614798

research-article2015
IJM0010.1177/0255761415614798International Journal of Music EducationLiao and Davidson

Research Article

International Journal of

The effects of gesture and

Music Education
2016, Vol. 34(1) 418
The Author(s) 2015
movement training on the Reprints and permissions:
sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
intonation of childrens singing DOI: 10.1177/0255761415614798
ijm.sagepub.com
in vocal warm-up sessions

Mei-Ying Liao
Ming Hsin University of Science & Technology, Taiwan

Jane W. Davidson
The University of Melbourne, Australia

Abstract
The main purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of gesture and movement
training for beginning childrens choirs with regard to improving intonation. It was a between-
subjects design with one independent variable Training Technique (TT). One dependent
variable was measured: intonation in the singing of vocal pattern warm-up exercises. Fifty-
three fifth grade students (1011 years old) participated in the empirical investigation. They
were randomly assigned into three training groups: (1) Group 1 students who received no
gesture and movement training; (2) Group 2 students who received gesture training; and
(3) Group 3 students who received gesture and movement training. The instructional unit,
consisting of two 40-minute sessions per week for 24 sessions, focused on vocal development.
Each individual was pretested and posttested on singing 5 vocal patterns, selected from
some 20 learned in the sessions. Three experts were asked to judge the childrens individual
singing of these patterns, assessing intonation. Results showed that the children who received
gesture and/or movement training sang significantly more in tune than those who did not. It
was concluded that gesture training has a positive effect on improving childrens intonation.
Furthermore, the combination of gesture and movement training could be a powerful teaching
strategy in choral rehearsals.

Keywords
gesture, intonation, movement, singing

Corresponding author:
Mei-Ying Liao, Ming Hsin University of Science & Technology, Taiwan.
Email: melodyliao@must.edu.tw
Liao and Davidson 5

Background
Choral singing is an important activity in Taiwanese primary schools, with almost every primary
school having its own choir as well as classroom choirs. The majority of choral music teachers/
conductors teach choral singing based on their own choral experiences or from having had private
solo voice lessons. These adult experiences shape what might be regarded as a traditional rehearsal
style, that is a specifically structured approach to vocal training and repertoire. Typically, there is
little discussion among teachers about experimenting with different styles to aid the childrens
learning (Liao, 2004). Yet, music educators, based on their knowledge of educational theory, have
called for the need to improve choral training techniques for well over a decade (Lee, 1998; Liao,
1996, 2002, 2004). Lee (1998) and Liao (2004) criticized the distance between theory and practice
of choral training in teacher colleges; in particular, a lack of information and training in effective
choral direction methods. Research in Taiwan into an effective and appropriate approach to chil-
drens singing remains an urgent issue to be examined and so becomes the focus of this article.
To date, in Taiwanese choral rehearsals, vocal exercises (scales, arpeggios, etc.) have been the
primary means of developing a good vocal technique, particularly the use of vocal patterns to
develop a sense of tuning for beginning choirs. Indeed, Apfelstadt (1985), Smith & Sataloff (2000)
and Stegman (2003) have claimed that well-planned vocal exercises help singers focus mentally as
well as vocally on tasks during choral rehearsals. If used properly, vocal exercise can be a very
powerful technique to enhance choral quality in training and performance, rather than simply free-
ing the singers voice in readiness for singing.
In western choral practice, choral training strategies have been somewhat different, with
research on the use of movement as a rehearsal instruction technique being ardently discussed and
its practice being gradually introduced over the past three decades (Apfelstadt, 1985; Caldwell,
1995;Chagnon, 2001; Ehmann, 1968; Henke, 1984, 1990; Hibbard, 1994; Hylton, 1987; Liao,
2002, 2004; Liao & Davidson, 2007; McCoy, 1986; Peterson, 2000; Wis, 1993, 1999). Studies
have shown positive results for the purposes of enhancing expressive performance, improving the
comprehension of musical concepts, promoting vocal technique and correcting vocal faults. Some
choral directors use it as the primary rehearsal approach, whereas others use it as a supplemental
method. For the majority, the idea of adopting movement in the choral context was influenced by
Dalcroze Eurhythmics, which is an approach study and experiences musical elements through
movement.
Dalcroze Eurhythmics is based on the premise that rhythm may be found in the natural rhythms
of the human body (Choksy, Abramson, Gillespie, Woods, 1986: 27).All musical sounds begin
with motion, and therefore the body is the first musical instrument to be trained. This approach has
three branches: eurhythmics, solfge, and improvisation. Eurhythmics explores the timespace
energy relationship of body movements; solfge emphasizes ear training, voice in pitch, melody
and harmony; and improvisation is concerned with manipulating the musical elements in a sponta-
neous manner, building from learned structures to great improvisatory freedom (Caldwell, 1995;
Mead, 1994; Schnebly-Black& Moore, 2003). Travelling through space with the whole body
apparently helps students to develop kinesthetic imagination and muscular memory, which are
regarded as very important abilities in learning music (Caldwell, 1995; Henke, 1984, 1990; Hylton,
1987; Mead, 1994). In particular, singing is a whole body physical activity, and needs to be taught
as such.
According to Joyner (1969), in order to sing in tune, one must be able to do three things: first,
one must be able to hear and discriminate the stimuli; second, one must be able to remember a note;
and third, one must be able to reproduce it. The three fundamental abilities of pitch perception,
tonal memory and vocal coordination are the core factors to affect accurate singing. The first and
6 International Journal of Music Education 34(1)

