First Semester Assignment for B.

Tech (All Branches), 2017

Mathematics - I (Code: MA01)
Department of Mathematics
NIT Durgapur

FUNCTIONS OF SINGLE VARIABLE

Expansion of Functions

Extreme Value Theorem (EVT) If a real-valued function f (x) is continuous in

the closed and bounded interval [a, b], then f (x) must attain a maximum and a
minimum, each at least once. That is, there exist numbers c and d in [a, b] such that
f (c) ≥ f (x) ≥ f (d) for all x ∈ [a, b].

7 )
Theorem on Local Extrema If f (c) is a local extremum, then either f (x) is not
1
20
differentiable at c or f ′ (c) = 0. That is, at a local max or min f either has no tangent,
or f (x) has a horizontal tangent there.
(
if : [a, b] → R is differentiable on (a, b)
Rolle’s Theorem Let a < b and suppose
c h
and continuous on [a, b], and f (a) = fg(b). Then there exists a c ∈ (a, b) such that
′
B a f has a horizontal tangent somewhere
f (c) = 0. That is, under these hypotheses,
between a and b. S
Proof We seek a c in (a, b) with f ′ (c) = 0. That is, we wish to show that f has a
horizontal tangent somewhere between a and b.
Since f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b], the Extreme Value Theorem says
that f has a maximum value f (M ) and a minimum value f (m) on the closed interval
[a, b]. Either f (M ) = f (m) or f (M ) 6= f (m).
Case 1. We suppose the maximum value f (M ) = f (m), the minimum value. So all
values of f on [a, b] are equal, and f is constant on [a, b]. Then f ′ (x) = 0 for all x in
(a, b). So one may take c to be anything in (a, b); for example, c = a+b 2
would suffice.
Case 2. Now we suppose f (M ) 6= f (m). So at least one of f (M ) and f (m) is not
equal to the value f (a) = f (b).
Case 2.a We first consider the case where the maximum value f (M ) 6= f (a) = f (b).
So M is neither a nor b. But M is in [a, b] and not at the end points. So M must
be in the open interval (a, b). We have the maximum value f (M ) ≥ f (x) for all x
in the closed interval [a, b] which contains the open interval (a, b). So we also have
f (M ) ≥ f (x) for every x in the open interval (a, b), Since M is also in the open
interval (a, b), this means by definition that f (M ) is a local maximum.
Since M is in the open interval (a, b), by hypothesis we have that f is differentiable at
M . Now by the Theorem on Local Extrema, we have that f has a horizontal tangent

1
at m; that is, we have that f (M ) = 0. So we take c = M , and we are done with this
case.
Case 2.b We now consider the case where the minimum value f (m) 6= f (a) = f (b).
(This case is very similar to the previous case.)
So m is neither a nor b. But m is in [a, b] and not at the endpoints. So m must be
in the open interval (a, b). We have the minimum value f (m) ≤ f (x) for all x in
the closed interval [a, b] which contains the open interval (a, b). Thus f (m) ≤ f (x)
for every x in the open interval (a, b), Since m is also in the open interval (a, b), this
means by definition that f (m) is a local minimum.
Since m is in the open interval (a, b), by hypothesis we have that f is differentiable at
m. Now by the Theorem on Local Extrema, we have that f has a horizontal tangent
at m; that is, we have that f ′ (m) = 0. So we take c = m, and we are done with this
case.
This completes the proof.
Langrange’s Mean Value Theorem “MVT” Suppose f : [a, b] → R is differen-
7 )
such that f ′ (c) = f (b)−f (a)
0 1
tiable on (a, b), and continuous on [a, b] where a < b. Then there exists a c ∈ (a, b)
b−a
.
( 2
Proof The equation of the secant through i(a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) is

g ch (x − a)
a
y − f (a) =
B
f (b)−f (a)
(b−a)

which we can rewrite as S

f (b)−f (a)
y= (b−a)
(x − a) + f (a).

Let
h i
f (b)−f (a)
g(x) = f (x) − (b−a)
(x − a) + f (a)

Note that g(a) = g(b) = 0. Also, g is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b)
since f is. So by Rolle’s Theorem there exists c in (a, b) such that g ′ (c) = 0.
f (b)−f (a) f (b)−f (a)
But g ′ (x) = f ′ (x) − b−a
, so g ′ (c) = f ′ (c) − b−a
= 0.
f (b)−f (a)
Therefore, f ′ (c) = b−a
and the proof is complete.
Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem Let f, g : [a, b] → R be continuous and differen-
tiable on (a, b). Then there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that
f ′ (c)(g(b) − g(a)) = g ′ (c)(f (b) − f (a)).

Proof Hint: Define h(x) = f (x) − rg(x), where r is fixed in such a way that
h(a) = h(b), namely
f (b) − f (a)
r= .
g(b) − g(a)

2
Then use Rolle’s Theorem on h(x).
Generalization for determinants: Assume that f (x), g(x), and h(x) are differen-
tiable functions on (a, b) that are continuous on [a, b]. Define

f (x) g(x) h(x)

D(x) = f (a) g(a) h(a)
f (b) g(b) h(b)

There exists c ∈ (a, b) such that D′ (c) = 0. Notice that

f ′ (x) g ′ (x) h′ (x)

D′ (x) = f (a) g(a) h(a)
f (b) g(b) h(b)

and if we place h(x) = 1, we get Cauchy’s mean value theorem. If we place h(x) = 1
and g(x) = x we get Lagrange’s mean value theorem.
The proof of the generalization is quite simple: Each of D(a) and D(b) are determi-
7 )
nants with two identical rows, hence D(a) = D(b) = 0. The Rolle’s theorem implies
1
20
that there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that D′ (c) = 0.
(
Taylor Polynomial for f (x) about a: Suppose f (x) and its derivatives f ′ (x),
i
by the formula. g ch
f ′′ (x), . . . , f (n) (x) exist at a. We define the nth Taylor polynomial for f (x) about a

a
SB
Tn (x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) + f ′′ (a)
(x − a)2
2!
+ · · · + f (n) (a)
(x − a)n
n!
i.e. n
X (x − a)k
Tn (x) = f (k) (a) ,
k=0
n!

where f (0) (x) = f (x) and f (k) (x) denote the k th derivative of f (x).
Taylor’s Theorem Let n ∈ N, let I := [a, b], and let f (x) : I → R be such that f
and its derivatives f ′ (x), f ′′ (x), . . . , f (n) (x) are continuous on I and f (n+1) (x) exists
on (a, b). If x0 ∈ I, then for any x ∈ I there exists a point c between x and x0 such
that
′′
′ f (x0 ) f (n) (x0 ) f (n+1) (c)
f (x) = f (x0 )+f (x0 )(x−x0 )+ (x−x0 )2 +· · ·+ (x−x0 )n + (x−x0 )n+1 .
2! n! (n + 1)!

i.e. f (x) = Tn (x) + Rn (x). This is the Lagrange form of the remainder.
For the special case x0 = 0 the Taylor Theorem becomes
′′
′ f (0) 2 f (n) (0) n f (n+1) (c) n+1
f (x) = f (0) + f (0)x + x + ··· + x + x .
2! n! (n + 1)!

