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Appendix G Study Capsules

Study Capsule 1 Algebraic Expressions and Functions
Properties

Properties of Exponents
Exponents and Radicals

am 1 1
1. a m a n a mn 2. a mn 3. a mn a mn 4. an ; an 5. a 0 1, a 0
an a n an
Properties of Radicals

1. a b a b 2. ab a
b
3. a2 a n a a1n
4. n a , a > 0
n a m a m/n
5.
m

Methods Examples

Factoring Quadratics
1. x2 bx c x x x2 7x 12 x x Factor 12 as
34.
Fill blanks with factors of c that add up to b. x 3(x 4
Factors of 4
Polynomials and Factoring

2. ax2 bx c x x 4x2 4x 15 x x
Fill blanks with factors of a and of c, so that the
binomial product has a middle factor of bx. Factors of 15
Factor 4 as 22.
2x 32x 5 Factor 15 as 3(5).
Factoring Polynomials
Factor a polynomial ax3 bx2 cx d by grouping. 4x3 12x2 x 3
4x3 12x2 x 3 Group by pairs.
4x2x 3 x 3 Factor out monomial.
x 3 4x2 1 Factor out binomial.
x 32x 12x 1 Difference of squares

Simplifying Expressions

1. Factor completely and simplify. 2. Rationalize denominator. (Note: Radicals in the numerator
Fractional Expressions

can be rationalized in a similar manner.)

2x 3 4x 2 6x 2xx 2 2x 3 Factor out 3x 3x x 5 2 Multiply by
2x 2 18

2x 2 9 monomials. x 5 2

x 5 2
conjugate.
x52
2xx 3x 1 3xx 5 2 Difference
Factor quadratics.
2x 3x 3 x 5) 4 of squares

xx 1 Divide out 3x x 5 2
, x3 Simplify.
x3 common factors. x9

A125
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A126 Appendix G Study Capsules

Study Capsule 1 Algebraic Expressions and Functions (continued)

Equations Graphs

Slope of a Line Passing Through x1, y1 and x2, y2: Graphing Equations by Point Plotting
y y1 1. Write equation in the form y . . . .
m 2
x2 x1
2. Make a table of values.
m1 m2 Parallel lines 3. Find intercepts.
Equations and Graphs

1 4. Use symmetry.
m1 Perpendicular lines
m2 5. Plot points and connect with smooth curve.
Equations of Lines Graphing Equations with a Graphing Utility
y mx b Slope-intercept form 1. Enter the equation in the form y . . . .
y y1 mx x1 Point-slope form 2. Identify domain and range.
Ax By C 0 General form 3. Set an appropriate viewing window.
x a, y b Vertical and horizontal lines
Distance Between Points x1, y1 and x2, y2:
d x2 x12 y2 y12

Functions Examples

Definition: f is a function if to each element x in the Polynomial Function: f x 2x 3 3x 2 4x 6

Functions and Graphs

domain of f there corresponds exactly one element y in

the range of f. Piecewise-Defined Function: f x 2x 2x,
2
3x, x > 1
x 1
Notation: y f x
Inverse Functions f and f 1: Their graphs are reflections
f is the name of the function. of each other in the line y x.
y is the dependent variable, or the output value. f f 1(x x and f 1 f x x
x is the independent variable, or the input value. To find the inverse function of y f x, if it exists,
f x is the value of the function at x. interchange x and y, then solve for y. The result is f 1x.

Transformations Compositions

Transformations of the Graph of y f x Compositions of Functions

Transformations and Compositions

Vertical shifts: hx f (x c Upward c units f gx f gx

hx f x c Downward c units g f x g f x
Horizontal shifts: hx f x c Right shift c units Examples
hx f x c Left shift c units f x x2, gx 2x 1
Reflections: hx f x Reflection in x-axis f gx f gx g f x g f x
hx f x Reflection in y-axis f 2x 1 gx2
Stretches/Shrinks: hx cf x Vertical stretch, c > 1 2x 12 2x2 1
Vertical shrink, c < 1 4x2 4x 1 2x2 1
hx f cx Horizontal stretch,
0 < c < 1
Horizontal shrink, c > 1
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Appendix G Study Capsules A127

