MODULE-1 BATTERIES & FUEL CELLS

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Battery:
It is a compact device consisting of two or more galvanic cells connected in series or parallel or
both. It stores chemical energy in the form of active materials and on demand converts it into
electrical energy through redox reactions.
Batteries are used in calculators, digital watches, pace makers, hearing aids, portable computers,
electronically controlled cameras, digital watches, stand by power supplies, emergency lighting and
electroplating, telecommunication, military & space applications.

PRINCIPAL COMPONENT OF A BATTRY:

1. An anode where oxidation
2. A cathode where reduction occurs
3. An electrolyte , which is ironically conducting
4. A separator to separate anode and cathode compartments.

CLASSIFICATION OF BATTERIES
Batteries are classified into three types as follows.
a) Primary
b) Secondary
c) Reserve batteries.

a) Primary Batteries: These are the batteries which serve as a source of energy only as long as the
active chemical species are present in the battery or in the cell. The cell reactions are irreversible.
These are designed for only single discharge and cannot be charged again.
Ex: Dry Cell, Zn HgO cell, Zn-air cell etc.

b) Secondary Batteries: These batteries are chargeable and can be used again and again. The cell
reactions are reversible and are often called reversible batteries. During discharging the cell acts like
galvanic cell converting chemical energy into electrical energy. During charging the cell acts like
electrolytic cell by converting electric energy into chemical energy, hence these batteries are called as
storage battery.
Ex: Lead acid Battery, Ni-Cd battery etc.

c) Reserve Batteries: The key components of the batteries such as electrolyte etc., is separated
from the rest of the component of the battery. And the battery is stored for a longer time. The
electrolyte is filled before its usage.
Ex: Mg water activated batteries, Zn-Ag2O Batteries etc.

Operation of a battery during discharging and charging:

Discharge: During discharge, oxidation takes place at the anode and reduction takes place at the
cathode. The reaction is a spontaneous reaction. Chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.
The reactions occurring during discharge are
M an ne anode
Ma
M cnY n ne
M c nY cathode
active species
in cathodecompartment
At anode: electrons are released to the external circuit.
At cathode: electrons from the external circuit are consumed.

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Charging: During charging, reverse reactions take place. The reverse reactions are non-spontaneous
reactions. The battery is connected to an external d.c. power supply. Electrical energy is converted in
to chemical energy.
Example: The reverse of the above reactions occur during charging.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A BATTERY:
1. Voltage: The voltage of a battery mainly depends upon the emf of the cells which constitute the
battery system. The emf of the cell depends on the free energy changes in the overall cell reaction.
As given by Nernst equation,
G nFE
E E0
2.303RT M
nF
2.303RT

log

M n
E E0 log Q
nF
where E 0 cell E 0 cathode E 0 anode and Q is the reaction quotient Q
product
reactant
Where Ecell =Ecathode- Eanode, and Q is the reaction quotient for the cell reaction at any stage of the
reaction. As it is evident from the above equation, is dependent on
a) Higher the standard electrode potential difference between the cathode and anode, higher is the
emf of the cell and the voltage available from the battery
b) As the temperature increases, emf of the cell decreases.
c) Emf of the cell decreases as the Q increases

2. Current: Current is a measure of the rate at which the battery is discharging. Higher the rate of
spontaneous reaction, higher is the current. Higher the surface area of the electrodes, higher is the
rate of reaction. Current is measured in A.

3. Capacity: Capacity is a measure of the amount of electricity that could be obtained from the fully
charged battery. It is expressed in Ah (ampere hours). It is proportional to the amount of charge in
Coulombs that may be transported from anode to cathode through the external circuit. The charge
(C) in Coulombs is given by the Faradays relation:
wnF
C
M
Where, C is Capacity of battery (in Ah)
W is Weight of the active material
n is number of electrons involved in discharge reaction
F is Faradays constant, 96500 C/mol
M is Molar mass.

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4. Electricity storage density: It is the amount of electricity stored in the battery per unit weight of
the battery. i.e. it is the capacity per unit weight. It can be expressed in Coulombs/kg or in Ah/kg.
The weight includes the weight of all components of the battery (i.e. total weight of active
material, electrolyte, terminals etc.)

5. Energy efficiency: The energy efficiency of a rechargeable battery is given by

Energy released during dischargin g 100
% Energy efficiency
Energy consumed during charging
It holds good only for secondary battery.