critical step for teaching intonation is to help children imagine the pitch so that they are able to hear
it accurately (Apfelstadt, 1988; Goetze, 1985; Liao, 2008; Phillips, 1996). Once a child is able to
hear the pitch, the child can then begin to work on the mechanism to reproduce it through singing.
The use of kinesthetic sensations to strengthen the motor pictures in memory seems to have a
strong impact on singing (Apfelstadt, 1984; Caldwell, 1995; Campbell &Scott-Kassner, 2009;
Hibbard, 1994; Langness, 1997; Liao, 2008; Mueller, 1993; Phillips, 1996; Rutkowski &Trollinger,
2005). For example, demonstrating a pitch level by a hand position and providing illustrations of
the melodic contour are suggested by many music educators to be the best strategies to reinforce
pitch perception.
The use of kinesthetic sensations to strengthen the motor pictures in memory seems to have a
strong impact on the cognition of melody (Apfelstadt, 1988; Campbell &Scott-Kassner, 2009;
Mueller, 1993; Shehan, 1987; Taylor, 1989). However, many music educators (Hibbard, 1994;
Liao, 2002; Liao & Davidson, 2007; Mead, 1994; Wis, 1993) have argued that using hand signs or
illustrating the pitch height by hand levels might not be sufficient for accurate singing. Hibbard
(1994), Liao (2008), Liao & Davidson (2007) and Wis (1993, 1999) investigated the effects of
linking gestures and tonal pattern, which had a positive effect for singing techniques, especially for
intonation. In other words, children singing through the assistance of their own gestures that were
designed for particular tonal patterns could lead to a better vocal outcome.
A clear and correct illustration of pitch to capture the motor task involved in creating the sound
is extremely crucial for singing, especially for beginners (Caldwell, 1995; Greenhead, personal
communication, November 10, 2002; McKinney, 1994). In vocal exercise sessions, if the singers
practice linking their voices and a gesture (a gesture designed to match a specific vocal pattern to
evoke the correct vocal sensations) through a specific movement pattern, it will form a motor
image and be stored in the memory as a schema (Shehan,1987; Taylor, 1989). Eventually, the sing-
ers will create a repertoire of such links with a variety of vocal patterns. It is believed that the
gesture and movement link helps to convert an overt physical activity to a vocal/pitch articulation
activity. Something experienced in the body, through a gesture or movement, is therefore stored in
memory and internalized so that it can be drawn upon at a later time, recalling the physical sensa-
tions without the individual actually having to make the gesture (Liao, 2008; Liao &Davidson,
2007; Hibbard, 1994; Wis, 1993).
The majority of gestures adopted for improving intonation are used to prevent flatness or sharp-
ness of pitch. The treatment is based on the principle of thinking up while singing descending and
thinking down while singing ascending (Hibbard, 1994; Ware, 1998). In order to establish the
correct physical sensation, the discipline of the higher the note, the more space, energy, and depth
needed and the lower the note, the less space, energy, and depth needed is suggested (McKinney,
1994). Liao (2008) found that gesture had a greater effect for repetition, ascending patterns and large
leaps. Sweeping and openingclosing arm gestures work especially well for high notes.
Eurhythmics experts Mead (1994) and Greenhead (personal communication, November 10,
2002) stressed the importance of motor image in music learning. They advocated that the stronger
and more carefully defined the motor images, the longer and more precisely they remain in the
memory. They suggested that movement training will deepen and strengthen the physical experi-
ence. Through movement training, every activity or exercise is designed to enhance the gesture
sensation; as a result, the singing gesture will be more effective. Eventually, voice quality is also
enhanced.
These positive effects of gesture on voice are acknowledged, and whilst the literature mentioned
herein indicates that the gesture may have a relationship to the conceptualization of pitch, it could
be that gesture helps students to relax and breathe more deeply. This possibility is certainly to be
considered in this study.
Liao and Davidson 7