Study Capsule 2 Graphing Algebraic Functions

Graphical Analysis Examples

Graph of f x mx b is a line. To graph the linear equation y

Linear Functions

1. m slope of a line 3x 4y 8 0, solve for y 1

2. y-intercept: 0, b to get y
3
4x 2. x
1 3
3. x-intercept: k, 0, where k is solution to 0 mx b 3
So, m the y-intercept is 1
4,
0, 2, and the x-intercept is
83, 0. 3

Graph of y ax2 bx c is a parabola (U-shaped). y x2 5x 4 opens y

1. Opens upward if a > 0. downward because a 1. 3

Quadratic Functions

Opens downward if a < 0. Vertex: 2

1
2. Vertex: b
2a
, f
b
2a 25 , f
5
1 21 2 4
,
5 9
2 3
x

3. Vertex is minimum if a > 0. Vertex is a maximum.

Vertex is maximum if a < 0. Axis of symmetry is x 2.
5

b
4. Axis of symmetry: x
2a

Graph of f x a n x n an1x n1 . . . a1x a 0 y x3 3x2 4x 12 y

has the following characteristics. x 34 x2 x

4 4
1. x-intercepts occur at zeros of f. x-intercepts: 2, 0, 3, 0
Polynomial Functions

y-intercept is 0, a 0 . y-intercept: 0, 12
2. Right-hand and left-hand behaviors: End behavior: Up to left and
down to right because an < 0
an > 0 an < 0 16
and n is odd.
Falls to left, Rises to left,
n is odd
rises to right falls to right

Rises to left Falls to left

n is even
and right and right

Graph of x2 1 y
y
Nx a x n an1 x n1 . . . a1 x a0 x 2 2x 3
f x n
Rational Functions

Dx bm x m bm1 x m1 . . . b1 x b0 x 1x 1 2

xx 2 1
where N and D have no common factors, has the following x
characteristics. x-intercepts: 1, 0 1 1 2 3 4
1. x-intercepts occur at zeros of Nx. Vertical asymptotes: 2
x 0, x 2 3
2. Vertical asymptotes occur at zeros of Dx.
3. Horizontal asymptote occurs at y 0 when n < m, and Horizontal asymptote:
at y an bm when n m. y 11 1
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A128 Appendix G Study Capsules

Study Capsule 3 Zeros of Algebraic Functions

Solution Strategy Examples
Solve ax b c by isolating x using inverse 3x 5 8 Original equation
Functions
Linear

operations. 3x 3 First, subtract 5 from each side.

3
x 3 1 Then, divide each side by 3.

Solve for ax2 bx c 0 using one of the following 2x2 5x 3 0

methods. 1. 2x 1x 3 0
Quadratic Functions

Factor.
1. Factor. Set factors
2x 1 0 x30 equal to 0.
b b2 4ac x 12 or x 3 Solve for x.
2. Use the Quadratic Formula x .
2a
5 52 423 a 2, b 5,
2. x
3. Complete the square and/or extract square roots. 22 c 3
5 49 5 7
x x 12, 3
4 4

Solve anxn an1xn1 . . . a1x a0 0 x3 x2 4x 4 0, where an 1 and a0 4.

Polynomial Functions

by using the Rational Zero Test in combination with Possible rational zeros are 1, 2, and 4, so try
synthetic division. x 1: f1 13 12 41 4 0
factors of a0 Synthetic division using the zero x 1
Possible rational zeros
factors of an 1 1 1 4 4
Note: To solve a polynomial inequality, find the zeros of 1 0 4
the corresponding equation and test the inequality 1 0 4 0 x2 4 0
between and beyond each zero.
So, the zeros are 1 and 2.

1. Solve an equation involving radicals (or fractional 1. 2x 3 x 4 Original equation

powers) by isolating the radical and then raising each
2x 3 x 4 Isolate radical term.
side to the appropriate power to obtain a polynomial Raise each side to
equation. 4x 3 x 42 2nd power.
0 x2 4x 4 Standard form
x 2 is repeated
2. Solve an equation involving fractions by multiplying 0 x 22 zero.
each side by the LCD of the fraction to obtain a
2 6x 1 Original
2. 6
Other Functions

polynomial equation. equation

x3 3
63x 3) 23 6x 1x 3 Multiply by

3. Solve an absolute value equation, f x gx, by
0 6x2 x 57
LCD.
Standard form
solving for x in the two equations f x gx and
f x gx. 0 6x 19x 3 Factor.

