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Q (m3/s) = discharge
l (m) = length of the pipeline
d (m) = diameter (inside) of the pipe
A = d2p /4 (m2) - area of the pipe cross-section
v= Q/A (m/s) - mean velocity in the pipe cross-section
g = 9.81 (m/s2) - acceleration due to gravity
n = (m2/s) = kinematic viscosity of water at
Transport of water in a pipe-line involves head loss. The most important part of head
loss is due to friction which is proportional to the length of the pipeline. The second
most important part of head loss consists of the sum of local head losses caused by
changes in direction, changes in diameter and pipe fittings such as tap, valve, etc. The
general form of the equation for head loss, measured in height of water column is:
(1.1)
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where hv (m) = head loss in height of water column, x i (-) = resistance coefficient,
v2i/2g (m) = velocity head in height of water column. It is generally calculated by the
downstream cross-section of the head loss producing cross-section. The main part of
the head loss is due to friction, the resistance coefficient of which is:
(1.2)
(1.3)
where
The resistance coefficient of local head loss is mainly characterized by the type of
fitting causing it. The numerical values of the various resistance coefficients are
determined by experiments. The empirical relationships and numerical values of the
most important causes of local head loss are summarized below.
a) Elbow pipe
(1.4)
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Figure 1. Friction factor vs. Reynolds Number and relative surface roughness of
pipe material
b) Bend (Table 2)
The roughness of the pipe-wall and relative radius of curvature, R/d, has a similar
effect in order of magnitude on the resistance coefficient, while the variation of
Reynolds Number, Re, involves hardly any change.
(1.5)
and (1.6)
(1.7)
Calculated by the velocity head of the "2" cross-section in accordance with Equation
(L.6).
x e = y k (1.8)
where
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(1.9)
where
g) Entrance (from a still water body to a pipe with diameter d). The resistance
coefficient in Equation (1.6) (from sharp edged to bell mouth) can be estimated as
x = 0.5 to 0.04
h) Exit1/ - (from a pipe with diameter d to open air or a still water body)
(1.10)
1/Previously the head loss has always been calculated by the velocity
head of the downstream cross-section. The exception is the exit head loss
which must be calculated by the velocity head of the upstream cross-
section
j) Valve produces head loss when fully opened (in decreasing rate by increasing
diameter), but it is much more important to consider the effect of the closing rate, which
is characterized by the relative increment, a/d (Table 4).
a/d
0.95 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
d mm
150 850 215 47 16 7.0 3.3 1.7 1.50 0.68 0.46 0.33
300 680 165 35 12 5.5 2.7 1.3 0.65 0.29 0.15 0.05
900 28 9 4.0 1.8
k) Foot-valve and protecting screen involves a definite head loss at the suction side of
a pump (Table 5)
For a suction shaft of 3.5 d width and 4 d depth, with a gap of 0.8 d between the bottom
and suction pipe, the resistance coefficient can roughly be estimated by the empirical
relationship:
(1.11)
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and consequently:
(1.12)
m) Screens1/ (e.g. at the entrance cross-section of a suction shaft) with a flow direction
perpendicular to the screen and horizontal. The general relationship of the resistance
coefficient is:
1/Similar to the exit head loss, the head loss of the screen must be
calculated by the upstream velocity head
x m = kf ka x 1 (1.13)
where kf is a correction factor for the cross-section shape of the bars and ka is a
correction factor for inclination of the screen, while x 1 is the basic resistance coefficient
of the screen with rectangular bars, the cross-section of which is s times l (s is
perpendicular to flow direction), with a gap, b, between the bars, and with an inclination
of the screen of 70 to the bottom. That means:
x 1 = F1 (s, l, b)
as shown in Part A of Figure 3, while kf, is indicated as Part B and ka as Part C of the
same figure.