Over the past 20 years, choral educators such as Chagnon (2001), Hibbard (1994), Liao (2008),
Liao & Davidson (2007) and Wis (1993) have summarized, categorized, and analyzed several
gestures and movement activities used by expert choral directors. Their studies have examined the
effectiveness of gesture and movement in choral singing, and their results now provide a more
systematic categorization of specific gestures used for specific vocal goals. However, research on
the specific focus of a movement-based approach in vocal exercise sessions and how these are used
in childrens choirs is very limited. It appears that no study exists which traces how children learn
gesture technique in developing their voice and singing skills. In addition, there has been little
systematic research in the area of vocal exercises using gesture as a specific kinesthetic strategy
technique. Therefore, the main purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of specific
gesture techniques and movement training for beginning childrens choirs to develop and improve
good intonation. Specifically: Do differences exist between three training techniques involving
gesture/movement on progression of childrens intonation?

Definitions
The following terms are operationally defined in order to clarify and avoid ambiguity in their use
in this study:

1. Gesture training: static movement on the spot using primarily upper body gesture, includ-
ing hands, arms, and knee bends. The main function of the gesture technique was to rein-
force motor images to promote vocal technique. However, the function of the gestures did
not show pitch levels.
2. Movement training: including movement activities and exercises by moving in space to
develop the sensation of pictures of sound, travelling through time, space, and energy, and
controlling ones body weight. The fundamental aim of movement training is to develop a
general awareness of the body in balance, coordination and control, alignment, and rooting
posture.

Method
Experimental design
A pretestposttest control-group study was designed to manipulate the independent variable of
training technique. Table 1 shows the groups and treatments for the experimental design. It would
not make sense to include a group with movement training but without gesture training because
movement training was designed for the purpose of enhancing gestural expression and supported
gesture training in this study. Therefore, it was a between-subjects design with one independent
variable Training Technique (TT) with three levels: no gesture or movement training (TT 1),

Table 1. Experimental design.

Procedures Pretest Treatments Posttest

Groups
Control Group 1 No gesture or movement training
Experimental Group 2 Only gesture training
Group 3 Gesture and movement training
8 International Journal of Music Education 34(1)

Table 2. Sample sizes by group.

Group Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

Treatment No gesture or Only gesture Gesture and
movement training training movement training
Total numbers of students 20 20 20
Number without pretest score 0 0 0
Number without posttest score 3 2 2
Number of subjects whose n = 17 n = 18 n = 18
data were used for this study

gesture training only (TT 2), and a combination of gesture and movement training (TT 3). According
to Liaos (2004) survey of Taiwanese choirs, choral directors identified intonation as a weaknesses
and the most difficult aspect of the young choristers art to correct.Therefore, one dependent vari-
able was measured: Intonation.