6. Cycle Life: Primary batteries are designed for single discharge and secondary batteries can be
chargeable again and again.
The number of charge and discharge cycles that are possible in secondary batteries, before
failure occurs is called cycle life.
The cycle life of batteries must be high for secondary batteries.

7. Shelf life: The duration of storage battery under specified conditions at the end of which a cell or
a battery retains its ability performance lelvel is called shelf life. A good battery should have more
shelf life.

Zn-air cell (Primary battery, non rechargeable)

Zinc air battery is a modern and metal air battery. It uses oxygen from the atmosphere and it does not
contribute to the weight of the battery so these batteries offer high energy density.

Construction:
In zinc-air cell, granulated powder of zinc mixed with the electrolyte (KOH) acts as anode material.
Cathode is a carbon-catalyst mixture. The anode can and cathode can act as terminals. The anode
material is separated from the cathode material by an electrolyte absorbent separator. 5M KOH is used
as the electrolyte.
Anode: granulated zinc powder
Cathode: carbon MnO2catalyst mixture
Electrolyte: 5M KOH
Separator: Polypropylene.

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Cell gives a voltage of 1.4V, Energy density 100Wh/Kg.

Zn KOH C , air
Cell representation:

When air passed through the cell, zinc is oxidized to ZnO at the anode, during discharge.
Cell reactions:
At anode : Zn + 2OH- ZnO + H2O + 2e-
At cathode : 1/2 O2 + H2O +2e- 2OH-
Over all reaction Zn + 1/2 O2 ZnO
Uses: Used in Military & radio receivers
Used as a power source in hearing aids.
Used in electronic pagers & various medical devices such as nerve & muscle simulator.
Used in drug impulsion equipment.

Li-MnO2 cell: (primary battery, non rechargeable)

Li-MnO2 is a primary battery and produces a voltage of about 3V, Energy density 230Wh/Kg.
Lithium has the following advantages:
1. It is light.
2. It has a good electrical conductivity.
3. It has low standard electrode potential (Eo = -3.05V) .
Construction:
1. The anode is made of lithium metal.
2. The cathode is made of MnO2.
3. A solution of lithium halide in organic solvent acts as the electrolyte.
4. The anode and cathode are separated by a polypropylene separator.
[Lithium halides: LiCl, LiBr, LiAlCl4
Organic solvents: Propylene carbonate and 1, 2 Dimethoxyethane]

Cell representation : Li Lithium halide in organic solvents MnO 2

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Cell reactions:

At anode : Li Li+ + e-
At cathode : MnO2 + Li+ + e- LiMnO2
Over all reaction: Li + MnO2 LiMnO2
+
Mn (IV) reduced to Mn( III) & Li enters crystal lattice of MnO2

Uses:
Used as memory back up equipments.
Used in watches, calculators, toys, cameras etc.
Used in safety & security devices

LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES

The lithium ion batteries are rechargeable battery best suited to mobile devices that requires small size,
light weight and high performance.
In lithium-ion batteries, lithium compounds are used as anode. These batteries are known as re-
chargeable batteries. Therefore, Lithium ion batteries are considered as best than pure Lithium based
batteries. It works on the principal of Intercalation mechanism.

CONSTRUCTION:

1. Li-ion cell has a four-layer structure.

2. Anode: Lithium intercalated graphite/carbon (specialty carbon)
3. Cathode : lithium metal oxide compound such as LiyNiO2 , LiyCoO2 and LiyMnO2
4. Anode current collector -copper foil
5. Cathode current collector- aluminum foil
6. Separator : Polypropylene
7. An electrolyte made with lithium salt [LiPF6] in an organic solvent [propylene carbonate or 1,2
dimethoxyethane]..
8. Lithium ion secondary battery depends on an "intercalation" mechanism.