As indicated in Equation 1.1 (or 1.6) the head loss and discharge in a pipeline are
mutually interrelated by the velocity head. The general relationship can be rearranged
(1.14)
where
, a constant factor,
Q(m3/s) = discharge,
(1.15)
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Pipelines are regarded as short pipelines if local head losses must not be neglected
compared to friction head loss. As an example see Figure 4, where as well as the
manometric head of the pump, the suction head can also be calculated.
where
(m) is the sum of local and friction head losses, which, in the particular case of
Figure 4, consist of:
- screen:
- suction shaft:
- foot-valve:
- friction (1):
- bend (1):
friction (2):
friction (3):
- bend (2):
friction (4):
- valve:
friction (5):
- exit:
where on the right hand side all of the numerical values are known (as di, li, Q, g, p) or
can be calculated (as x m, x k, l 1, x b,l 2, x j, l 3 ) according to the previous section.
b) The suction head, Hs, of the pump must be less than the head of vacuum, Hvac = 10
m:
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Pipelines can be regarded as long pipelines if local head losses can be neglected
compared to friction head loss. (l/d > 500 to 1 000). As an example see Figure 5. For
calculating discharge or pipe diameter the basic equation is:
(1.16)
and by rearranging
(1.17)
The denominator in the square root can be replaced by the same group of parameters
corresponding to the "equivalent pipe" as follows:
(1.18)
where
(1.19)
(1.20)
Figure 4. Sketch of a short pipe-line for calculating manometric and suction head
of pumps
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(1.21)
Before embarking upon any detailed treatment of open channel flow, it is advisable to
review the different conditions of flow. As is known, the flow in open channels may be
classified according to variation with respect to both location and time.
- uniform flow, in which the cross-section and the mean velocity remain
constant along the stream lines, and
- varied flow, in which the wetted area (A) and/or the mean velocity (v)
undergo changes, viz.
Considering variation with respect to time, the flow may be classified as:
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- unsteady, in which the flow characteristics are varying in time at the same
point.
Combining the two kinds of classification, the flow in open channels may be:
- uniform steady (e.g. prismatic canal, the water surface parallel to the
bottom),
- gradually varied steady (e.g. back-water reaches),
- suddenly varied steady (e.g. at overfalls),
- gradually varied unsteady (e.g. the passage of flood waves),
- suddenly varied unsteady (e.g. surge waves).
Taking into account the aims of the present course the most important flow-types are
the uniform steady flow in open canals (the calculation methods of which will be
summarized below), and the suddenly varied steady flow (the calculation methods of
which will be introduced in Sections 3 and 4).
In uniform steady flow the slope of the water surface, Sw , is parallel to the slope of the
bottom, S , and to the energy grade line, Se . Consequently the water depth, D, and the
mean velocity, v, are constant. In other words the loss in energy is due to friction
(Figure 6). That means the energy loss. D h , over the length, D l, equals D h, the
height difference between cross-sections "A" and "B", respectively. The work performed
by the water body (the cross-section area of which is A and thickness in flow direction 1
m), due to gravity from cross-section "A" to "B", equals
G = g A (1 m) D h (2.1)
F = f v2 p (1m) D l 2.2)
making the work performed by the two forces equal (because the flow is uniform and
steady, and therefore is in dynamic equilibrium)
r g A (1 m) D h = f v2 p (1 m) D l
and thus
(2.3)
At flat slopes (a < 4), the value D h/D l = sin a can be changed to the surface slope D
h/D l = h/l = tan a = S. To replace the term A/P (area of the cross section over wetted
perimeter of the cross-section), the hydraulic radius, R, was introduced by Du Buat as
a new concept some 200 years ago, and the term is the velocity coefficient
and named as Chzy's C. So the so called Chzy formula, for computing the mean
velocity of uniform, steady, open channel flow, has been used by hydraulic engineers
(sometimes beyond its limit Of validity) in the form
(2.4)
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The fundamental term in the Chzy formula is the velocity coefficient, C, for which
many investigators have suggested a variety of relationships and determined
experimental values. Some of these are Basin, Strickler-Manning-Lindquist, Kutter and
Kutter-Ganguillet, Agroskin and Pavlovsky. For less sophisticated practical application
the formula adopted by Strickler-Manning-Lindquist may be used:
(2.5)
for water with moderate temperature and with a flow depth, D 6 to 8 m. The values of
roughness coefficient, n, must be substituted according to Table 6.