Participants
All children in primary school participate in choral singing, thus participants for the study were
recruited from their regular classes and formed into groups of 20 studentsthe size of a typical
smaller primary choir in Taiwan. Eight boys and 12 girls were selected for each group, reflecting
the gender split in the classes. In total, 60 fifth-grade children (1011 years old) from a primary
school in Taiwan first participated in this study. Other than by gender split, membership to a group
was randomly assigned and then these groups of children were subsequently randomly assigned to
one control (Group 1) and two experimental groups (Group 2 gesture only, and Group 3 gesture
and movement). Sample sizes by group are shown in Table 2. Seven students were eliminated from
the study as it progressed, leaving a total of 53 students. Eliminated students included those who
transferred to other schools or classes, or had voice change problems, or failed to complete all of
the testing. Note that all participated in the study following strict ethical procedures and with
appropriate permissions consistent with the University of Sheffields Code of Ethics, for this was
the institution through which the study was designed and carried out.

Approach to instruction/training
Each group received instruction twice a week, 40 minutes per lesson, every Tuesday and Friday
morning. This experiment was carried out for one semester and included testing times and 24
sessions of instruction (about 4 months in total). To prevent confounding variables as the result
of using different teachers to teach different techniques, all of the groups were taught by the
first author who is an experienced choral director, and gesture and movement teacher. The three
groups followed the same pace and activities, with only the warm-up training techniques vary-
ing: Group 1 using no gesture or movement, Group 2 using gesture only and then Group 3 using
both gesture and movement. A school music textbook was used for singing activities after the
vocal warm-up, and in this part of the session all groups received the same treatment (no ges-
ture and no movement). In order to avoid unintended bias into the treatments, every instruc-
tional session was video-recorded. The teacher and another experienced choral conductor
viewed each video-tape to further ensure the consistency of instruction and appropriate applica-
tion of the treatments.
Liao and Davidson 9

Table 3. Analysis of five test vocal patterns.

Vocal pattern Range Progression Vowel

ie
D to A Small jump
ia
F to A Leaps and small jump
ai
A to high E Descending
ia
C to high C Octave sliding
U
A to F Broken chord

Note: All the gesture descriptions are shown in the appendix.

A total of 20 vocal patterns were taught. Approximately one new vocal pattern and gesture were
introduced each session, with two or three other exercises and gestures being reviewed. The ges-
ture-designs used in the rehearsals were derived from the literature review and the first authors
private lessons with a Eurhythmics master. All the gesture designs for vocal patterns are shown in
the appendix. The main purposes of using gesture in other studies have been to improve vocal
technique and prevent vocal faults. Unlike previous studies, the movement activities in this study
were designed for three reasons: (1) to build up the body to be an effective instrument; (2) to sup-
port the gestures; and (3) to develop hand expression, all leading to improved intonation. The
contents of movement training included: balance, physical centeredness, grounding, posture and
alignment, moving through space, and controlling the whole weight of body movement. All the
movement training programs were based on Dalcroze Eurhythmics.

Measurements
Owing to a lack of uniformly recognized exercises for vocal warm-ups as well as no standardized
measures of vocal accuracy in such warm-ups, stimuli were constructed by the first author in order
to measure childrens performance on what they had been trained to do. The measurements con-
sisted of five vocal patterns which were used in rehearsalsthese patterns (see Table 3) were
selected for this study because they met the following criteria:

They appear commonly in vocal repertoire, though not necessarily systematically across all
choral groups.
Different kinds of melodic progression (descending, ascending, repeated, steps and leaps)
and ranges (from C to high F) are included as being typical of the patterns of song for this
age in general.
The levels of difficulty vary to explore the effect of difficulty on outcome of mode of learn-
ing choral vocal warm-ups. Vocal patterns 3, 4, and 5 are more difficult than 1 and 2.
Short length (38 seconds) and simple rhythms are used to avoid unnecessary memory
demands.
They had been studied very well across the 24 rehearsals sessions.

Two music professors were asked to rate the validity of these five patterns. Each individual was
tested on five vocal patterns for both pretest and posttest. In the formal test, the children were
10 International Journal of Music Education 34(1)

simply instructed to sing, irrespective of their training. No instructions were given for any of the
children to use gesture in the test conditions. However, the children were given a starting pitch
while testing.
A pre-recorded video was used as a teaching tool as it was considered appropriate to ensure that
the children received a consistent stimulus with which to work. The five vocal patterns were pre-
sented in a random sequence to control for ordering effects. These pre-recorded videos were
recorded by a digital video camera so that the quality was reliable. Directions recorded on the
stimulus tape were: Listen to the piano (played by Clavinova, notation was shown on the screen);
Sing (blue screen while singing). All the voices were recorded using a Panasonic digital video
camera. It is to be noted that all children found the task easy to follow, all being used to watching
and responding to TV.