3. x2 5x x 5 Isolate absolute value.

4. To solve f x c, isolate x in c f x c. x2 5x x 5 or x2 5x x 5
x2 6x 5 0 x2 4x 5 0

5. To solve f x c, isolate x in both f x c and x 5x 1 0 x 5x 1 0
f (x) c. x 5, x 1 x 5, x 1
Note: The only solutions are x 5 and x 1.
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Appendix G Study Capsules A129

Study Capsule 4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Exponential Functions Logarithmic Functions
Definition: The exponential function f with base a is Definition: For x > 0, a > 0, and a 1, the logarithmic
denoted by f x ax, where a > 0, a 1, and x is any function f with base a is f x loga x, where y loga x if
Definitions and Graphs

real number. and only if x ay.

y Domain: , y Domain: 0,
Range: 0, y = loga x Range: ,
Intercept: 0, 1 Intercept: 1, 0
(0, 1) x
Horizontal asymptote: y 0 (1, 0) Vertical asymptote: x 0
x
y = a x, a >1
y = a x, a >1

One-to-One: a x a y x y One-to-One: loga x loga y x y

Inverse: a loga x x Inverse: loga a x x Power: loga uv v loga u
Product: a u av a uv Product: log au v loga u loga v
uv log u log
au
Properties

Quotient: a uv Quotient: loga a a v

av
Power: auv au v Others: loga a 1; loga 1 0; loga 0 is undefined.
Others: a0 1 log x ln x
Change of Base: loga x , where log x and
Note: The same properties hold for the natural base e, log a ln a
where e is the constant 2.718281828 . . . . ln e denote bases 10 and e.
Note: The same properties apply for bases 10 and e.

Solve an exponential equation by isolating the exponential Solve a logarithmic equation by isolating the logarithmic
term and taking the logarithm of each side. term and exponentiating each side.
2x 5 0 Original equation 6 2 log10 x 3 Original equation
2x 5 Isolate exponential term. log10 x 32 Isolate logarithmic term.
log 2 2x log2 5 Take log of each side. 10log10 x 1032 Exponentiate using base 10.
x log2 5 Inverse Property x 1032 Inverse Property
ln 5 x 0.0316 Use a calculator.
x Change-of-base formula
Solving Equations

ln 2 Properties of logarithms are useful in rewriting equations

x 2.32 Use a calculator. in forms that are easier to solve.
Some exponential equations can be solved by using the lnx 4 lnx 2 ln x Original equation
Inverse Property.
3e 2x 2 5 Original equation
ln xx 42 ln x Quotient Property

3e 2x 7 Add 2 to each side. x4 One-to-One

x
e 2x 7
3 Isolate exponential term. x2 Property
x 4 x2 2x
ln e 2x ln 73 Take natural log of each side.
7 0 x2 3x 4 Standard form
2x ln 3 Inverse Property
0 x 4(x 1) Factor.
x 12 ln 73 Multiply each side by 2 .
1

x 4 is a valid solution. x 1 is not in the domain of

x 0.42 Use a calculator.
lnx 2.
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A130 Appendix G Study Capsules

Study Capsule 5 Trigonometric Functions

Right Triangle Coordinate Plane Unit Circle
y y
(x, y) t
(x, y)
hyp 1
opp
r x
x
1
(1, 0)
Definitions

adj
x2 y2 r 2 x 2 y 2 1, x, y cos t, sin t

opp hyp y r 1
sin , csc sin , csc sin t y, csc t
hyp opp r y y
adj hyp x r 1
cos , sec cos , sec cos t sec t
hyp adj r x x
opp adj y x y x
tan , cot tan , cot tan t , cot t
adj opp x y x y

Fundamental Identities

2 cos , cos2 sin

1 1 1
Reciprocal: csc , sec , cot Cofunction: sin
sin cos tan
sin cos
Quotient: tan
cos
, cot
sin tan 2 cot , cot2 tan
Identities

Pythagorean: sin2 cos2 1

1 tan2 sec2
sec 2 csc , cos2 sin
1 cot2 csc2 Even/Odd: sint sin t, cost cos t
tant tan t, csct csc t
sect sec t, cott cot t