This is given the special name Maclaurin’s Theorem.

3
Example: Use Taylor’s Theorem to prove that 1 − 12 x2 ≤ cos x for all x ∈ R.

Use f (x) := cos x and x0 = 0 in Taylor’s Theorem, to obtain

1
cos x = 1 − x2 + R2 (x),
2

where for some c between 0 and x we have

′′′
f (c) 3 sin c 3
R2 (x) = x = x.
3! 6
if 0 ≤ x ≤ π, then 0 ≤ c < π; since c and x3 are both positive, we have R2 (x) ≥ 0.
Also, if −π ≤ x ≤ 0, then −π ≤ c ≤ 0; since sin c and x3 are both negative, we
again have R2 (x) ≥ 0.Therefore, we see that 1 − 12 x2 ≤ cos x for | x |≤ π. If | x |≥ π,
then we have 1 − 21 x2 < −3 ≤ cos x and the inequality is trivially valid. Hence, the
inequality holds for all x ∈ R.
7 )
Example: For any k ∈ N, and for all x > 0, we have
1
1 1 1 ( 201
i
x − x2 + · · · − x2k < ln(1 + x) < x − x2 + · · · + x2k+1 .
2 2k 2
g ch 2k + 1

a
SB
1
Using the fact that the derivative of ln(1 + x) is (1+x)
for x > 0, we see that the nth
Taylor polynomial for ln(1 + x) with x0 = 0 is

1 1
Pn (x) = x − x2 + · · · + (−1)n−1 xn
2 n
and the remainder is given by

(−1)n cn+1 n+1

Rn (x) = x
n+1
for some c satisfying 0 < c < x. Thus for any x > 0, if n = 2k is even, then we
have R2k (x) > 0; and if n = 2k + 1 is odd, then we have R2k+1 (x) < 0. The stated
inequality then follows immediately.
√
Example: Use Talyor’s Theorem with n = 2 to approximate 3 1 + x, x > −1.
We take the function f (x) := (1 + x)1/3 , the point x0 = 0, and n = 2. Since
f (x) = 31 (1+x)−2/3 , and f (x) = 13 ( −2 )(1+x)−5/3 , we have f (0) = 31 and f (0) = − 29 .
′ ′′ ′ ′′
3
Thus we obtain
1 1
f (x) = P2 (x) + R2 (x) = 1 + x − x2 + R2 (x),
3 9
1 ′′′ 5
where R2 (x) = 3!
f (c)x3 = 81
(1 + c)−8/3 x3 for some point c between 0 and x.

4
 √
For example, if we let x = 0.3, we get the approximation P2 (0.3) = 1.09 for 3 1.3.
Moreover, since c > 0 in this case, then (1 + c)−8/3 < 1 and so the error is at most

5 3 3 1
R2 (0.3) ≤ ( ) = < 0.17 ∗ (10)−2 .
81 10 600
√
Hence, we have | 3
1.3 − 1.09 |< 0.5 ∗ 10−2 , so that two decimal place accuracy is
assured.
Example: Prove that the equation x7 + x5 + x3 + 1 = 0 has exactly one real solution.
You should use Rolle’s Theorem at some point in the proof.
Let y = y(x) = x7 + x5 + x3 + 1. y(0) = 1, y(−1) = −2. By EVT, there exists at least
one real root in x ∈ (−1, 0) such that y(x) = 0. Now I claim that there is EXACTLY
one such real root, by using the method of contradiction.
Suppose not, there exists at least 2 real roots x1 , x2 such that y(x1 ) = 0, y(x2 ) = 0.
Since y is differentiable, by Rolle’s theorem, there exists a number a ∈ (x1 , x2 ) such
that y ′ (a) = 0. However, y ′ (x) = 7x6 + 5x4 + 3x2 > 0 for all x 6= 0.
7 )
1
Problem Set
( 20
i
ch
1. Use Rolle’s theorem to prove that the equation 5x3 − 2x2 + x − 6 = 0 can not
g
have more than one real root.
a
SB
2. Prove that the equation x13 + 7x3 − 5 = 0 has exactly one real root.

3. If f is differentiable on an interval I, and f ′ (x) = 0 for all x ∈ I, then prove

that f is constant on I.

4. If f and g are differentiable on an interval I, f ′ (x) = g ′ (x) for all x ∈ I, then

prove that there exists a constant C ∈ R such that f (x) = g(x) + C for all
x ∈ I.

5. Suppose f is differentiable on an interval I. If f ′ (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ I, then

prove that f is monotone increasing on I.

6. In each of the following, give an example of a function that fits the given con-
ditions and for which the conclusion of Rolle’s theorem does not hold:

(a) f is continuous on [a, b], and f (a) = f (b).

(b) f is differentiable on (a, b) and f (a) = f (b).
(c) f is differentiable on (a, b) and continuous on [a, b].

7. Verify Rolle’s theorem of (i) f (x) = cos x in [− π2 , π2 ],

(ii) f (x) = |x|, 1 ≤ x ≤ 1.

8. Find the 4th Taylor polynomial of the function f (x) = sin x about 0.

5
 9. Find the 4th Taylor polynomial of f (x) = 3 + 5x2 − 4x3 + x4 about 0.

10. Find the 4th Taylor polynomial of f (x) = 3 + 5x2 − 4x3 + x4 about 1.

11. Find the 4th Taylor polynomial of the function f (x) = ex about 0.
√ 1 1
12. Use Mean Value Theorem to show that 3 28 lies between 3 + 28 and 3 + 27
.

13. Use Taylor’s Theorem to prove that for all x > 0,

x2 x3 x x2 x3 x
1+x+ + <e <1+x+ + e .
2! 3! 2! 3!

14. If f (x) and g(x) are differentiable functions for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 such that f (0) = 5,
g(0) = 1, f (1) = 8 and g(1) = 2, then show that there exists c satisfying
0 < c < 1 and f ′ (c) = 3g ′ (c).

15. Find the Maclaurin’s expansion of the following functions:

(i) tan x (ii) esin x (iii) sin−1 x.
7 )
2
16. Expand 5x + 7x + 3 in power of (x − 2).
0 1
( 2
17. Let f and g be functions, continuous ion [a, b], differentiable on (a, b) and let

g c
f (a) = f (b) = 0. Prove that there his a point c ∈ (a, b) such that g (c)f (c) +
′
′
f (c) = 0. a Hint: Let h(x) = e .f (x) g(x)

S Bshow that
18. Using Mean Value Theorem,
x−1
(a) x
< log x < x − 1 for x > 1.
x
(b) e ≥ 1 + x for x ∈ R.
x2
(c) 1 − 2!
< cos x, for x 6= 0.
x3
(d) x − 3!
< sin x, for x > 0.
(e) x > sin x for 0 < x < π2 .
x
(f) 1+x
< log(1 + x) < x for all x > 0.

