Table 16-11 (continued)

Parameter AZwsjh = 0.9 Parameter AZm/h = 1.0

AZwf/h G* AZwf/h G*

0.59 1.3612 0.59

0.60 1.3857 0.60
0.61 1.4105 0.61
0.62 1.4357 0.62
0.63 1.4617 0.63
0.64 1.4885 0.64
0.65 1.5167 0.65
0.66 1.5463 0.66
0.67 1.5780 0.67
0.68 1.6120 0.68
0.69 1.6488 0.69
0.70 1.6889 0.70
0.71 1.7328 0.71
0.72 1.7811 0.72
0.73 1.8345 0.73
0.74 1.8936 0.74
0.75 1.9591 0.75
0.76 2.0318 0.76
0.77 2.1125 0.77
0.78 2.2021 0.78
0.79 2.3015 0.79
0.80 2.4118 0.80
0.81 2.5339 0.81
0.82 2.6690 0.82
0.83 2.8182 0.83
0.84 2.9827 0.84
0.85 3.1639 0.85
0.86 3.3631 0.86
0.87 3.5816 0.87
0.88 3.8211 0.88
0.89 4.0831 0.89
0.90 4.3691 0.90
0.91 4.6809 0.91
0.92 5.0202 0.92
0.93 5.3889 0.93
0.94 5.7890 0.94
0.95 6.2223 0.95
0.96 6.6911 0.96
0.97 7.1973 0.97
0.98 7.7434 0.98
0.99 8.3316 0.99
1.00 8.9443 1.00
 Table 16-12
Pressure - Time Data From Vertical
Interference Test

Time t (hr) Pressure response pws (psig)

1 3015
2 3020
3 3023
4 3030
5 3033
6 3038
7 3040
8 3043
10 3048
20 3050
30 3055
40 3060
50 3064
60 3066
70 3066
80 3067
90 3068
100 3070

The values of kmax, kmin and 6 are determined using Eqs. 1636 through
16-38. If the value of Jkxxkyy k\y calculated from the pressure match is not
the same for different tests, then heterogeneous analysis technique should be used.

16.13 Validity of Various Models and Steps Used

to Obtain Reservoir Description

Analysis Models Equations Used Validity of Models

A. Homogeneous isotropic Reservoir parameters are the same from
Eqs. 16-19 to 16-23
model different tests

Eqs. 16-21 to 16-23 Pressure match is the same for different

B. Homogeneous anisotropic 6-30, 16-36, tests. Permeability from single tests is
model 16-38 same from multiple-well tests
16-52-16-53

C. Heterogeneous Reasonable agreement between

2D model observed and calculated pressures
Eq. 16-44

D. Heterogeneous Reasonable agreement between

3D model Eq. 16-44 observed and calculated pressures

Figure 16-21. Most common models and criteria for their validity.
 16,14 Summary
This chapter discusses variations of heterogeneities in rock and fluid
properties including causes and effects of pressure-dependent properties. It
also presents how to analyze and interpret pressure behavior in hetero-
geneous reservoirs near fault or other barriers and lateral changes in the
hydraulic diffusivity such as occur at fluid contacts. Ref. 20 has presented a
method for analyzing pressure build ups in fissured limestone reservoirs,
which has proved to be quite useful. Pressure behavior analysis methods are
discussed in brief to obtain adequate reservoir descriptions for isotropic,
anisotropic, and heterogeneous systems including calculating fracture orien-
tation and estimating two-dimensional permeability with vertical interfer-
ence testing. Pressure transient tests can be used to obtain an adequate
reservoir description for isotropic, anisotropic, and heterogeneous reservoir
systems. Numerical solutions must be used to analyze pressure transient test
data from heterogeneous reservoir systems. If a criterion for validity of
model is not met, go to next stem. Figure 16-21 shows validity of proposed
analysis models.