Taking into account that Chzy's velocity coefficient, C, and the friction factor l (used
mainly in pipelines), are related as
(2.6)
the Colebrook-White relationship (Equation 1.3) can be rearranged for calculating the
velocity coefficient of open channel flow (without any restriction concerning type and
temperature of fluid and depth of flow, etc.), as follows:
(2.7)
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14 Earth canals in rather poor condition (e.g. local scours, cobbles, 0.030 1.510-1
rocks) with conspicuous weedy spots, slopes locally slumped;
streams with good channel conditions
15 Canals in poor condition (irregular section, heavy weeds, or 0.035 2.510-1
sediment deposits); streams with fair bed conditions, minor
gravel deposits and little aquatic vegetation
16 Canals in very poor maintenance (great scours and slope slides; 0.040 4.210-1
reed, dense roots, large boulders in the channel, etc.);
deteriorated streams (poorer than above) with heavy stands of
aquatic vegetation, extensive gravel deposits, meandering flow,
minor scours and sand bars
The actual mean velocity in the channel cross-section has to be between the
permissible limits. The acceptable minimum for avoiding siltation is
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Figure 7 indicates also two more measures, viz. free-board of lining, s, and freeboard
of embankment, f, the recommended values of which are shown in Table 9.
The first one is easy to solve because it is only necessary to apply the Chzy formula
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(2.8)
If the aim is to design a cross-section for a known discharge capacity the following
considerations apply:
a) The slope, S, should equal (or be slightly less than) the mean slope of
the valley;
b) The bank-slope, r, of the cross-section should be according to Table 7;
c) The mean velocity should be between the limits of permissible velocities
(Table 8);
d) Roughness coefficient, n, or roughness element, e, should be according
to Table 6);
Q/vpmin A Q/vpmax ,
while applying the Chzy formula (Equation 2.4) in the form proposed by Strickler-
Manning-Lindquist (Equation 2.5).
Figure 10. Free outflow followed by an undulating hydraulic jump in the tailwater
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Figure 11. Free outflow followed by a perfect hydraulic jump with surface roller in
the tailwater
This means the most important geometric characteristics of the cross-section, viz.
cross-sectional area. A, and hydraulic radius, R, have to lie between the above limits.
Considering that the characteristics of the hydraulically optimum cross-section may be
computed, viz.
(2.9)
(2.10)
(2.11)
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If a decision is made concerning actual (or design) water depth, Dd, the other
characteristics can be calculated.
Movable weirs form a large group of hydraulic structures characterized by the fad that,
under the action of the differential head between headwater and tailwater, the
discharge is passed under the structure through a variable cross-section, the
magnitude of which depends on the gate opening. The flow thus resembles flow
through an orifice that can be described as suddenly varied steady (or unsteady) flow.
The structure itself can be built flush with the canal bottom, on a bottom sill or on the
crest of a fixed weir. From the foregoing, calculations of the most simple case will be
reviewed.
Three main types of outflow may be classified, viz. free outflow, submerged outflow and
outflow under pressure.
Figures 9 to 11 illustrate three typical forms of free outflow. The ruling characteristics of
Applying Bernoulli's energy equation the discharge of unit width, q, flowing out of the
opening, e, under the sharp edged movable gate equals
(3.1)
in which e is the contraction coefficient and f the velocity coefficient of the sharp edged
gate (Figure 14), and D is the water depth in the headwater and e the gate opening.
The range of validity of Equation (3.1) can be limited by the tailwater depth, D2, with
respect to headwater depth, D, viz.