19. (Using the MVT) Prove that | sin x − sin y| ≤ |x − y| for all x, y ∈ R. Conse-
quently, ∀x ∈ R, | sin x| ≤ |x|.

20. Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Suppose
that f (a) = a and f (b) = b. Show that there is c ∈ (a, b) such that f ′ (c) = 1.
Further, show that there are distinct c1 , c2 ∈ (a, b) such that f ′ (c1 ) + f ′ (c2 ) = 2.

*******

6
 Radius of Curvature

Measure of Bending Suppose the tangents at two adjacent points P and Q on a

curve make angle ψ and ψ + ∆ψ with OX. Suppose, further, arcAP = s, arcAQ =
s + ∆s so that arcP Q = ∆s, A being a fixed point on the curve from which arcs are
measured. We then construct the followings:

1. The tangent ∆ψ through which the tangent turns as the point of contact travels
from one end to the other of the arcP Q is called the total curvature of the
arcP Q.
∆ψ
2. The mean or average curvature of the arc P Q is defined as the ratio ∆s
.
3. The curvature (k) at a point P of the curve is defined as the limiting value of
mean curvature when the arc ∆s → 0; that is
∆ψ dψ
Curvature (k) at P = lim = .

7 ) ∆s→0 ∆s ds

0
4. Suppose that k 6= 0. Take a quantity ρ such that 1 ρ= = . 1 ds

( 2so that the circle and the curve Γ

k dψ

h
Now construct a circle of radius ρ and centre
have the same tangent at P . The circlecis
idrawn in such a way that it lies on the
C

a
same side of the tangent as the curve. gThis circle has the same curvature as the given
S Bthe circle of curvature at P ; its centre C is the
curve at P . We call this circle as
centre of the curvature for the curve at P ; its radius CP (= ρ), normal to the curve,
is the radius of curvature of the curve at P .
Formula for the radius of curvature:

1. Cartesian equation y = f (x):

3
(1 + y12 ) 2 dy d2 y
ρ= , where y1 = and y2 = 2 .
y2 dx dx
dy
Proof In rectangular cartesian coordinates, we have tan ψ = dx
= y1 .
d2 y d2 y
Differentiating with respect to s, we get sec2 ψ dψ
ds
= dx
dx2 ds
= dx2
cos ψ.
3 3
ds sec3 ψ (1+tan2 ψ) 2 (1+y12 ) 2
or dψ
= y2
= y2
= y2
3
(1+y12 ) 2
or ∴ ρ = y2

2. Parametric equation x = φ(t), y = ψ(t):

3
(x′2 + y ′2 ) 2 ′ dx ′ dy ′′ d2 x ′′ d2 y
ρ = ′ ′′ , where x = , y = and x = , y = ,
x y − y ′ x′′ dt dt dt2 dt2
provided x′ y ′′ − y ′ x′′ 6= 0.

7
 3. Polar equation r = f (θ):
3
(r2 + r12 ) 2 dr d2 r
ρ= 2 , where r 1 = and r 2 = .
r + 2r12 − rr2 dθ dθ2

Problem Set

1. Show that the radius of curvature at a point of the curve x = aeθ (sin θ −
cos θ), y = aeθ (sin θ + cos θ) is twice the distance of the tangent at that point
from the origin.

2. Show that for the cycloid x = a(θ − sin θ), y = a(1 − cos θ), the radius of
curvature at any point is twice the portion of the normal intercepted between
the curvature and the axis of x.

3. Show that the curvature

√ at the point (r, θ) on the cardiode r = a(1 − cos θ)
varies inversely as r.

7 )
1
4. Show that the radius of curvature of a logarithmic spiral r = aeθ cot α is propor-
tional to the radius vector.
( 20
5. For the catenary y = c cosh find thei radius of curvature at any point (x, y).
h
x

Also show that the length of thecnormal at (x, y) to the curve intercepted
g
c

B aequal to the radius of curvature.

between the curve and x-axis is

S the curve x = a(sinh t cosh t + t), y = a cosh t

6. The normal at P(x, y) of 3
2
3

meets the x-axis at G. Prove that the radius of curvature ρ = 3P G.

7. If ρ1 , ρ2 be the radii of curvature at the extremities of any chord of the cardiode

r = a(1 + cos θ), which passes through the pole, then prove that ρ21 + ρ22 = 16 9
a2 .

8. If ρ, ρ′ be the radii of curvature at the end of two conjugate diameters of an

2 2 2
ellipse, prove that (ρ 3 + ρ′ 3 )(ab) 3 = a2 + b2 .

9. The tangents at two points P and Q on the cycloid x = a(θ − sin θ), y =
a(1 − cos θ) are at right angles. Show that if ρ1 and ρ2 be the radii of curvature
at the points, then ρ21 + ρ22 = 16a2 .

10. Show that the radius of curvature ρ at any point of the cycloid s2 = 8ay is given
y 21
by ρ = 4a(1 − 2a ) .
2 2 2
11. Prove that the radius of curvature at any point (x, y) of the curve x 3 + y 3 = a 3
is three times the length of the perpendicular from the origin to the tangent at
(x, y).

12. Find the radius of curvature at the point ( 3a

2
, 3a
2
) on the curve x3 + y 3 = 3axy.

*******

8
 Asymptotes

Asymptote Parallel to y-axis The line x = a is a vertical asymptote to a curve

y = f (x) if |f (x)| → ∞ when either x → a− or x → a+ or x → a.
Asymptote Parallel to x-axis The line y = b is a vertical asymptote to a curve
x = φ(y) if |φ(y)| → ∞ when either y → b− or y → b+ or y → b.
Slant or Oblique asymptote If an infinite branch of a curve possesses an asymptote
y = mx + c (m and c being finite), then m = lim|x|→∞ xy ; c = lim|x|→∞ (y − mx) and
conversely.
Rule 1:
Consider the general equation of the curve is
a0 xn y k + a1 xn−1 y k+1 + a2 xn−2 y k+2 + a3 xn−1 y k + a4 xn y k−1 + a5 xn−2 y k+1 + a6 xn−1 y k−1 +
· · · + K = 0.
I. To find the asymptotes parallel to x-axis, equate to zero the coefficient of the highest
power of x in the equation, provided this is not merely a constant.