Measurement procedure
Students were randomly selected to come to the testing room in groups of five. In other words, five
children were tested at the same session. Before the test began, students were guided through a
simple physical and vocal warm-up. The five vocal patterns were reviewed three times. The first
author chatted briefly with the children to help put them at ease, explained what they were going
to do, and encouraged them to sing as well as possible. Then, one child was left in the testing room
and the other four children were asked to stay in a separate room. Next, the child was instructed to
sing the vocal patterns individually by following the video directions.
Although a live presentation of the test materials may have been a more comfortable and friendly
method to appraise the children, it is not so easy to control the pace of each vocal pattern (the dura-
tion of the gap between vocal patterns) or the quality of a given reference sound. In addition, live
performances may have produced increased numbers of errors in the stimuli since the researcher
needed to undertake repetitions of the demonstrations. By using video such error or even presenta-
tional style variability was eliminated. Therefore, a pre-recorded video was considered appropriate
to ensure that the children received a consistent stimulus with which to work.

Assessment
Three experienced choral conductors were invited to assess the test results. The three raters were
asked to judge the childrens singing performances on a 9-point scale. Rutkowskis (1996) Singing
Voice Development Measurement (SVDM) is a well-known tool to measure childrens singing
voice development (Dansereau, 2005; Doneski, 2005; Guerrini, 2002; Jaffurs, 2000; Kim, 2000;
Steenwyk, 2004).The test uses a standard song and since vocal patterns were appraised in the cur-
rent study, the rating scale was adjusted by applying Rutkowskis (1996) SVDM and Junda and
Youngs (in Rutkowski & Runfola, 1997) vocal accuracy criteria. The adjusted scale from 1(low)
to 9(high) was based on the following criteria:

1. = This child does not sing, but chants the vocal pattern.
2. = This child does not follow the direction of the melody and uses speaking range or a very
high range.
3. = This child sings the direction of the tones but with incorrect intervals and uses a very
limited singing range.
4. = This child sings the direction of the tones but with few incorrect intervals and uses initial
singing range.
5. = This child sings correct intervals but starts on the wrong pitch.
Liao and Davidson 11

Figure 1. The steps of assessment procedures.

6. = This child sings correct intervals but uses initial singing range.
7. = This child sings correct patterns correctly but inconsistent in high pitch.
8. = This child sings varied melodies of steps and skips with accuracy.
9. = This child sings varied melodies of steps and skips with accuracy and exhibits use of
extended singing range.

In order to achieve a systematic evaluation, the assessment procedures were painstakingly con-
trolled undertaking the following steps (Figure 1):
The first author briefly introduced the rating criteria and details relevant to the assessment. The
raters opinions were then explored for revision of the criteria. Thereafter, a mutually agreed rating
scale was developed, ready for the evaluations. To establish this tool, practice trials were given to
the raters after each judgment, and each rater was asked to discuss his/her score. If their scores dif-
fered (e.g., if the scores given varied by 3 points or more between two raters), they explained their
reasons and negotiation led to a re-identification of rating criteria. This was supported by Slavin
(1992, p. 207), who stated:

Reliability in judgmental decisions can occur only if the criteria are clearly defined and spelled out and if
the judges have been systematically trained to employ specific criteria in evaluating the performance.

Fraenkel & Wallen (2006) indicated that the more practice trials undertaken by participants, the
higher the reliability of outcome in a test. Therefore, once the tool was established, 12 trials were
given for practice. Subsequently, the formal evaluation was undertaken separately.
According to Liao (2002, 2008), if the task given to the raters involved many assessment tasks
(the case of the vocal pattern in this study), lower reliability would be expected. She suggested that
consideration of the judges level of tiredness and boredom is essential for improving the assess-
ment reliability. In this case, in order to improve reliability, the pace for rating each piece of per-
formance was slow and provided enough time to rest.

