisaudiencewaspartandparcelofwomens
literarycultureinthe19thcentury.Shesentpoemstonearlyallhercorrespondentstheyin
turnmaywellhavereadthosepoemswiththeirfriends.Dickinsonspoemswererarely
restrictedtohereyesalone.Shecontinuedtocollectherpoemsintodistinctpackets.The
practicehasbeenseenasherowntropeondomesticwork:shesewedthepagestogether.Poetry
wasbynomeansforeigntowomensdailytasksmending,sewing,stitchingtogetherthe
materialtoclothetheperson.Unremarked,however,isitsotherkinship.Herworkwasalsothe
ministers.Preachersstitchedtogetherthepagesoftheirsermons,atasktheyapparently
undertookthemselves.

Dickinsonscommentsonherselfaspoetinvariablyimpliedawidespreadaudience.Asshe
commentedtoHigginsonin1862,MyBusinessisCircumference.Sheadaptedthatphraseto
twootherendings,bothofwhichreinforcedtheexpansivenesssheenvisionedforherwork.To
theHollandsshewrote,Mybusinessistolove....MyBusinessistoSing.Inallversionsof
thatphrase,theguidingimageevokesboundlessness.Insongthesoundofthevoiceextends
acrossspace,andtheearcannotaccuratelymeasureitsdissipatingtones.Loveisidealizedasa
conditionwithoutend.EventhecircumferencetheimagethatDickinsonreturnedtomany
timesinherpoetryisaboundarythatsuggestsboundlessness.AsEmersonsessayCircles
maywellhavetaughtDickinson,anothercirclecanalwaysbedrawnaroundanycircumference.
When,inDickinsonsterms,individualsgooutuponCircumference,theystandontheedgeof
anunboundedspace.Dickinsonsuseoftheimagerefersdirectlytotheprojectcentraltoher
poeticwork.ItappearsinthestructureofherdeclarationtoHigginsonitisintegraltothe
structureandsubjectsofthepoemsthemselves.Thekeyrestsinthesmallwordis.Inherpoetry
Dickinsonsetherselfthedoubleedgedtaskofdefinition.Herpoemsfrequentlyidentify
themselvesasdefinitions:Hopeisthethingwithfeathers,Renunciationisapiercing
Virtue,RemorseisMemoryawake,orEdenisthatoldfashionedHouse.Asthese
examplesillustrate,Dickinsoniandefinitionisinseparablefrommetaphor.Thestatementthat
saysisisinvariablythestatementthatarticulatesacomparison.WeseeComparatively,
Dickinsonwrote,andherpoemsdemonstratethatassertion.Intheworldofherpoetry,
definitionproceedsviacomparison.Onecannotsaydirectlywhatisessenceremainsunnamed
andunnameable.Initsplacethepoetarticulatesconnectionscreatedoutofcorrespondence.In
somecasestheabstractnounismatchedwithaconcreteobjecthopefiguresasabird,its
appearancesanddisappearancessignaledbythedefiningelementofflight.Inothercases,one
abstractconceptisconnectedwithanother,remorsedescribedaswakefulmemory
renunciation,asthepiercingvirtue.

Comparisonbecomesareciprocalprocess.Dickinsonsmetaphorsobservenofirmdistinction
betweentenorandvehicle.Definingoneconceptintermsofanotherproducesanewlayerof
meaninginwhichbothtermsarechanged.Neitherhopenorbirdsareseeninthesamewayby
theendofDickinsonspoem.Dickinsonfrequentlybuildsherpoemsaroundthistropeof
change.Hervocabularycirclesaroundtransformation,oftenendingbeforechangeiscompleted.
Thefinallinesofherpoemsmightwellbedefinedbytheirinconclusiveness:theIguessof
Yourerightthewayisnarrowadirectstatementofslippageandthenitdoesntstay
inIprayed,atfirst,alittleGirl.Dickinsonsendingsarefrequentlyopen.Inthisworldof
comparison,extremesarepowerful.Therearemanynegativedefinitionsandsharpcontrasts.
Whiletheemphasisontheouterlimitsofemotionmaywellbethemostfamiliarformofthe
Dickinsonianextreme,itisnottheonlyone.Dickinsonsuseofsynecdocheisyetanother
version.Thepartthatistakenforthewholefunctionsbywayofcontrast.Thespecificdetail
speaksforthethingitself,butinitsspeaking,itremindsthereaderofthedifferencebetween
theminuteparticularandwhatitrepresents.Oppositionframesthesystemofmeaningin
Dickinsonspoetry:thereaderknowswhatis,bywhatisnot.Inanearlypoem,Theresa
certainSlantoflight,(320)Dickinsonlocatedmeaninginageographyofinternaldifference.
Her1862poemItwasnotDeath,forIstoodup,(355)picksuponthisimportantthreadinher
career.