7 )
II. To find the asymptotes parallel to y-axis, equate to zero the coefficient of the
1
20
highest power of y in the equation, provided this is not merely a constant.

i (
III. Let f (x, y) = 0 be the equation of any rational algebraic curve of the nth degree.
ch
Arranging this equation in groups of homogeneous terms in x and y, we get
g
a
(a0 xn + a1 xn−1 y + a2 xn−2 y 2 + · · · + an y n ) + (b0 xn−1 + b1 xn−2 y + b2 xn−2 y 2 + · · · +

SB
bn−1 y n−1 ) + (c0 xn−2 + c1 xn−3 y + c2 xn−4 y 2 + · · · + cn−2 y n−2 ) + (d0 xn−3 + d1 xn−4 y +
d2 xn−5 y 2 + · · · + dn−3 y n−3 ) + · · · + K = 0.
Let φn (x, y) = a0 xn + a1 xn−1 y + a2 xn−2 y 2 + · · · + an y n ,
φn−1 (x, y) = b0 xn−1 + b1 xn−2 y + b2 xn−2 y 2 + · · · + bn y n ,
φn−2 (x, y) = c0 xn−2 + c1 xn−3 y + c2 xn−4 y 2 + · · · + cn−2 y n−2 ,
φn−3 (x, y) = d0 xn−3 + d1 xn−4 y + d2 xn−5 y 2 + · · · + dn−3 y n−3 , and so
on.
Putting x = 1 and y = m, we get
φn (m) = a0 + a1 m + a2 m2 + · · · + an mn ,
φn−1 (m) = b0 + b1 m + b2 m2 + · · · + bn−1 mn ,
φn−2 (m) = c0 + c1 m + c2 m2 + · · · + cn−2 mn−2 ,
φn−3 (m) = d0 + d1 m + d2 m2 + · · · + dn−3 mn−3 , and so on.
Find values of m from the equation φn (m) = 0 ⇒ a0 + a1 m + a2 m2 + · · · + an mn = 0.
Let the solutions are m1 , m2 , . . . mk .
CASE-I: If φn (m) has no repeated root, then φ′n (m) 6= 0.
Hence, in that case, ci = − φφn−1 (mi )
′ (m )
i
=⇒ ci φ′n (mi ) + φn−1 (mi ) = 0.
n
Then the asymptotes are y = mi x + ci .
CASE-II: If φ′n (mi ) = 0, that is, φn (m) has a repeated root at mi , and if φn−1 (mi ) 6= 0,
then there is no asymptote corresponding to the value mi .
CASE-III: If φ′n (mi ) = φn−1 (mi ) = 0, for some value of mi , then the value of ci is

9
determined from:

c2 ′′ c
φn (mi ) + φ′n−1 (mi ) + φn−2 (mi ) = 0.
2! 1!
Similarly, if φ′′n (mi ) = φ′n−1 (mi ) = φn−2 (mi ) = 0, then the value of c is determined
from:

c3 ′′′ c2 c
φn (mi ) + φ′′n−1 (mi ) + φ′n−2 (mi ) + φn−3 (mi ) = 0.
3! 2! 1!

Example: Find the asymptotes of the curve

2x3 − x2 y − 2xy 2 + y 3 − 4x2 + 8xy − 4x + 1 = 0.

Solution: The given equation is 2x3 − x2 y − 2xy 2 + y 3 − 4x2 + 8xy − 4x + 1 = 0.

7 )
Here φ3 (x, y) = 2x3 − x2 y − 2xy 2 + y 3 , φ2 (x, y) = −4x2 + 8xy, and φ1 (x, y) = −4x.
Putting x = 1 and y = m, we get φ (m) = 2 − m −0 1 + m and φ (m) = −4 + 8m.
2
2 3
2m
′
Therefore φ (m) = −1 − 4m + 3m .
3
i ( 2
3 2

c h
g = 0. So m = 2, m = 1, m = −1
Now φ (m) = 0 =⇒ 2 − m − 2m +am 2 3

=− B
3 1 2 3

For m = 2, c = −
1 1
S
φ2 (m2 )
φ′3 (m2 )
= −4.−4+8.2
3.22 −4.2−1

Similarly, for m = 1 gives c = 2 and m = −1 gives c = 2.

2 2 3 3

Therefore the asymptotes are y = 2x − 4, y = x + 2, and y = −x + 2. 

Rule 2:
If θ → α as r → ∞ and if f (θ) sin(θ − α) → p then the line r sin(θ − α) = p is an
asymptote to the curve r = f (θ) and conversely.
Example: Find the asymptotes of the curve rθ cos θ = a cos 2θ.
a cos 2θ
Solution: We have rθ cos θ = a cos 2θ or, r = θ cos θ
= f (θ) (say).
When r → ∞ then θ → 0 or cos θ = 0 or θ = (2n + 1) π2 , n being integer.
When θ = 0 then
a cos 2θ
p = lim f (θ) sin(θ − 0) = lim sin θ = a.
θ→0 θ→0 θ cos θ

Therefore the asymptote is r sin(θ − 0) = a or r sin θ = a.

When θ = (2n + 1) π2 then asymptotes are r cos θ + 2a
(2n+1)π
= 0, n being integer. 

10
Problem Set

1. Find the asymptotes of the curve y 3 + x2 y + 2xy 2 + y + 1 = 0.

2. Find the asymptotes of the curve x3 + 2x2 y + xy 2 − x2 − xy − 2 = 0.

3. Find the asymptotes of the curve 3x3 −2x2 y−4xy 2 +y 3 +3x2 +4xy−7x+10 = 0.

4. Find the asymptotes of the curve (x2 + y 2 )x − ay 2 = 0.

5. Show that the asymptotes of the curve x2 y 2 − a2 (x2 + y 2 ) = 0 form a square of

side 2a.

6. Find the asymptotes of the curve x4 − 5x2 y 2 + 4y 4 + x2 − y 2 + x + y + 1 = 0.

a
7. Find the asymptotes of the curve r = sin θ
. Ans: sin(θ − nπ) = ±a
aθ
8. Verify that r sin(1 − θ) = −a is the asymptote of r = θ−1
.

7 )
9. Verify that r cos θ ± b = a are asymptotes of the curve r = a sec θ + b tan θ.
1
20
10. Find the asymptotes of the curve (2r − 3) sin θ = 5.
(
11. Find the asymptotes of the curve y (x i − a ) = x (x − 4a ).
ch
2 2 2 2 2 2

Ans: x = ±a, y = ±x
a g
12. Find the asymptotes of the B 3 2 2
curve y − xy − x y + x + x − y − 1 = 0. 3 2 2

S
Ans: y + x = 0, y = x, y = x + 1

13. Find the asymptotes of the curve y 2 (x − 2a) = x3 − a3 .

Ans: x = 2a, x ± y + a = 0

(x + y)2 (x + 2y) + 2(x + y)2 − (x + 9y) − 2 = 0.

14. Find the asymptotes of the curve √
Ans: x + 2y + 2 = 0, y + x = ±2 2

15. Find the asymptotes of the curve y(y − x)2 (y − 2x) + 3x2 (y − x) − 2x2 = 0.
3x 1
16. Find the asymptotes of the curve y = 2
log(e − 3x
).