Table of Values Reference Angles Graphing Utility

Evaluate functions of > 90 using To evaluate functions of , follow

sin cos tan
the reference angle , which is the this sequence:
0 0 1 0 angle between the x-axis and the
1. Choose mode (degree or radian).
terminal side of .
30 12 32 33 2. Enter function (sin, cos, tan).
Example: The third-quadrant angle
Evaluations

3. Enter angle.
45 22 22 1 240 has a reference angle
240 180 60. So,
60 32 12 3 3
sin 240 sin 60 .
90 1 0 undef. 2

180 0 1 0

270 1 0 undef.
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Appendix G Study Capsules A131

Study Capsule 5 Trigonometric Functions (continued)

Sine Cosine Tangent
y y y

2
1
1
x x x
3 2 3
2 2 2 2 2
Graphs

1 1

For y sin , period 2 and
amplitude 1.
For y a sinbx c,
period 2b, amplitude a,
and horizontal shift cb.
For y cos , period 2 and For y tan , period and
amplitude 1. vertical asymptotes are x 2
For y a cosbx c, and x 32.
period 2b, amplitude a,
and horizontal shift cb.

Proving Identities Solving Equations Inverse Functions

Use known identities to rewrite just Linear forms: Isolate the function y arcsin x if and only if
Identities and Equations

one side of the given statement in the
form of the other side.
and use the inverse function to sin y x, where 1 x 1 and
determine the angle . 2 y 2.
Quadratic forms: Extract roots, or y arccos x if and only if
factor and solve the resulting linear cos y x, where 1 x 1 and
equations. 0 y .
y arctan x if and only if
tan y x, where x
and 2 y 2.

Laws of Sine and Cosine Vectors Powers and nth Roots

Laws of Sines: For ABC with A vector from point Px1, y1 to Trigonometric form of a complex
sides, a, b, and c Qx2, y2) is v x2 x1, y2 y1 number:
a b c v1, v2 . The equivalent unit z a bi r cos i sin ,
. vector form is v v1i v2 j. where r a 2 b 2, a r cos ,
Definitions and Formulas

sin A sin B sin C

The magnitude of v is and b r sin .
Laws of Cosines: v v12 v22. DeMoivres Theorem: For a positive
a 2 b 2 c 2 2bc cos A u vv is a unit vector in the integer n and complex number
b 2 a2 c 2 2ac cos B direction of v. z r cos i sin , then
c 2 a 2 b 2 2ab cos C zn r cos i sin n
u cos , sin , where is the
r ncos n i sin n.
positive angle from the x-axis to
Note: Use the Law of Sines for cases
the unit vector u. nth Root: The nth root of
AAS, ASA, and SSA. Use the Law
The dot product of u u1, u2 z r cos i sin is
of Cosines for cases SSS and SAS.
and v v1, v2 is
n
r cos 2kn
u v u1v1 u2v2. i sin 2kn, where
k 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
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A132 Appendix G Study Capsules

Study Capsule 6 Linear Systems and Matrices

Systems of Equations Examples Graphical Interpretation
Needed for problems that involve Linear: Linear:

2xx yy 15 y x 5
two or more equations in two or Lines intersect one solution
more variables.
Lines parallel no solution
2x x 5 1 x 2 Lines coincide infinite number
Method of Substitution: Solve for of solutions
2 y 5 y 3
Substitution

one variable in terms of the other.

Nonlinear: Nonlinear:
Substitute this expression into the

xx yy 13
other equation and solve this one- 2 Graphs intersect at one point.
variable equation. Back-substitute to yx3 Graphs intersect at multiple points.
find the value of the other variable.
x x 3 1 2 Graphs do not intersect.
x2 7x 10 0
x 5x 2 0
x 5, y 2 and x 2, y 1

Algebraic Methods Matrix Methods

Method of Elimination: Obtain coefficients for x (or y) Gauss-Jordan Elimination: Form the augmented matrix
that differ only in sign by multiplying one or both for a system of equations and apply elementary row
equations by appropriate constants. Then add the operations until a reduced row-echelon matrix is obtained.
equations to eliminate one variable. Solve the remaining Augmented Matrix Reduced Row-Echelon
one-variable equation. Back-substitute into one of the