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(3.2)
If the relative opening, e/D, is less than 0.1 and the relative tailwater depth, D1/D2 is
less than 0.44 a simplified relationship can be used:
(3.3)
Figure 12 illustrates a typical submerged outflow under a sharp edged gate which
occurs if the tailwater depth exceeds the upper limit of Equation (3.2). Discharge can
only be computed as a rough estimation because the hydraulic conditions are very
unstable. Applying Bernoulli's energy equation between headwater and cross-section
"0-0" in the tailwater, D' has to be taken as pressure head (water depth) which is hardly
possible to determine. It is necessary, therefore, to apply an approximation for
calculating Do. Adopting the momentum (impulse) theorem between cross-sections
"0-0" and "2-2", respectively, the undeterminable D' can be replaced by the tailwater
depth, D2. The resulting equation, serving only for a rough estimation of the discharge
of unit width q is as follows:
(3.4)
in which D and D2, are water depths in the head and tailwater, respectively, while e is
the gate opening. Then e and f are the contraction and velocity coefficients,
respectively, of the sharp edged gate (to be adopted as functions of relative gate
opening, e/D, (Figure 14).
If the relative opening, e/D is 0.1 or less and if the tailwater depth with respect to
headwater depth, D2/D, is 0.44 or more, a simplified relationship can be used:
(3.5)
If the tailwater depth is increased it reaches a limit where the submerged outflow
transforms into outflow under pressure as shown in Figure 13. The relevant and more
or less simplified relationship for computing discharge of unit width, q, equals
(3.6)
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- or tends to zero,
- or tends to unity.
Figure 12. Submerged outflow (the hydraulic jump with surface roller shifter
upstream to the gate so that the "0-0" cross-section is submerged)
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If the relative gate opening, e/D, is less than 0.1 and if the tailwater depth with respect
to headwater depth, D2/D, tends to unity, a simple relationship can be used for rough
estimation of discharge per unit width, q, as follows
(3.7)
As indicated in the introduction to this section the outflow under gates can be described
in terms of suddenly varied steady (or unsteady) flow. The sudden variation of water
depth and velocity is dangerous from the point of view of scouring. The hydraulic
structure which protects against this is called the tailwater apron.
Considering the various forms of outflow reviewed in the previous paragraphs, from the
point of view of scouring, the most dangerous one is the free outflow. Following the flow
direction (Figure 11) the headwater depth, D, is large while velocity, v, is small. In the
gate opening, e, and afterwards in the contracted cross-section "0-0" the water depth, e
e, is low and the velocity, vo, is much above the critical velocity (between shooting and
velocity is more than the critical one, viz. . Then a hydraulic jump follows,
with a sudden variation in both water depth (increase) and velocity (decrease). In
cross-section "2-2" the actual velocity v2, is less than the critical one, so the flow is
tranquil.
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Because of the magnitude of velocities and of their sudden variation the canal bottom
has to be protected against scouring by the tailwater apron up to cross-section "2-2".
The main task of hydraulic computations is the determination of the length of the
tailwater apron.
The length (in meter units) of tailwater apron consists of three main parts:
The horizontal length between gate opening and cross-section "0-0" can be estimated
as equal to gate opening, say:
l0 = e (3.8)
The length between cross-sections "0-0" and "1-1" can be calculated by the differential
equation of gradually varied steady flow, applying the Chzy formula in the form
proposed by Strickler-Manning-Lindquist. The resulting relationship (also called
distance of hydraulic jump) is as follows: 1/
1/It is important to remember that the numerical values of roughness
coefficient, n, as shown in Table 6 are in s/m1/3 units, and so the numerical
values of both the various water depths, D1,e e, gravitational acceleration,
g, and the discharge of unit width, q, have also to be applied in meter and
second units
(3.9)
The characteristics of the hydraulic jump can be computed by applying the momentum
theorem. According to this theorem the resultant of the outside hydraulic forces has to
be balanced by the change of momentum. If this dynamic equilibrium is not established
the jump moves either upstream or downstream. Assuming the velocities over the
entrance and exit sections (cross-sections "1-1" and "2-2"), to be uniform and
horizontal, only the difference of the horizontal hydrostatic forces (wall friction
neglected) needs to be balanced by the change of momentum. The resulting equation
expresses the relationship between the so called conjugate depths of the hydraulic
jump, as follows:
(3.10/a)
(3.10/b)
The horizontal length between cross-sections "1-1" and "2-2", the length of the
hydraulic jump, may be estimated as
(3.11)
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In designing a plane, horizontal tailwater apron the following are the steps to be taken:
(3.12)
(3.13)
e e (or 0.6 e) D1
If e e (or 0.6 e) is less than D1 it indicates that a stretch of gradually varied steady
shooting flow exists between cross-sections "0-0" and "1-1", respectively. The total
length of plane horizontal tailwater apron then can be computed by summing up the
particular lengths of the three stretches (by applying Equations (3.8), (3.9) and (3.11)
above, viz.