17. Find the asymptotes of the curve y = a log sec( xa ). Ans: x = (2nπ ± π2 )a.

3x 1
Problem No 16: Find the asymptotes of the curve y = 2
log(e − 3x
).
1
Solution: The function is defined and continuous when x < 0 and when x − 3e
> 0.
Since the function is continuous at every point of the domain of definition, vertical
1
asymptotes can exist only at the end points x = 0 and x = 3e .
Vertical asymptotes

3x 1 1 log(e + t) 1
(i) lim y = lim log(e − ) = − lim = 0. [when t = − ]
x→0− x→0− 2 3x 2 t→+∞ t 3x

11
∴ x = 0 is not a vertical asymptote.
(ii)
3 1
lim y= lim x log(e − ) = −∞.
1
x→ 3e + 2 x→ 3e +
1 3x
1
∴ the line x = 3e
is a vertical asymptote.
Oblique asymptote

y 3 1 3
m = lim = lim log(e − ) = .
|x|→∞ x 2 |x|→∞ 3x 2
and
1
3x 1 3x 3 log(1 − 3xe
) 1
c = lim (y − mx) = lim { log(e − ) − } = lim { 1 }=− .
|x|→∞ |x|→∞ 2 3x 2 2 |x|→∞ x
2e

∴ the line y = 32 x − 1
2e
is an oblique asymptote of this curve.
7 )
Thus the curve has a vertical asymptote x =
0
1
3e 1
and an oblique asymptote y = 32 x− 2e
1
.

( 2
Problem No 17: Find the asymptotes of the icurve y = a log sec( ).
chnot parallel to y-axis.
x
a

Solution: To find the asymptote whichgare

Let y = mx + c be an asymptote B
a
where m = lim and c = lim y
|x|→∞ (y − mx).

∴ m = lim|x|→∞ y
S
= lim|x|→∞
a log sec( x
a
)
(∞
|x|→∞ x

form) = lim|x|→∞
d
dx
a log sec( x
d
a
)
x x ∞ x
dx
= lim|x|→∞ tan( xa ) = does not exist.
∴ there is no oblique asymptotes.
To find, if there be any asymptote parallel to y-axis, when |y| → ∞, then |a log sec( xa )| →
∞ or sec( xa ) → ∞ or xa → 2nπ ± π2 , n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .
x
∴ the required asymptotes are a
= 2nπ ± π2 , or x = (2nπ ± π2 )a, where n =
0, ±1, ±2, . . . .
To find, if there be any asymptotes parallel to x-axis.
y
We have, e a = sec( xa ). From this relation we see that there is no finite y such that
x → ∞.
Therefore, there is no asymptotes parallel to x-axis.
Problem No 15: (Using different method) Find the asymptotes of the curve y(y −
x)2 (y − 2x) + 3x2 (y − x) − 2x2 = 0.
Solution: The possible asymptotes are (i) one parallel to y = 0, (ii) two parallel to
y − x = 0, (iii) one parallel to y − 2x = 0.
Asymptote Parallel to y = 0, we have y(y − x)2 (y − 2x) + 3x2 (y − x) − 2x2 = 0.

12
Equating the coefficients of highest available power of x to 0, we get −(2y + 3) = 0
or 2y = −3.
Asymptote Parallel to y − x = 0,

3x2 −2x2
(y − x)2 + lim + lim = 0.
y=x
x→∞
y(y − 2x) x→∞
y=x y(y − 2x)

or (y − x − 2)(y − x − 1) = 0 or y − x − 2 = 0 and y − x − 1 = 0.
Asymptote Parallel to y − 2x = 0,

3x2 −2x2
(y − 2x) + lim + lim = 0.
y=2x y(y − x) y=2x y(y − x)2
x→∞ x→∞

or 2y − 4x + 3 = 0.
Hence the asymptotes are 2y = −3, y − x − 2 = 0, y − x − 1 = 0 and 2y − 4x + 3 = 0.

*******
7 )
1
( 20
i
Concavity, Convexity and Point of Inflection

g ch
a
Definition We call a function f (x) convex on interval I if, for all a, b ∈ I, a < b, and

SB
each x ∈ (a, b),
f (b) − f (a)
f (x) < (x − a) + f (a).
b−a
Definition We call a function f (x) concave on interval I if, for all a, b ∈ I, a < b,
and each x ∈ (a, b),
f (b) − f (a)
f (x) > (x − a) + f (a).
b−a
Definition We say that A = [a, f (a)] is an inflection point of the graph of f , if

• point a is an interior point of the domain of f , (i. e. for some δ > 0, (a − δ, a +

δ) ⊂ D(f ));

• function f has at a its first derivative f ′ (a);

• on one of the intervals (a − δ, a), (a, a + δ) the function f is convex and on the
other of them it is concave.

Using the second derivative to determine convexity and concavity

Theorem Let f (x) has its second derivative f ′′ (x) on interval (a, b) ⊂ D(f ). Then
one of the following statements holds:

• if f ′′ (x) > 0 at each x ∈ (a, b), then f is convex on (a, b);

13
 • if f ′′ (x) < 0 at each x ∈ (a, b), then f is concave on (a, b);
• if f ′′ (c) = 0 for some c ∈ (a, b), then f is Point of inflection at c: concavity
switches to convexity (or vice versa).

Example: Identify convexity, concavity intervals and inflection points of the function
x3 x2 1
f (x) = − − 2x + .
3 2 3

Solution: f ′ (x) = x2 − x − 2, f ′′ (x) = 2x − 1.

f ′′ (x) = 0 =⇒ x0 = 21 is the inflection point.
f ′′ (x) > 0 =⇒ 2x − 1 > 0, x > 21 .
f ′′ (x) < 0 =⇒ x < 21 .
Answer: f is concave on (−∞, 12 ) and convex for ( 21 , ∞), x = 1
2
is the inflection point.

Problem Set
7 )
0 1 points of the function f (x) =
2
1. Find convexity, concavity intervals and inflection
(
x − sin x.
i
2. Show that the function f is convexcifhand only if the function −f is concave.
a g
S B
3. Determine the concavity/convexity 1 2
of f (x) = − x + 8x − 3.
3
3 2
4. Find numbers a and b such that the graph of the function f (x) = ax + bx
passes through (−1, 1) and has an inflection point at x = 21 . Ans. a = − 25 ,
b = 53
5. Find a, b and c such that the graph of the function f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + 2
passes through (−1, 1) and (2, 2) and has an inflection point at x = 1. Ans.
1 1 1
a = 6, b = −2, c = 3

*******

FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Functions, Limit and Continuity

Definition 1: A function f (x, y) is said to tend to the limit l as x → a and y → b

if and only if the limit l is independent of the path followed by the point (x, y) as
x → a and y → b, and we write

lim f (x, y) = l.
(x,y)→(a,b)

14
Definition 2: A function f (x, y) is said to tend to the limit l as x → a and y → b
if and only if corresponding to the positive number ǫ therep exists another positive
number δ = δ(ǫ) such that |f (x, y) − l| < ǫ, whenever 0 < (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 < δ.
Definition 3: If a function f (x, y) has distinct limits as (x, y) approaches a point
(a, b) along two distinct paths, the limit lim(x,y)→(a,b) f (x, y) does not exist.
Definition 4: A function f (x, y) is said to be continuous at the point (a, b) if (i)
lim(x,y)→(a,b) f (x, y) exists and is equal to l, say, and (ii) f (a, b) = l.