1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
original equations to find the value of the other variable.
3 5 4 2 0 1 0 7
2x4x 3yy 13 6x 3y 9
4x 3y 1
3 6 5
Solution: 1, 7, 9
0 0 0 1 9

2x 10
x 5, y 7 Solve a Matrix Equation: Solve the matrix equation
AX B, using the inverse A1 to obtain X A1B. The
Gaussian Elimination: For systems of linear inverse of A is found by converting the matrix AI into
equations in more than two variables, use elementary the form IA1, where I is the identity matrix.
row operations to rewrite the system in row-echelon form.
Elimination

Back-substitute into one of the original equations to find 1 1 1 x 1
the value of each remaining variable. AX B 3 5 4 y 2
3 6 5 z 0

x 2y z 3 x 2y z 3

2x 5y z 4 2R1 R2 y 3z 10 x 1 1 1 1 1
3x 2y z 53R1 R3 8y 4z 4 X A1B y 3 2 1 2 7
z 3 3 2 0 9
Using 8R2 R3 for row 3, the row-echelon form is
A1, A2, A3, where

x 2y z 3 Cramers Rule: x y z
A A A

y 3z 10 .
z 3 1 1 1 1 1 1
Back-substitution yields y 1 and x 2. A 3 5
4 , A1 2 5 4,

3 6 5 0 6 5
Types of Systems:
1 1 1 1 1 1
Consistent and independent, if one solution
Consistent and dependent, if infinitely many solutions
A2 3 2
4 , A3 3 5 2
3 0 5 3 6 0
Inconsistent, if no solution
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Appendix G Study Capsules A133

Study Capsule 7 Sequences, Series, and Probability

General Arithmetic Geometric
Definition: An infinite sequence Definition: an is arithmetic if the Definition: an is geometric if the
an has function values difference between consecutive terms ratio of two consecutive terms is a
a1, a2, a3, . . . , an, . . . called the is a common value d. common value r.
terms of the sequence. Skills: Given d and a1, or given two Skills: Given r and a1, or given two
Sequences

Skills: Use or find the form of the specific terms specific terms
nth term 1. Find the first five terms of an. 1. Find the first five terms of an.
1. Given the form of an, write the 2. Find the form of an. 2. Find the form of an.
first five terms.
In general, an a1 n 1d. In general, an a1r n1.
2. Given the first several terms, find
an.

n
nth Partial Sum: nth Partial Sum:
Summation Notation: a i
n
n 1 rn
a a 1 r , r 1
n
Sums and Series

i1
Sn ai a1 an Sn
There is no general formula for i1 2 i 1
i1
calculating the nth partial sum or
where an a1 n 1d Infinite Series:
the sum of an infinite series.
Infinite Series: a1

S a n
1r
, r < 1

a
n1
S n [sum is not finite]
n1

Binomial Theorem Counting Principles Probability

Binomial Theorem: Fundamental Counting Principle: Probability of Event E
Binomial Theorem, Counting Principles, and Probability

x y
n
xn . . .
nxn1y If event E1 can occur in m1 different nE
nry r . . . nxy n1 y n. PE
nCrx ways and following E1, event E2 can nS
occur in m2 different ways, then the
Skills: where event E has nE equally likely
number of ways the two events can
1. Calculate the binomial coefficients outcomes and sample space S has
occur is m1 m2.
using the formula nS equally likely outcomes.
Permutations: (order is important)
Probability Formulas
nCr
n
r