Lpf = e + l1 + l2 (3.14)
If e e (or 0.6 e) is more than D1 it indicates that no free outflow exists, and the
computation has to be repeated by assuming submerged outflow. The first step is the
calculation of the necessary gate opening, e. Taking into account that no explicit form
exists for Equation (3.4), either the application of a trial-and-error method is advised for
computing gate opening, e (or e e), or Equation (3.5) can be re-arranged for a rough
approximation, viz.
(3.15)
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(3.16)
If the contracted water depth, e e, in cross-section "0-0" is much less then the upstream
conjugate water depth, D1, of the hydraulic jump according to the consideration c)
above the distance of the hydraulic jump, l1 may be very large and so the tailwater
apron will be very costly. In that case a depressed tailwater apron can be designed by
which l1 can be eliminated.
(3.17)
and the measure of the depression by which the bottom of the apron has to be sunk
below the bottom of the tailwater canal is
D D2 = D2 - D2 (3.18)
Where an obstacle is constructed on the bottom of an open channel, the water surface
is raised and passes over it. Structures of this type are called weirs. Aside from special
cases, flow over weirs may be regarded as steady, i.e. unchanging with respect to time,
and suddenly varied, as in most hydraulic structures.
Weirs are a familiar structure in hydraulic engineering, for they are applied to a wide
variety of barrages, bottom drops, spillways, etc.
The most important problem arising in connection with weirs is the relationship
between the discharge over the weir and the characteristics of the weir. Many authors
have suggested various relationships (e.g. Poleni, Weissbach, Boussinesq, Lauck,
Pikalow) generally along the same theoretical lines and with similar results. So it seems
satisfactory to introduce only the relationship of Weissbach (free overfall on sharp
crested weir without any side contraction, Fig. 15a)
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(4.1)
in which Q (m3/s) is discharge, b (m) is the width of the rectangular canal and that of
the weir, g = 9.81 (m/s2) is the acceleration due to gravity, h (m) is the overfall height
(measured about a distance of 5 h upstream from the crest), v = Q/b (M + h) (m/s) is
the mean velocity in the headwater, M(m) is the height of the weir crest above the
headwater bottom, and m is a dimensionless discharge coefficient.
If h/(M+h) tends towards zero (because h is small compared to M) then v2 /2gh also
tends towards zero; so a simplified relationship can be reached as introduced first by
Poleni about 250 years ago:
(4.2)
In Equations (4.1) and (4.2) the only remaining problem is the dimensionless discharge
coefficient, m , which may be computed by using the relevant one of the following
empirical relationships.
a) Free overfall on a sharp crested weir with free jet without side
contraction (Figure 15c) (Basin):
(4.3)
b) Free overfall on a sharp crested weir with adhering jet without side
contraction (Figure 18b) (Rehbock):
(4.4)
c) Free overfall on a sharp crested weir with depressed jet without side
contraction (Figure 18a):
(4.6)
(4.7)
e) Free overfall on sharp crested weir with free jet and with side
contraction (Figure 17a) (The Swiss Society of Engineers):
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(4.81/)
Figure 15. Classification of weirs with respect to width and shape of crest: a)
sharp crested weir, b) broad crested bottom sill, c) Ogee-type weir, d) broad
crested weir
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Figure 18. Classification of weirs with respect to flow over the weir; free overfall
with satisfactory ventilated free jet (see Fig. 4.1, a) and d)): a) free overfall with
unsatisfactory ventilated, depressed jet; b) free overfall with unventilated,
adhering jet
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The trajectory of the nappe after springing clear of the weir crest is approximately
parabolic. It is therefore of advantage in hydraulic engineering to adjust the dam cross-
section required for structural reasons to the nappe.