Problem Set

1. Show that
x2 − y 2
lim xy = 0.
(x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y 2

2. Show that lim(x,y)→(0,0) f (x, y) does not exist for

( 2
x y
if x4 + y 2 6= 0, 7 )
f (x, y) = x4 +y 2
1
0
20
if x = y = 0.
(
i
3. Show that the function f (x, y) defined by
g ch
a
SB
( 2 −y 2
xy xx2 +y 2 when (x, y) 6= (0, 0),
f (x, y) =
0 when (x, y) = (0, 0)

is continuous at the origin.

4. Show that the following function is continuous at the origin.

( 3 3
x y
2 +y 2 (x, y) 6= (0, 0)
f (x, y) = x
0 (x, y) = (0, 0).

2 2
5. Given that f (x, y) = xx2 +y
−y 2 2
2 , where, x + y 6= 0, is it possible to assign a value

for f (0, 0) such that f (x, y) is continuous at (0, 0)? Why?

Example: Show that the function

√ xy
(
if (x, y) 6= (0, 0),
f (x, y) = x2 +y 2
0 if (x, y) = (0, 0)

is continuous at the origin.

Solution: Let x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ.

ǫ2 ǫ2
∴ | √ xy
p
2
− 0| = |r cos θ sin θ| ≤ r = x2 + y 2 < ǫ, if x2 < 2
and y 2 < 2
.
x +y 2

15
 Thus | √ xy
p
− 0| < ǫ whenever 0 < x2 + y 2 < ǫ.
2 x +y 2

So for any δ > 0 there exists an ǫ = δ suchpthat

| √ xy
2 2
− 0| < ǫ whenever 0 < x2 + y 2 < δ.
x +y

xy
∴ lim p = 0.
(x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y 2
Hence, f (x, y) is continuous at (0, 0).
Example: Show that the function f (x, y) defined by
( 2 2
xy xx2 −y 2 when (x, y) 6= (0, 0),
f (x, y) = +y
0 when (x, y) = (0, 0)

is continuous at the origin.

Solution: Let x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ.
2 −y 2
∴ |xy xx2 +y 2 2 2 2 2
2 | = r | cos θ sin θ cos 2θ| < r = x + y < ǫ, if x <
ǫ
and y 2 < 2ǫ .
√ 7 ) 2
2 −y 2
∴ |xy xx2 +y 1
p
x2 + y 2 < ǫ
20
2 − 0| < ǫ whenever 0 <

(
ǫ = δ isuch that
ch+ y < δ.
2
So for any δ > 0 there exists an p
|xyx2 −y 2
− 0| < ǫ whenever 0 < x
x2 +y 2
a g 2 2

B
S ∴ lim f (x, y) = 0.
(x,y)→(0,0)

Hence, f (x, y) is continuous at (0, 0).

*******

Partial Differentiations

Problem Set

∂u ∂u x2 −y 2
1. Find ∂x
and ∂y
when u = tan−1 x2 +y 2
.
√ ∂2U ∂2U
2. If U = xy, find the value of ∂x2
+ ∂y 2
.

3. If xx y y z z = k, where x and y are independent variable, show that zxy =

−(x log(ex))−1 , at x = y = z.
r2 1 ∂
4. If θ = tn e− 4t , find the value of n for which r 2 ∂r
(r2 ∂θ
∂r
) = ∂θ
∂t
.
3
5. If u = log(x3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3xyz) show that (i) ux + uy + uz = x+y+z
(ii) uxx +
3 ∂ ∂ ∂ 2 9
uyy + uzz = − (x+y+z) 2 (iii) ( ∂x + ∂y + ∂z ) u = − (x+y+z)2 .

16
 ∂2z ∂ z 2
6. If z = f (x + ay) + φ(x − ay) show that ∂y 2
= a2 ∂x 2.

7. State and prove Euler’s theorem (Case of two variables).

8. Verify Euler’s theorem for the function u = f (x, y) = ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 .

r
1 1
−1 x 3 +y 3 2 ∂2u ∂2u 2 ∂2u tan u 2
9. Let u = sin 1 1 , show that x ∂x2 + 2xy ∂x∂y + y ∂y 2 = 144 (13 + tan u).
x 2 +y 2

2 2 2
10. If u = xφ( xy ) + yψ( xy ), prove that x2 ∂∂xu2 + 2xy ∂x∂y
∂ u
+ y 2 ∂∂yu2 = 0.
∂2u ∂ u 2 ∂2u
11. If u = x φ(x + y) + y ψ(x + y) prove that ∂x2
− 2 ∂x∂y + ∂y 2
= 0.
3 3
12. If f (x, y) = tan−1 xx−y+y
, using Euler’s theorem, show that x2 fxx + 2xyfxy +
y 2 fyy = (2 cos 2f − 1) sin 2f.
x3 +y 3
13. If u = tan−1 x−y
, prove that xux + yuy = sin 2u.

14. If u = f (x2 +2yz, y 2 +2xz), prove that (y 2 −zx) ∂u +(x2 −yz) ∂u

7 )
+(z 2 −xy) ∂u = 0.
∂x ∂y
1 ∂z

1
15. If u = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2 , prove that uxx + uyy + uzz = u2 .
( 20
i
gch
∂z ∂z
16. If z = u3 + v 3 , where u = sin xy and v = y 2 , find ∂x
and ∂y
.

17. If ∂u = ∂y∂v
and ∂u ∂v
= − ∂x
B a
, where u and v are functions of x and y, prove
S
∂x ∂y
that ∂r = r ∂θ and r ∂θ = − ∂v
∂u 1 ∂v 1 ∂u
∂r
, where x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ. [Hint: ∂u
∂r
=
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y
∂x ∂r
+ ∂y ∂r .]

*******

Jacobian

Problem Set

∂(x,y)
1. If x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, find ∂(r,θ)
.
∂(x,y)
2. If x = a cos θ cosh φ, y = a sin θ sinh φ, find ∂(φ,θ)
= 12 a2 (cosh 2φ − cos 2θ).
∂(u,v) 1 y 2 −x2
3. If u3 + v 3 = x + y , u2 + v 2 = x3 + y 3 , show that ∂(x,y)
= 2 uv(u−v)
.
∂(x,y,z)
4. If x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ, z = r cos θ, show that ∂(r,θ,φ)
= r2 sin θ.
∂(x,y,z)
5. If x = r + s + t, y = st + tr + rs, z = rst, show that ∂(r,s,t)
= (r − s)(r − t)(s − t).
∂(r,s,t)
Also, find the value of ∂(x,y,z)
.