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Cell reactions :

During discharge Li ions are dissociated from the anode and migrate across the electrolyte and are
inserted into the crystal structure of the host compound of cathode.
During charging, lithium in positive electrode material is ionized and moves from layer to layer and
inserted into the negative electrode.
At the same time the compensating electrons travel in the external circuit and are accepted by the host
to balance the reaction.
Advantages
1. They have high energy density than other rechargeable batteries
2. They are less weight
3. They produce high voltage out about 4 V as compared with other batteries.
4. They have improved safety, i.e. more resistance to overcharge
5. No liquid electrolyte means they are immune from leaking.
6. Fast charge and discharge rate

Applications:
1. The Li-ion batteries are used in cameras, calculators.
2. They are used in cardiac pacemakers and other implantable device
3. They are used in telecommunication equipment, instruments, portable radios and TVs, pagers
4. They are used to operate laptop computers and mobile phones and aerospace application.
Nickel-metal hydride battery
[Alkaline storage battery & Secondary battery]
Construction:
1. In these batteries, electrodes are made of porous nickel foil or nickel grid, into which the active
material is packed.
2. Anode: The active material for the anode is a mixture of a metal hydride (such as TiH 2, VH2, or
ZrH2) with a hydrogen storage alloy ( such as LaNi5 or TiNi ).
3. Cathode: The active material for cathode is nickel oxy hydroxide, NiO(OH).
4. Electrolyte: An aqueous solution of KOH acts as the electrolyte.
5. Separator: Polypropylene

Cell representation : MH/KOH(5M) /NiO(OH)/Ni(OH)2

The battery produces 1.25 to 1.35V per cell.

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Contact spring
Cell cap

Sealing washer
separator

Anode

Separator

Cathode

Cell can

Cell reactions:
At anode : MH + OH- M + H2O + e-
At cathode : NiO(OH) + H2O + e- Ni(OH)2 + OH-
Over all reaction: MH + NiO(OH) M + Ni(OH)2
Uses: Used in cellular phones, camcorders and laptop computers.

Fuel cells:
Fuel cells is defined as a
Galvanic cells in which chemical energy of a fuel directly converted into electrical energy.

Basic component of fuel cell:

1. Fuel cells consist of electrodes and electrolytes.
2. Catalyst used is embedded in the electrodes.
3. Gaskets are used to prevent the leakage of gases between the electrodes.

Reactions:
At anode: Fuel Oxidised product + ne-
At cathode: Oxidant + ne- Reduced product

Fuel cells are represented as: Fuel /anode/electrolyte/cathode/oxidant

Difference between a battery and a fuel cell:

BATTERIES FUEL CELLS

Batteries are energy storage devices Fuel cells are energy conversion devices.
Secondary batteries are rechargeable Fuel cells are not chargeble.
The reactants and products form an integral In fuel cells, continous movement of fuel,
part of batteries. oxidant, and reaction product in and out of cells.

Advantages:
1. High power efficiency approximately 75%.
2. No need of charging.

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3. Produces direct current for a long time.
4. No moving parts. Hence wear and tear is eliminated.
5. Harmful products are absent. Hence fuel cells are ecofriendly.

Limitations:
1. Electrodes and electrolytes are expensive.
2. Storage of fuel and oxidant.
3. Gives DC output and should be converted to AC.

Methanol Oxygen fuel cell

It is an electroconductive organic fuel cell .

CO2

CH3OH + O2
H2SO4
Cathode
Anode
Membrane

H2SO4 (electrolyte)

Excess Oxygen and

water
CO2

Construction:
1. It consists of anode and cathode made of platinum.
2. Sulphuric acid acts as the electrolyte.
3. A membrane is inserted adjacent to the cathode on the electrolyte side to minimize the diffusion
of methanol into the cathode.
4. Methanol H2SO4 mixture is circulated through the anode chamber.
5. Pure oxygen is passed through the cathode chamber.

Cell reactions:
At anode : CH3OH + H2O CO2 + 6H+ + 6e-
At cathode : 11/2 O2 + 6H+ + 6e- 3H2O
Over all reaction: CH3OH + 11/2 O2 CO2 + 2H2O
Uses: It is used in large-scale power production.
Used in space vehicles, military & mobile power systems.

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Questions:

1. What is battery? Explain the classification of battery.

2. Explain the following battery characteristics:

i. voltage, ii. Current , iii. Capacity, iv. Electricity storage density, v. Energy efficiency ,
vi. Cycle life vii. Shelf life

3. Explain the construction, working & applications of ZINC-AIR battery

4. Explain the construction, working & applications of Li-MnO2 cell

5. Explain the construction, working & applications of Li-Ion battery

6. Explain the construction, working & applications of Ni-MH battery

7. What is a fuel cell? How is it different from the conventional batteries

8. Explain the construction, working & applications of METHANOL-OXYGEN fuel cell

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