EmilyDickinsondiedinAmherstin1886.Afterherdeathherfamilymembersfoundherhand
sewnbooks,orfascicles.Thesefasciclescontainednearly1,800poems.ThoughMabelLoomis
ToddandHigginsonpublishedthefirstselectionofherpoemsin1890,acompletevolumedid
notappearuntil1955.EditedbyThomasH.Johnson,thepoemsstillboretheeditorialhandof
ToddandHigginson.ItwasnotuntilR.W.FranklinsversionofDickinsonspoemsappearedin
1998thatherorder,unusualpunctuationandspellingchoiceswerecompletelyrestored.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
POETRY

PoemsbyEmilyDickinson,editedbyMabelLoomisToddandT.W.HigginsonRoberts
(Boston,MA),1890Osgood,McIlvaine(London)1891.
PoemsbyEmilyDickinson,SecondSeries,editedbyHigginsonandToddRoberts,1891.
LettersofEmilyDickinson,editedbyTodd,2volumes,Roberts,1894enlargededition,Harper
(NewYork,NY),1931.
PoemsbyEmilyDickinson,ThirdSeries,editedbyTodd,Roberts,1896.
TheSingleHound:PoemsofaLifetime,editedbyMarthaDickinsonBianchi,Little,Brown
(Boston,MA),1914.
FurtherPoemsofEmilyDickinson,editedbyBianchiandAlfredLeeteHampson,Little,
Brown,1929Secker(London),1929.
UnpublishedPoemsofEmilyDickinson,editedbyBianchiandHampsonLittle,Brown,1935.
BoltsofMelody:NewPoemsofEmilyDickinson,editedbyToddandMillicentToddBingham,
Harper,1945Cape(London),1946.
EmilyDickinsonsLetterstoDr.andMrs.JosiahGilbertHolland,editedbyTheodoraVan
WagenenWard,HarvardUniversityPress(Cambridge,MA),1951.
ThePoemsofEmilyDickinson,3volumes,editedbyThomasH.Johnson,HarvardUniversity
Press,1955.
TheLettersofEmilyDickinson,3volumes,editedbyJohnsonandWard,HarvardUniversity
Press,1958.
 TheCompletePoemsofEmilyDickinson,editedbyJohnson,Little,Brown,1962.
TheManuscriptBooksofEmilyDickinson,2volumes,editedbyR.W.Franklin,Harvard
UniversityPress,1981.
EmilyDickinsonsOpenFolios,editedbyMartaL.Werner,UniversityofMichiganPress(Ann
Arbor,MI),1995.
OpenMeCarefully:EmilyDickinsonsIntimateLetterstoSue,editedbyMarthaNellSmith
andEllenLouiseHart,ParisPress(Ashfield,MA),1998.
ThePoemsofEmilyDickinson,VariorumEdition,3volumes,editedbyFranklin,Harvard
UniversityPress,1998.
ThePoemsofEmilyDickinson,ReadingEdition,editedbyFranklin,HarvardUniversityPress,
1999.

*Lettersvolumesarelistedbecausetheyincludepoems.

LETTERS

LettersofEmilyDickinson,editedbyMabelLoomisTodd,2volumes,Roberts,1894enlarged
edition,Harper,1931.
EmilyDickinsonsLetterstoDr.andMrs.JosiahGilbertHolland,editedbyTheodoraVan
WagenenWardHarvardUniversityPress,1951.
TheLettersofEmilyDickinson,3volumes,editedbyThomasH.JohnsonandWard,Harvard
UniversityPress,1958.
TheMasterLettersofEmilyDickinson,editedbyR.W.Franklin,AmherstCollegePress
(Amherst,MA),1986.
OpenMeCarefully:EmilyDickinsonsIntimateLetterstoSue,editedbyMarthaNellSmith
andEllenLouiseHartParisPress,1998.

DIGITALEDITIONS

DickinsonElectronicArchives,editedbyMarthaNellSmith,EllenLouiseHart,andMarta
Werner,http://www.emilydickinson.org

EmilyDickinsonsmanuscriptsarelocatedintwoprimarycollections:theAmherstCollegeLibrary
andtheHoughtonLibraryofHarvardUniversity.ThepoemsthatwereinMabelLoomisTodds
possessionareatAmherstthosethatremainedwithintheDickinsonhouseholdsareatthe
HoughtonLibrary.

FURTHERREADINGS
Bibliographies:

WillisBuckingham,EmilyDickinson:AnAnnotatedBibliography:Writings,Scholarship,
CriticismandAnalysis,18501968(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1970).
AnnualbibliographiesinDickinsonStudies(19781993).
JosephDuchac,ThePoemsofEmilyDickinson:AnAnnotatedGuidetoCommentary
PublishedinEnglish,18901977(Boston:G.K.Hall,1979).
JoelMyerson,EmilyDickinson:ADescriptiveBibliography(Pittsburgh:Universityof
PittsburghPress,1984).
KarenDandurand,DickinsonScholarship:AnAnnotatedBibliography,19691985(NewYork:
Garland,1988).
Duchac,ThePoemsofEmilyDickinson:AnAnnotatedGuidetoCommentaryPublishedin
English,19781989(NewYork:G.K.Hall,1993).
Myerson,"SupplementtoEmilyDickinson:ADescriptiveBibliography,"EmilyDickinson
Journal,4,no.2(1995):87128.

Biographies:

GeorgeWhicher,ThisWasaPoet:ACriticalBiographyofEmilyDickinson(NewYork:
Scribners,1938).
ThomasH.Johnson,EmilyDickinson:AnInterpretiveBiography(Cambridge,Mass.:
HarvardUniversityPress,1955).
JayLeyda,TheYearsandHoursofEmilyDickinson,2volumes(NewHaven:YaleUniversity
Press,1960).
JohnCody,AfterGreatPain:TheInnerLifeofEmilyDickinson(Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard
UniversityPress,1971).
RichardB.Sewall,TheLifeofEmilyDickinson,2volumes(NewYork:Farrar,Straus&Giroux,
1974).
BarbaraMossberg,EmilyDickinson:WhenaWriterIsaDaughter(Bloomington:Indiana
UniversityPress,1982).
JeromeLoving,EmilyDickinson:ThePoetontheSecondStory(Cambridge:Cambridge
UniversityPress,1986).
CynthiaGriffinWolff,EmilyDickinson(NewYork:Knopf,1986).
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