17
 ∂(x,y)
6. If x + y = u and x = uv then show that ∂(u,v)
= −u. Also, find the value of
∂(u,v)
∂(x,y)
.
1 1
7. If u = x(1 − r2 )− 2 and v = y(1 − r2 )− 2 where r2 = x2 + y 2 , find the value of
∂(u,v)
∂(x,y)
.

8. Show that the functions:

x+y
u= , v = tan−1 x + tan−1 y
1 − xy
are not independent and find the relationship between them.

9. Show that the functions: u = x+y+z, v = xy+yz+zx, w = x3 +y 3 +z 3 −3xyz

are not independent but they are related by u3 = 3uv + w.

10. If u = x2 + y 2 , v = x2 − y 2 and x = rθ, y = r + θ then find the value of the

Jacobian ∂(u,v) .
∂(r,θ)

7 )
1
11. If u = x + 2y + z, v = x − 2y + 3z, and w = 2xy − xz + 4yz − 2z 2 , then find the
value of ∂(u,v,w)
∂(x,y,z)
( 20
. Is there relation between u, v, and w? If yes, then what is the
relation between them?
h i
g c
a *******
SB
SEQUENCE AND SERIES

Definition 1: A series in which the terms are alternately positive or negative is

called an alternating series.
Definition 2: If the series of arbitrary terms u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 + · · · + un + . . . be
such that
P the series |u1 | + |u2 | + |u3 | + |u4 | + · · · + |un | + . . . is convergent, then the
series
P un is said to be absolutely
P convergent. P
If |un | is divergent but un is convergent, then un is said to be conditionally
convergent.

1. Integral Test A positive term series f (1) + f (2) + · · · + f (n) + . . . , where

Rf (n)
∞
decreases as n increases, converges or diverges according as the integral
1
f (x)dx is finite or infinite.
P 1
Theorem: np
converges if and only if p > 1.

2. Comparison Test

18
 P P P
(a) If two positive term series un and P vn be such that (i) vn converges,
(ii) un ≤ vn for all values of n, then un also converges.
P P P
(b) If two positive term series un and P vn be such that (i) vn diverges,
(ii) un ≥ vn for all values of n, then un also diverges.
P P
(c) If two positive term series un and vn be such that
un
lim = finite (6= 0),
n→∞ vn
P P
then un and vn both converge or diverge.
P
3. D’Alembert’s Ratio Test In positive term series un , if
un+1
lim = λ,
n→∞ un

then the series converges for λ < 1 and diverges for λ > 1. (for λ = 1 there is
no conclusion.)
4. Cauchy’s Root Test In positive term series
P
un , if
7 )
1
20
1

n→∞
i (
lim unn = λ,

ch
then the series converges for λ < 1 and diverges for λ > 1. (for λ = 1 there is
g
no conclusion.)
a
5. P
SB
Cauchy Condensation Test Suppose a1 ≥ a2 ≥ a3 ≥ a4 ≥ · · · ≥ 0. Then
∞
n=1 an converges if and only if

∞
X
2k a2k = a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + 8a8 + . . .
n=0
converges.
6. Leibnitz’s Rule An alternating series u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 + . . . . converges if (i)
each term is numerically less than its preceding term, and (ii) limn→∞ un = 0.
(limn→∞ un 6= 0, the given series is oscillatory.)

Problem Set

1. Test the convergence of the following series:

1 2 3
(i) 1.3 + 3.5 + 5.7 +. . . (ii) 12p + 23p + 34p +. . . (iii) 1+ 22!2 + 33!3 + 44!4 +. . . . (iv) 1
1+2
+
2 3
1+22
+ 1+2 3 + ...
2 3 n
(v) 1 + 2 + x5 + x10 + · · · + nx2 +1 + . . . .
x

∞ ∞ 1 ∞ ∞
X n2 X sin n
X sin n1 X 1
(vi) (vii) (viii) √ (ix)
n=1
3n n=1
n n=1
n n=2
n(log n)p
(where p > 0).

19
 2. Investigate the convergence of the series:
12 12 .32 12 .32 .52 2
(a) 22
+ 22 .42
x + 22 .42 .62
x + . . . ∞. (x 6= 0) Ans: ?
x2 x3 x4
(b) x + 2
+ 3
+ 4
+ . . . , x ≥ 0. Ans: ?

3. Discuss the convergence of the following series:

P∞ n n2
(a) n=1 ( n+1 ) Ans: ?
P∞ 3
(b) √1 −n 2
n=1 (1 + n ) Ans: ?

4. Test the convergence of the following series:

1
(a) 1 − 22
+ 312 − 412 + . . . . Ans: Convergent.
3
(b) 2 − 2
+ 43 − 45 + . . . . Ans: Not convergent.
1 1 1 1
(c) a
− a+b
+ a+2b − a+3b + ... a > 0, b > 0. Ans: Convergent.
P∞ cos nπ
5. Show that the series is absolutely convergent.
n=1 n2
√ 7 )
1
20
6. Define non-absolutely convergent series and show that n≥1 (−1)n [ n2 + 1 −
P

(
n] is non-absolutely convergent series. Can you give some other examples?
i
7. Show that ∞ 1
ch
P
n=1 n! is convergent.
g
a+ (2 + 2a) + (2 + 3a) + . . . diverges for any real
values of a.
S B
8. Prove that the series 2 + (2 + a)

P∞ an+1
9. Consider
P∞ a series of positive term as n=1 an . If limn→∞ an = 1, can you say
that n=1 an is convergent? Justify your answer.
1
10. Show that n≥2 (−1)n n log
P
n
is non-absolutely convergent series. Using the
Cauchy condensation test, determine the convergence of the following series:
P∞ 1
(a) n=2 n log n . Ans: Divergent.
P∞ 1
(b) n=2 (n log n)2 . Ans: Convergent.
P∞ 1
(c) n=2 (n log n)p . Ans: Conv if p > 1, div if p ≤ 1.
P∞ 1
(d) n=2 (n log n)(log(log n)) . Ans: Divergent.