Results
The judges were asked to rate the five vocal patterns (VP) performed by each child participant. A
series of Pearson correlations was undertaken to assess initially the degree of correlation between
the raters scores. Table 4 shows the analysis of inter-rater reliability on pretest and posttest for the
different vocal patterns. The results reveal that the scores of all the raters were significantly
12 International Journal of Music Education 34(1)

Table 4. Analysis of inter-rater reliability.

R1 vs. R2 R2 vs. R3 R1 vs. R3

Pretest
VP1 0.867** 0.914** 0.937**
VP2 0.886** 0.921** 0.926**
VP3 0.847** 0.947** 0.907**
VP4 0.726** 0.875** 0.853**
VP5 0.860** 0.939** 0.919**
Posttest
VP1 0.879** 0.933** 0.934**
VP2 0.832** 0.901** 0.912**
VP3 0.889** 0.932** 0.933**
VP4 0.878** 0.957** 0.901**
VP5 0.898** 0.970** 0.932**

Notes R = rater; **p < .01.

Table 5. Means and standard deviations for intonation improvement.

Vocal Pattern Group 1 (n = 17) Group 2 (n = 18) Group 3 (n = 18)

M SD M SD M SD
DVP1 1.37 1.20 1.85 1.19 2.20 1.34
DVP2 1.67 1.03 1.69 0.77 2.44 1.08
DVP3 1.73 0.80 2.06 1.09 2.74 1.44
DVP4 1.16 0.58 1.91 1.09 2.39 1.17
DVP5 0.59 1.08 1.83 1.70 2.65 1.33
Overall 1.30 1.04 1.87 1.20 2.49 1.28

Overall score = (VP1 + VP2 + VP3 + VP4 + VP5)/5.

DVP = means difference of pretest and posttest on particular vocal pattern.

correlated at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). In addition only the inter-rater reliability of Raters 1 and 2 on
VP4 (pretest) was below 0.8. Thus, together, all of the tests revealed high level of agreement
between the judges (Fraenkel &Wallen, 2000).
Table 5 presents the means and standard deviations for intonation between pre- and posttests.
Though simple descriptive statistics, the results suggest greatest improvement in performance pre
to post test for those students who had been trained with gesture and movement.
In order to compare how the children made progress in intonation among these three groups in
more detail, an analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) was carried out to compare the group effect
on five vocal patterns. The analyses revealed a significant effect for all vocal patterns: VP1 [F(2,156)
= 5.883, p < 0.01], VP2 [F(2,156) = 11.225, p < 0.001], VP3 [F(2,156) = 10.768, p < 0.001], VP4
[F(2,156) = 20.664, p < 0.001], VP5 [F(2,156) = 28.667, p < 0.001], and Overall [F(2,156) = 58.805, p <
0.001] (see Table 6). Therefore, there was difference between three training techniques involving
gesture/movement on childrens improvement in their intonation score.
The Scheffes method for post hoc analysis revealed that the intonation improvement of Group
3 was significantly higher than that of Group 1 on VP1(p < 0.01), VP2(p < 0.001), VP3(p < 0.001),
VP4(p < 0.001), VP5(p < 0.001) and Overall (p < 0.001). It also showed that the intonation
Liao and Davidson 13

Table 6. Summary table of ANOVA for intonation improvement scores on vocal patterns.

VP Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p

Between groups 18.215 2 9.108 5.883 .003**
VP1 Within groups 241.496 156 1.548
Total 259.711 158
Between groups 21.056 2 10.528 11.225 .000***
VP2 Within groups 146.315 156 .938
Total 167.371 158
Between groups 28.350 2 14.175 10.768 .000***
VP3 Within groups 205.361 156 1.316
Total 233.711 158
Between groups 40.300 2 20.150 20.664 .000***
VP4 Within groups 152.115 156 .975
Total 192.415 158
Between groups 112.524 2 56.262 28.667 .000***
VP5 Within groups 306.168 156 1.963
Total 418.692 158
Between groups 36.789 2 18.394 58.805 .000***
Overall Within groups 48.798 156 .313
Total 85.587 158

Note: *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

Figure 2. Mean scores of intonation improvement by different groups.