n!
n r! r! The number of permutations (order- PA or B PA B
ings) of n elements is nPn n!
or by using Pascals Triangle. nn 1n 2) . . . 3 2 1. PA and B PA B
2. Expand a binomial. The number of permutations of n PA B
Example: Expand 3x 2y 4.
elements taken r at a time is PA PB PA B
Using Pascals Triangle for n 4, n!n r! PA B PA PB), if A and B
nPr
the coefficients are 1, 4, 6, 4, 1. have no outcomes in common.
nn 1(n 2) . . . n r 1).
Using the theorem pattern, PA B PA PB, if A and B
Combinations: (order is not
decrease powers of 3x and are independent events.
important)
increase powers of 2y. The expan- Pcomplement of A PA
The number of combinations of n
sion is 3x 2y4 1 PA
elements taken r at a time is
1(3x4 43x32y
63x22y2 43x2y3 nCr n!n r!r!.
12y4.
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A134 Appendix G Study Capsules
Study Capsule 8 Conics, Parametric and Polar Equations
Definitions
Circle: Locus of points equidistant
from a fixed point, the center
Parabola: Locus of points equidis-
tant from a fixed point (its focus) and
a fixed line (the directrix)
Ellipse: Locus of points, so that the
sum of their distances from
two fixed points (foci) is constant
Conics
Hyperbola: Locus of points, so that
the difference of their distances from
two fixed points (foci) is
constant
c 4. Given a general equation with
Eccentricity: e
a an xy-term, use the discriminant
parabola: e 1
ellipse 0 < e < 1
hyperbola e > 1
Definition: Parametric equations
are used where the coordinates x
and y are each a function of a
third variable, called a parameter.
Parametric Equations
Common parameters are time t and
angle .
Definition: Point P in a polar coor-
dinate system is denoted by Pr, ,
where r is the directed distance from
the origin O to the point P and is
Polar Equations
the counterclockwise angle from the
polar axis to OP.
Multiple Representation of Points:
r, r, 2n the distance from the focus to the
r, 2n 1 directrix.
Symmetry: The tests for symmetry
of a polar equation, r f , are
given on page 714.
Standard Equations Basic Problem Types
Circle: center h, k, radius r 1. Given information needed to find
x h2 y k2 r 2 the parts (center, radius, vertices,
foci, etc.), write the standard
Parabola: vertex h, k, and p equation of the conic.
distance from the vertex to the focus
2. Given the general equation of a
x h2 4p y k conic, complete the square and
y k2 4px h find the required parts of the
Ellipse: major axis 2a, minor axis conic. Then sketch its graph.
2b, distance from the center to focus 3. Given a general quadratic
is c, and c2 a2 b2 equation, use the coefficients
x h2a2 y k2b2 1 A and C to classify the conic,
as stated on page 686.
y h2a2 y k2b2 1
Hyperbola: c 2 a 2 b 2
x h2a2 y k2b2 1 B2 4AC to classify the conic,
y k2a2 x h2b2 1 as stated on page 694.
Plane Curve C: If f and g are 1. Given the parametric equations for
continuous functions of t on an a plane curve C, construct a three-
interval I, the set of ordered pairs row table of values using input for
xt, yt is a plane curve C. The t. Plot the resulting x, y points
equations x f t) and y gt are and sketch curve C. Then identify
parametric equations for C. the orientation of the curve.
2. Given a set of parametric equa-
tions, eliminate the parameter and
write the corresponding rectangular
equation.
3. Given a rectangular equation, find
a corresponding set of parametric
equations using an appropriate
parameter.
Conversion Equations: Polar and 1. Convert polar coordinates or
rectangular coordinates are related by equations to rectangular form or
the equations x r cos , visa versa.
y r sin , and tan yx, 2. Given the polar equation of a conic,
r 2 x2 y 2. analyze its graph.
Polar Equations of Concis: The 3. Given information needed to find
focus is located at the pole and p is values of e and p, write the polar
equation of the conic.
4. Use point plotting, symmetry,
r ep1 e cos
zeros, and maximum r-values to
r ep1 e sin sketch graphs of special polar
curves.
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Appendix G Study Capsules A135

Study Capsule 9 Lines, Planes, and Vectors in 3-Space

Definitions, Formulas, and Techniques Basic Problem Types

Points in 3-space: points Px1, y1, z1 and Qx2, y2, z2 Given three points A1, 3, 4, B4, 2, 2, and C 2, 8, 6:
Distance between 1. Plot each point in a 3-D coordinate system.
d x2 x12 y2 y12 (z2 z12 P and Q
2. Find the distance between points A and B.
x1 x2 y1 y2 z1 z2
2
,
2
,
2 Midpoint between
P and Q 3. Find the midpoint of the line segment AC.
4. Find the standard equation of a sphere with points
Equation of a sphere: center h, k, j and radius r A and C as endpoints of a diameter.