References and Additional Reading

1. Vairogs, J., Hearn, C. L., Dareing, D. W., and Rhoades, V. W., "Effect
of Rock Stress on Gas Production from Low-Permeability Reservoirs,"
/. Pet. TechnoL (Sept. 1971), 1161-1167; Trans AIME 251.
2. Thomas, R. D., and Ward, D. C, "Effect of Overburden Pressure and
Water Saturation on the Gas Permeability of Tight Sandstone Cores,"
/. Pet. TechnoL (Feb. 1972), 120-124.
3. Vairogs, J., and Rhoades, V. W., "Pressure Transient Tests in Forma-
tions Having Stress-Sensitive Permeability," /. Pet. TechnoL (Aug.
1973), 965-970; Trans. AIME 255.
4. Raghavan, R., Scorer, J. D. T., and Miller, F. G., "An Investigation by
Numerical Methods of the Effect of Pressure Dependent Rock and
Fluid Properties on Well Flow Tests," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (June 1972),
267-275; Trans. AIME 253.
5. Ramey, H. J., Jr., "Non-Darcy Flow and Wellbore Storage Effects in
Pressure Buildup and Drawdown of Gas Wells," /. Pet. TechnoL (Feb.
1965), 223-233; Trans. AIME 234. Also Reprint Series, No. 9 - Pressure
Analysis Methods, Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, Dallas
(1967) 233-243.
6. Matthews, C. S., and Russell, D. G., Pressure Buildup and Flow Tests in
Wells. Monograph Series, Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME,
Dallas (1967).
 7. Horner, D. R., "Pressure Build-up in Wells," Proc; Third World Pet.
Cong; The Hague (1951) Sec II, 503-523. Also Reprint Series, No. 9 -
Pressure Analysis Methods, Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME,
Dallas (1967) 25-43.
8. Gray, K. E., "Approximating Well-to-Fault Distance From Pressure
Build-Up Tests," /. Pet. Technol. (July 1965), 761-767.
9. Davis, E. G., Jr., and Hawkins, M. F., Jr., "Linear Fluid-Barrier Detec-
tion by Well Pressure Measurements", /. Pet. Technol. (Oct. 1963),
1077-1079.
10. Bixel, H. C, Larkin, B. K., and Van Poollen, H. K., "Effect of Linear
Discontinuities on Pressure Build-Up and Drawdown Behavior," /. Pet.
Technol. (Aug. 1965), 885-895; Trans. AIME 228.
11. Russell, D. G., "Determination of Formation Characteristics From Two
Rate Flow Tests," /. Pet. Technol. (Dec. 1963), 1347-1355; Trans.
AIME 228. Also Reprint Series, No. 9 - Pressure Analysis Methods,
Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, Dallas (1967) 136-144.
12. Pirson, R. S., and Pirson, S. J., "An Extension of the Pollard Analysis
Method of Well Pressure Build-Up and Drawdown Tests," paper SPE
101 presented at the SPE-AIME 36th Annual Fall Meeting, Dallas,
Oct. 8-11, 1961.
13. Kamal, M., and Brigham, W. E., "The Effect of Linear Pressure Trends
on Interference Tests," /. Pet. Technol. (Nov. 1975), 1383-1384.
14. Elkins, L. F., and Skov, A. M., "Determination of Fracture Orientation
From Pressure Interference," Trans AIME (1960) 219, 301-304. Also
Reprint Series, No. 9 - Pressure Analysis Methods, Society of Petroleum
Engineers of AIME, Dallas (1967) 97-100.
15. Ramey, H. J., Jr., "Interference Analysis for Anisotropic Formations - A
Case History," J. Pet. Technol. (Oct. 1975), 1290-1298; Trans. AIME 259.
16. Brigham, W. E., "Planning and Analysis of Pulse Tests," /. Pet. Technol.
(May 1970), 618-624; Trans AIME 249.
17. Chavent, C, Dupuy, M., and Lemonier, P., "History Matching by Use
of Optimal Control Theory," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (Feb. 1975), 74-86; Trans.
AIME 259.
18. Chen, W. H., Gavalas, G. R., and Seinfelds, J. H., "A New Algorithm
for Automatic History Matching," Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (Dec. 1974),
593-608; Trans. AIME 257.
19. Prats, M., "A Method for Determining the Net Vertical Permeability
Near a Well From In-Situ-Measurements," /. Pet. Technol. (May 1970),
637-643; Trans. AIME 249.
20. Pollard, P. (1959) Evaluation of Acid Treatments from Pressure Build-
up Analysis, Trans. AIME 216, 38^3.
21. Weller, W. H. C, and van Poollen, H. K., "Reservoir Performance
During Two-Phase Flow," /. Pet Technol. (Feb. 1966), 240-247.
22. Jahns, H. O., "A Rapid Method for Obtaining a Two-Dimensional
Reservoir Description From Well Pressure Response Data," Soc. Pet.
Eng. J. (Dec. 1966), 315-327.
23. Hirasaki, G. J., "Pulse Tests and Other Early Transient Pressure
Analyses for In-Situ Estimation of Vertical Permeability," Soc. Pet.
Eng. J. (Feb. 1974), 75-90; Trans. AIME 257.
24. Falade, G. K., and Brigham, W. E., "The Dynamics of Vertical Pulse
Testing in a Slab Reservoir," paper SPE 5055A presented at the SPE-
AIME 49th Annual Fall Meeting, Houston, Oct. 6-9, 1974.
25. Falade, G. K., and Brigham, W. E., "The Analysis of Single-Well Pulse
Tests in a Finite-Acting Slab Reservoir," paper SPE 5055B presented at
the SPE-AIME 49th Annual Fall Meeting, Houston, Oct. 6-9, 1974.
26. Amanat, U. C, "Pressure Transient Test Analysis, User's Handbook,"
Advanced TWPSOM Petroleum Systems Inc; Houston, Texas, VoI 8
(1995).
 Appendix A
Conversion Factors
Between Unit Systems