improvement of Group 3 was significantly higher than that of Group 2 on VP3(p < 0.01), VP4(p <
0.05), VP5(p < 0.05) and Overall (p < 0.001).Finally, the intonation improvement of Group 2 was
significantly higher than that of Group 1 on VP3(p < 0.01), VP4(p < 0.05), VP5 (p < 0.001) and
Overall (p < 0.001).
Figure 2 shows the mean scores of intonation improvement on each vocal pattern and overall by
different groups. It can be seen that Group 3 made greater improvement on vocal pattern 1 and 2
than Group 1. Group 2 made a greater improvement on vocal pattern 3, 4, 5 and so on overall
appraisals. However, Group 3 improved more than Group 1 and 2 did in every vocal pattern and in
the overall appraisal. In other words, the students who received both gesture and movement training
made greater improvements in intonation than those who did not. This supports the experimental
14 International Journal of Music Education 34(1)

expectation that children trained with gesture will reach a significantly higher intonation achieve-
ment that those trained without.
The children who received gesture training only (Group 2) made a greater progression for
more difficult vocal patterns (VP1, 2 and 3) than those who did not (Group 1). The figure also
shows that it was more difficult to the improvement on high vocal range (VP5) for the children
(Group 1) who received traditional approach. Finally, of the five vocal patterns in VP3 and VP5
that Group 3 made most progression. In other words, the more difficult the vocal pattern, the more
progression in rating those trained in both gesture and movement made. Therefore, it may be
inferred that gesture and movement aids children more in overcoming difficult vocal patterns than
easier ones. Group 3 made a dramatic progression in VP5 compared to other groups. This may
imply either the powerful effect of the gesture and movement training method or the particular
gesture (VP5: Openingclosing).

Discussion
The findings indicated that children who received gesture and movement training (Group 3)
achieved greater improvement in intonation in the performance of vocal patterns than the children
who had not received any gesture or movement training (Group 1). This is consistent with the lit-
erature (Chagnon, 2001; Hibbard, 1994; Liao, 2008; McCoy, 1986; Mueller, 1993; Wis, 1993),
indicating that physical experiences serving three learning modes (visual, aural, and kinesthetic)
have a greater effect in facilitating childrens vocal techniques. As mentioned earlier when apprais-
ing the literature, it may be that these learning modes aid relaxation rather more than any specific
conceptualization of pitch; however, the current study shows a clear impact on the capacity to sing
more accurately in tune when using gesture and movement.
The results showed no significant difference in intonation for vocal patterns 1 and 2 between the
children who had received gesture training only (Group 2), and those who had received gesture and
movement training (Group 3). Consistently, the results also showed no significant difference
between the children who had received gesture training only (Group 2), and those who had received
no gesture and movement training (Group 1) in intonation for vocal patterns1 and 2. The possible
reason for this could be that the vocal patterns were rather easy or the test did not discriminate suf-
ficiently in order to measure the differences in childrens intonation. According to results in some
studies (Chagnon, 2001; Greenhead, personal communication, 2000; Hibbard, 1994; Mead, 1994;
Taylor, 1989; Wis, 1993), the students in the Group 2 and Group 3 seemingly had been able to
internalize the kinesthetic experience and, perhaps as a result, no differences were found between
them as they were both able to draw on the motor sensations equally successfully in their singing.
The results indicated that childrens improvements differed in the five vocal patterns. The more
difficult the vocal patterns (VP3, VP4, and VP5), the greater the improvement the children made
between pre- and posttest measures. One possible explanation for this is that the more difficult
tasks need more concentration. The focus of the attention is critical in any kind of learning and any
learning stages (Caldwell, 1995). If children feel the vocal pattern is easy, they might make their
gesture and sing carelessly. Therefore perhaps the gesture is more effective if the task is more dif-
ficult for the children. This may be seen as evidence that gesture did have a positive effect in
enhancing intonation. By contrast, it might also imply that gesture is not always effective.
According to Liao & Davidson (2007), an effective gesture demands some prerequisites. For
example, a correct gestural direction, size, position, and time-space. If directors use gesture prop-
erly, gesture could be a very powerful technique in aiding childrens singing.
Three gestures used in this study (gathering for VP3, pushing for VP4 and openingclosing
for VP5) would seem to have a positive effect in facilitating childrens intonation. These two kinds
Liao and Davidson 15