At the downstream edge of a broad crested weir the water depth is critical. That means
the water depth, h1, and the mean velocity, v1, at the cross-section are interrelated by
the equation
(4.9)
Because the energy content above the weir crest is characterized by the overfall height
or head on the weir, h, the water depth at the downstream edge cross-section of the
broad crested weir equals
(4.10)
and its centre line is the height of h/3 above the weir crest. This point is the origin of a
co-ordinate system in which the trajectory of the nappe will be calculated (Figure 19).
The shape of the dam profile is obtained simply by determining the co-ordinates of the
centre line of the overfalling nappe and by plotting its thickness perpendicular thereto.
In this method of approximation friction is neglected and the velocity in the origin is
considered to be horizontal. This constant horizontal component of the velocity vector
then follows the falling nappe.
(4.11)
while the variable vertical component of the velocity vector can be computed as
(4.12)
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(4.13)
(4.14)
and it is a function of y.
The co-ordinates of the centre line are interrelated with the equation
(4.15)
and so both the centre line and the upper and lower shape of the nappe can be plotted.
The lower shape of the nappe approximates the dam-section.
For weirs with a vertical upstream face and free overfall, Pawlowsky suggested the
following empirical relationships:
and (4.16)
(4.17)
in which
and (4.18)
(4.19)
The basic discharge coefficient derived by Knapp with due regard to losses is
(4.20)
If instead of free overfall a submerged (or drowned) overfall exists, the discharge
coefficient of free overfall has to be multiplied by the submergence coefficient and so
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m so = s o m o (4.21)
so so so
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Rock fill weirs are often applied as regulating structures e.g. bottom drops in small
watercourses. Various dam sections can be used depending on the construction
methods (Figure 20). The relationship between overfalling discharge and hydraulic
characteristics is the same but the discharge coefficient depends, besides the
characteristics of M, a and h, on the type, the material and the construction method of
the weir, and varies from 0.5 to 0.65.
Circular weirs are often used as spillway shafts for maintaining a nearly constant water
level in a reservoir or pond (Figure 16f). The vertical section (Figure 21) of the so called
"morning glory" type illustrates its functioning. The usual relationship can be applied for
calculating discharge but 2p R is substituted for b. Because of the favourable shaping
of the entrance section a relatively high discharge coefficient exists, between 0.5 and
0.8, with a decreasing coefficient as weir head is increased. This structure can function
as a circular weir only up to a certain limit of weir head, ho , the corresponding
discharge, Qo , of which equals the discharge capacity of the shaft. The discharge
capacity of the shaft can be approximated by a "short pipeline" calculation. If the actual
discharge exceeds the discharge capacity of the shaft then the free overfall transforms
into submerged overfall which results in an increased level in the headwater. By further
increasing discharge the structure will be submerged and it will function as a short
pipeline with a favourable "bell mouth" entrance. This indicates how important the
determination of the discharge capacity of the structure is.
The limit of oblique weirs (Figure 16b) is the side weir of Figure 22, the crest of which is
parallel to the main flow direction. The discharge capacity of a side weir is significantly
less than that of a weir with a crest perpendicular to the main flow direction. As
illustrated in Figure 22 the weir head varies along the crest and the maximum is
reached at the downstream end of the crest. The discharge capacity of the side weir
can be approximated using this maximum weir head, h, with a discharge coefficient
corresponding to the actual types of weir and overfall, respectively, but it has to be
multiplied by the side coefficient which can be estimated (Pawlowsky and Engels) as
(4.22)
(4.23)
The sudden variation in water depth and mean velocity over weirs is similar to that
which has been illustrated in the previous section concerning outflow under gates and
movable weirs. The consequences of these variations are obvious: a siltation process
can be foreseen in the headwater, and a scouring in the tailwater will endanger the
stability of the structure if no appropriate tailwater apron is constructed.
The shape and the geometric and kinematic characteristics of a nappe (jet) have been
illustrated. These can also be applied in designing the tailwater apron as follows:
a) The distance between the downstream edge of the weir crest and the
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(4.24)
(4.25)
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