x h2 y k2 z j2 r 2 Standard equation 5. Find the component forms of vectors u AC and

v AB.
Vectors in 3-space: vectors u u1, u2, u3 and 6. Find u, u v, and u v.
v v1, v2, v3
7. Find the angle between u and v.
v
u u12 u22 u32 Magnitude , v 0 Unit vector 8. Find a set of parametric equations and the corresponding
v
symmetric forms for the lines through points A and B.
Operations with vectors u and v:
9. Determine whether u and v are orthogonal, parallel,
u v u1 v1, u2 v2, u3 v3 Sum or neither.
cu cu1, cu2, cu3 Scalar product 10. Find the cross product of u, v, and w.
u v u1v1 u2v2 u3v3 Dot product 11. Find the general equation of the plane containing points
uv is the angle
A, B, and C.
cos 12. Find the distance between the point Q1, 2, 2 and
u v

between u and v.
the plane containing A, B, and C.
i j k
u v u1 u2 u3 Cross product Given the general equation of a sphere:

v1 v2 v3 1. Find the center h, k, j and radius r.
u1 u2 u3 2. Sketch the sphere and show its trace in any one of the
Triple scalar prod-
u v w v1 v2 v3 uct of u, v, and w coordinate planes.
w1 w2 w3
Given the parametric equations of a line L in space:
u v w volume of parallelepiped with vectors u, v, 1. Find two points on the line L and sketch its graph.
and w as adjacent edges.
2. Find a vector u parallel to line L.
Properties of cross products: See pages 758 and 759.
Given the general equation of a plane in space:
Line in 3-space: Line L is parallel to vector 1. Find the intercepts and sketch the plane.
v ai bj ck and passes through point x1, y1, z1.
2. Find a unit vector perpendicular (normal) to the plane.
Parametric
y y1 bt, z z1 ct equations for I.
x x1 at, 3. Find the distance between a point Q, not in the plane,
x x1 y y1 z z1 Symmetric and the plane.
equations for I.
a b c

Plane in 3-space: containing point x1, y1, z1 with normal

vector n a, b, c
ax x1 by y1 cz z1 0 Standard eqaution
ax by cz d 0 General eqaution
Distance between a plane and
PQ n point Q (not in the plane),
D projn PQ
n where P is a point in the plane
and n is normal to the plane.
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A136 Appendix G Study Capsules

Study Capsule 10 Limits and an Introduction to Calculus

Definitions, Notations, and Techniques Basic Problem Types

Limit notation: Evaluate lim f x:

xa

lim
xc
f x L means that f x approaches L as x approaches c 1. Numerically, using a graphing utility and a table of
from either side. Equivalently, f x L. values
lim f x limit from the right of c. 2. Graphically, using the zoom and trace features of a
xc
graphing utility on the graph
lim f x limit from the left of c. 3. By direct substitution: lim f x f c)
xc
xc
lim f x limit at infinity or at negative infinity. 4. By evaluating the corresponding one-sided limits
x

Existence or nonexistence of limits: Evaluate the limit (as h 0) of the difference quotient

lim f x exists if the limit from the left and right exist and f x 1 h f x
xc :
are equal. h

lim f x fails to exist if: 1. To find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at
xc a point x1, y1
1. limits from the left and right are not equal. 2. To find the derivative, fx, of the function f
2. fx increases or decreases without bound as x c.
Given the form of the nth term, an, of an infinite sequence:
3. fx oscillates between two fixed values as x c.
1. Find the first several terms of the sequence.
Evaluating limits: 2. Find the limit, if it exists, of the sequence as n .
By direct substitution of c into f xthat is, lim f x f c)
xc Use -notation and limits to:
Nx 0
If f x and direct substitution yields , either: 1. Find the sum of the first n terms of a sequence.
Dx 0
2. Find the area of a region bounded by the graph of f, the
1. Divide out the common factor in Nx and D(x), or x-axis, and the vertical lines x a and x b. Use the
2. Rationalize either Nx or D(x). formula
b ai
f a b n a.
n
For limits at infinity, where Nx has leading coefficient A lim
n
an and degree n, and Dx has leading coefficient bm and i1 n
degree m:

0, n < m
Nx an
lim , nm
x Dx bm
No limit, n > m
-notation formulas

n n
nn 1
c cn
i1
i
i1 2
n
nn 12n 1 n
n2n 12
i
i1
2
6 i
i1
3
4