Table A-I
Permeability Conversions

To convert from To Multiply by Inverse

mD Darcy 1.000000E-03 1.000000E+03

mD meter2 (m2) 9.86923E-16 1.01325E+15
mD centimeter2 (cm2) 9.86923E-12 1.01325E+11
mD micrometer2 (/im2) 9.86923E-04 1.01325E+03
(cm3/s)cP
mD cm 2 (atm/cm) 1.00000E-03 1.00000E-+O3
(cm3/s)cP
mD cm [(dyne/cm2 )/cm -
2
9.86923E 10 LO1325E-fO9
(ft3/s)cP
mD ft2(psi/ft) 7.32441E-08 1.36530E+07
(ft3/s)cP
mD 2 2.92585E+10
cm [(cm water)/cm- 3.41780E-11
(B/D)cP
mD 1.12712E-03 8.87217E+02
ft2(psi/ft)
(gal/min)cP
mD 1.42515E-05 7.01681Ef04
ft2[(ft water)/ft]
mD ft2 1.06232E-14 9.41340E+13

Table A - 2
Temperature Conversions

F C R K

Degree Fahrenheit 1.000 ( 0 F - 32)/1.8 0

F + 459.67 ( 0 F + 459.67)/1.8
( 0 F)
Degree Celsius (0C) 1.8(C) + 32 1.000 1.8(C) + 491.67 C + 273.15
Degree Rankine ( 0 R) 0 R - 459.67 ( 0 R - 491.67)/1.8 1.000 R/1.8
Kelvin (K) 1.8(K) - 459.67 K-273.15 1.8(K) 1.000
 Table A-3
Volume Conversion Multiplication Factors

in3 ft3 cm3 m3

Cubic inches (in3) 1.0 5.787035 x 10~4 1.638706 x 10 1.638706 x 10"5

Cubic feet (ft3) 1.728 x 103
1.0 2.831685 x 104 2.831685 x 10~2
2 5
Cubic centimeters 6.102376 x 10~ 3.531466 x 10" 1.0 1.000 x 10"6
(cm3)
Cubic meters (m3) 6.102376 x 104 3.531466 x 10 1.000 x 106 1.0

Table A-4
Density Conversion Multiplication Factors
gm/cm3 lb/ft3 kg/1 kg/m3

gm/cm3 1.0 6.242797 x 10 1.0 1.000 x 103

lb/ft3 1.601846 x 10- 2 1.0 1.601846 x 10~2 1.601846 x 10
kg/1 1.0 6.242797 x 10 1.0 1.000 x 103
kg/m 3 1.000 x 10~3 6.242797 x 10"2 1.0 x 10"3 1.0

Table A-5
Rate of Flow Conversion Multiplication Factors

ft3/min US gal/day bbl/day m3/s

ft3/min 1.0 1.077195 x 104 2.564749 x 102 4.719474 x 10~4

US gal/day 9.283374 x 10~5 1.0 2.380952 x 10~2 4.381264 x 10~8
bbl/day 3.899017 x 10~3 42.0 1.0 1.840131 x 10" 6
3
m /s 2.11888 x 103 2.282477 x 107 5.434396 x 105
1.0

Table A - 6
Mass Conversion Multiplication Factors

Ounces Pounds Metric ton Kilograms

(avoir) (oz) (avoir) (Ib) (t) (tonne) (kg)

Ounces 1.0 6.25 x 10~2 2.834952 x 10~5 2.834952 x 10~2

Pounds 16.0 1.0 4.535924 x 10~4 4.535924 x 10"1
Metric ton 3.527397 x 104 2.204622 x 103 1.0 1.000 x 103
Kilograms 3.527397 x 10 2.204622 1.000 x 10~3 1.0
 Table A-7
Velocity Conversion Multiplication Factors

ft/s ft/min ft/h m/s

ft/s 1.0 60.0 3600.0 3.04800OxIO- 1

ft/min 1.666666 x 10~2 1.0 60.0 5.080000 x 10"1
ft/h 2.777777 x 10~4 1.666666 x 10~2 1.0 8.466667 x 10~5
m/s 3.28084 1.968504 x 102 1.181102 x l O 4 1.0