of gestures were also similarly found to be effective in Hibbards (1994), Liaos (2008), and Liao &
Davidsons (2007) studies. It may be inferred that applying simple gestures such as gathering and
openingclosing of the arms may provide effective mental images and help children successfully
build up their tuning sense in melodic motions. It also means a simple open arm gesture did help
children to open their throats and get enough air and space for preparing to sing high tones (Chagnon,
2001; Hibbard, 1994; Liao, 2008; Liao & Davidson, 2007; Wis, 1993, 1999). It could be concluded
that gesture had a powerful effect for aiding children in singing difficult vocal patterns.

Conclusion
Through quantitative analyses, the results of the current study provide concrete support for the
assumption that children who received gesture and movement training will make greater progres-
sion on intonation tasks than those who do not. Gesture was found to aid general kinesthetic sensa-
tion, but it was the combination of gesture and movement training that would seem to be a more
powerful training technique.
The literature indicates that a clear and correct motor image of pitch can be crucial for aiding
good singing especially for beginners. Indeed, it may be very difficult to explain the complicated
vocal process and vocal mechanisms to children; thus non-verbal techniques can potentially pro-
vide a direct means for working with voice production. The results of this investigation provide the
most comprehensive evidence for the use of gestures and movement in improving intonation.
Looking back over the process of gesture design and work with the children, it is evident that the
teacher not only needs to possess the knowledge and experience of singing and movement, but also
needs to have good directing skills. Only through effective presentation will the gestures be mean-
ingful and have a positive effect on improving vocal skills.
According to empirical results and our own reflection on the practical work, music educators
should encourage students to be aware of the importance of physical experience and to include
gesture and movement activities in the music curriculum. It suggests that a specific technique of
gesture and movement training would be beneficial for singers, music educators, music teachers,
choral conductors, dancers, actors, and professional speakers.
Although the use of gesture and movement as a rehearsal strategy in choral training has been
comprehensively identified in recent years, there has been limited discussion of the techniques for
childrens choirs. This study has taken a step in the direction of defining some gestures for specific
vocal patterns that could be applied in song singing for children. Because this study represents
pioneering research, the gestures used in this study for children need to be further explored and
refined into a repertoire. As a small-scale design, replication is necessary in order to increase sam-
ple sizes and aim for better statistical effects.
Additionally, even though the measures were reliably used by the raters, the use of two scales
that measure two different constructs should be reconsidered and a single measure employed to
prevent potential confusion. Or, a replication of the measures as originally published could be
undertaken.
The possibilities for future research in this area are extensive. It could be possible to interview
and observe some choral directors who use gesture techniques in childrens choirs to understand
better how children use gesture and what kind of gestures are more appropriate in a specific con-
text. A further study might also look for a standard song to measure the expressive singing capacity
as well as intonation accuracy.
Overall, this study supports gesture and/or movement training as a technique to improve tuning
in warm-up singing. It could be that a combined gesture and movement training would offer a
powerful teaching strategy in choral rehearsals when working with children.
16 International Journal of Music Education 34(1)

Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit
sectors.

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Appendix. Gesture description of five test vocal patterns.

Vocal pattern Gesture Demonstration Gesture description

Circling 1.Both hands circling.
2.Slowly extending one arm
forward.

Circling 1. Ear side circling.

2.Extending one arm forward.

Gathering 1.Bending knees to a half

squat position with the
torso remaining upright.
2.Extending the arms to sides,
palms up.
3.As the pitches descend,
sweeping the hands inward
to the middle and then
lifting the arms to the chest
level (slowly extending the
legs to normal position).

Pushing 1.Fingers interlaced and palms

facing down placing in front
of chest when singing the
first note.
2.Pushing hands down and
bending knees when singing
the sliding octave.
3.Pulling hands up and
releasing the tension
gradually upwards then
singing the final note.
Opening 1.Bending knees, hands
closing drawing a circle to sides
when singing ascending.
2.Pulling hands inwards
towards the body when
singing descending.