Table A - 8
Viscosity (Absolute) Conversion Multiplication Factors

Pascal second
cP poise g/(cms) lb(fts) (Pas)

Centipoise 1.0 1.00 x 10~2 6.719689 x 10~4 1.000000 x 10" 3

poiseg/(cms) 100.0 1.0 6.719689XIO-2LOOOXIO-1
3
lb/(fts) 1.488164 x l O 1.488164x10 1.0 1.488164
Pascal second 1.000 x 103 10.0 6.719689 x 10"1 1.0
(Pas)

Table A - 9
Kinematic Viscosity: Absolute Viscosity in Mass Units Divided
by Mass Density Conversion Factors

gm/cm3 lb/ft3 kg/1 kg/m 3

gm/cm 3 1.0 6.242797 x 10 1.0 1.000 x 103

lb/ft3 1.601846 x 10"2 1.0 1.601846 x 10"2 1.601846 x 10
kg/1 1.0 6.242797 x 10 1.0 1.000 x 103
kg/m 3 1.000 x 10"3 6.242797 x 10"2 1.0 x 10~3 1.0

Table A - 1 0
Land Measurement Conversion Multiplication Factors

gm/cm3 lb/ft3 kg/1 kg/m 3

gm/cm 3 1.0 6.242797 x 10 1.0 1.000 x 103

lb/ft3 1.601846 x 10- 2 1.0 1.601846 x 10~2 1.601846 x 10
kg/1 1.0 6.242797 x 10 1.0 1.000 x 103
kg/m 3 1.000 x 10~3 6.242797 x 10~2 1.0 x 10"3 1.0
1 League = 3 miles, 1 square mile = 640 acres, 1 township == 36 square miles, 1 section = 1 square
mile, 1 rod =16.5 feet.
 Table A-Il
Length Conversion Multiplication Factors

Centimeter Kilometer
Inches (in) Feet (ft) Yards (yd) Miles (mi) (cm) Meter (m) (km)

Inches (in) 1.0 8.333333 x 10~2 2.777778 x IO'2 1.578282 x 10-5 2.540 2.540 x 10-2 2.540 x Kr5
Feet (ft) 12.0 1.0 3.333333 x IO"1 1.893939 x IO-4 30.480 3.048 x 10-1 3.048 x 10~4
Yards (yd) 36.0 3.0 1.0 5.681818 x 10~4 91.44 9.144 x 10-1 9.144 x 10~4
Miles (mi) 6.336003 x 104 5.280 x 103 1.760 x 103 1.0 1.609344 x 105 1.609344 x 103 2.609344
Centimeter (cm) 3.937008 x 10-1 3.28084 x 10~2 1.093613 x 10~2 6.213712 x 10~6 1.0 1.000 x 10-2 1.000 x 10~5
Meter (m) 39.37008 3.28084 1.093613 6.213712 x 10~4 100.0 1.0 1.000 x 10~3
Kilometer (km) 39.37008 x 103 3.28084 x 103 1.093613 x 103 6.213712 x 10-1 1.000 x 105 1.000 x 103 1.0
 Table A-12
Area Conversion Multiplication Factors

in2 ft2 mi2 cm2 m2 km2

Square inches (in2) 1.0 6.944444 x 10~3 2.490977 x IO"10 6.451600 6.451600 x 10~4 6.451600 x 10-10
Square feet (ft2) 1.44Ox 102 1.0 3.587007 x 10"8
9.290304 x 102
9.290304 x 10~2 9.290304 x 10~8
Square miles (mi2) 4.014489 x 109 2.787840 x 107 1.0 2.589988 x 1010 2.589988 x 106 2.589988
Square centimeters (cm2) 1.55Ox IO"1 1.076391 x 10~3 3.861022 x 10"11 1.0 1.000 x 10~4 1.000 x 10-10
Square meters (m2) 1.55Ox IO 3 10.763910 3.861022 x 10~7
1.000 x 104
1.0 1.000 x 10~6
Square kilometers (km2) 1.55Ox IO9 1.076391 x 107 3.861022 x 10"1 1.000 x 10
10
1.000 x 106 1.0

1 Acre = 43,560ft 2 , 1 darcy = 100OmD, lmD = 9.86x 10-16m2 = 9.86 x IQ- 12 Cm 2 = 1.127 x 10~3 (B/D)cP/ft2(psi/ft).