*******

ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS (ODE)

1. Define order and degree of an ODE. Find the order and degree of the ODEs

20
 dy 23 2
(a) y + ( dx ) = 1 + x and ( ddxy )2 + y = dy
dx
.
2. Homogeneous equation: If a function f (x, y) can be expressed in the form
xn φ( xy ) or in the form y n ψ( xy ), then f (x, y) is said to be a homogeneous function
of degree n.
3. Solve the following differential equations (Put y = vx):
x 3
(a) x2 y dx − (x3 + y 3 ) dy = 0 Ans: − 3y 3 + log y = c

(b) (x + 2y − 3) dx − (2x + y − 3) dy = 0 Ans:

(c) (3x + 3y + 1) dy = (x + y + 1) dx Ans: 3
4
(x + y) − 1
8
log(4(x + y) + 2) = x + c

2 2
(d) y(2xy + 1) dx + x(1 + 2xy + x y ) dy = 0 (xy = v).
dy
Note: The above equations can be written in the form dx
= f (x, y), where
f (x, y) is a homogeneous function.
4. Rules for finding integrating factors:

7 )
(a) If M x + N y 6= 0 and the equation be homogeneous, then M x+N 1
y
is an
1
integrating factor (I.F.) of the equation M dx + N dy = 0.

( 20
(b) If M x − N y 6= 0 and the equation can be written as {f (xy)}ydx +
1
i
ch
{F (xy)}xdy = 0, then M x−N y
is an integrating factor of the equation
M dx + N dy = 0.
(c) If N1 ( ∂M ∂N
a g R
f (x)dx

SB
∂y
− ∂x
) be a function of x alone, say f (x), then e is an
integrating factor of the equation M dx + N dy = 0.
R
(d) If M1 ( ∂N
∂x
− ∂M
∂y
) be a function of y alone, say φ(y), then e φ(y)dy
is an
integrating factor of the equation M dx + N dy = 0.
5. Solve the following differential equations:
(i) x dx + y dy + x dy−y dx
x2 +y 2
=0 Ans: x2 + y 2 + 2 tan−1 ( xy ) = C
(ii) (x y − 2xy ) dx + (3x y − x3 ) dy = 0
2 2 2
Ans: xy + 3 log xy + log x = c
dy (xy sin xy+cos xy)y
(iii) dx
= (cos xy−xy sin xy)x
Ans:
(iv) (3x2 y 4 + 2xy) dx + (2x3 y 3 − x2 ) dy = 0 Ans:
dy
(v) x2 dx +y =1 Ans:
dy dy
(vi) y + x2 dx
2
= xy dx Ans:
dy 2 x
(vii) dx = y e x+2xy
2 Ans: I.F. = y −2
(viii) (y 2 + x2 + 2x) dx + 2y dy = 0 Ans: I.F. = ex (using 4c)
(ix) (x2 + y 2 + 2x) dx + 2y dy = 0 Ans:
(x) (x4 + y 4 ) dx − xy 3 dy = 0. Ans:
6. Solution of first order but not of first degree ODE:
Start with a first order and n-th degree ODE:
pn + P1 pn−1 + ... + Pn−1 p + Pn = 0,
dy
where Pi are functions of x and y; p ≡ dx
.
Here we mainly discuss the following methods for solving.

21
 (a) Solvable for p: If it can be expressed as

{p − f1 }{p − f2 }....{p − fn } = 0.

Solving each of the factors we get the complete solution as F1 (x, y, c)

F2 (x, y, c) . . . Fn (x, y, c) = 0, where c is an arbitrary constant.
(b) Solvable for y: If it can be expressed as

y = f (x, p). (1)

Differentiating both sides of (1) with respect to x, we get an equation of

dp
the form p = F (x, p, dx ).
It can be solved to get a solution of the form

φ(x, p, c) = 0. (2)

Next we eliminate p from (1) and (2), we get the required solution. And
7 )
(c) Solvable for x: If it can be expressed as
1
( 20
i
x = f (y, p). (3)

g ch
Differentiating both sides of (3) with respect to y, we get an equation of
a
SB
the form
1 dp
= F (y, p, ).
p dy
It can be solved to get a solution of the form

φ(y, p, c) = 0. (4)

Next we eliminate p from (3) and (4), we get the required solution.

7. Solve the following differential equations:

(a) x2 (p2 − y 2 ) + y 2 = x4 + 2xyp Ans: {y − sinh(x + c)}{y − sinh(c − x)} = 0.

(b) p2 + p − 6 = 0 Ans: (y + 3x − c)(y − 2x − c) = 0.
2
(c) y = 2px + p y Ans: y 2 = 2cx + c2 .
(d) x + √ p =a Ans: (x − a)2 + (y + c)2 = 1.
1+p2

8. Clairut′ s Equation
A differential equation of the form y = px+f (p) is known as Clairut′ s Equation.
A Clairaut’s equation is a differential equation of the form
 
dy dy
y(x) = x + f .
dx dx

22
 To solve such an equation, we differentiate with respect to x, yielding

d2 y
  2
dy dy ′ dy d y
= +x 2 +f ,
dx dx dx dx dx2

dy


d2 y
so 0 = x + f ′ dx dx2
.
d2 y dy
or 0 = x + f ′


Hence, either 0 = dx2 dx
.
dy
In the former case, C = dx for some constant C. Substituting this into the
Clairaut’s equation, we have the family of straight line functions given by y(x) =
Cx + f (C), the so-called general solution of Clairaut’s equation.
dy
The latter case, 0 = x + f ′ dx


, defines only one solution y(x), the so-called
singular solution, whose graph is the envelope of the graphs of the general so-
lutions. The singular solution is usually represented using parametric notation,
dy
as (x(p), y(p)), where p represents dx .

9. Solve the following differential equations and find the singular solutions:
7 )
√
1
20
p
(a) y = px + 1 + p2 Ans: y = cx + 1 + c2 ; x2 + y 2 = 1.
(b) y = px + a
i ( Ans: y = cx + ac ; y 2 = 4ax.

ch
p
√
g
2 2
Ans: y = cx + a2 c2 + b2 ; xa2 + yb2 = 1.
p
(c) y = px + a2 p 2 + b 2
a
SB
(d) y = px + p − p2 Ans: y = cx + c − c2 ; 4y = (x + 1)2 .

10. Solution of first order linear ODE:

dy
(a) If the equation
R
is dx
+ P y = Q, where P and Q are functions of x only,
P dx
then I.F.= e
dx
(b) If the equation is dy
+ P x = Q, where P and Q are functions of y only,
R
then I.F.= e P dy .

11. Solve the following differential equations:

dy 4x 1
(a) dx
+ x2 +1
y = (x2 +1)3
Ans: (x2 + 1)2 y = tan−1 x + c
−1 y dy −1
(b) 1 + y 2 + (x − e− tan ) dx =0 Ans: x etan y
= tan−1 y + c
dy 2 2
(c) dx
+ x sin 2y = x3 cos2 y Ans: tan y.ex = 12 ex (x2 − 1) + c
dy a−n+1
(d) dx
+ xa y = b
xn
, a and b being constants. Ans: xa y = b. xa−n+1 + c

12. Solution Method for linear differential equation of the form f (D)y = 0:
If the roots of the auxiliary equation f(m)=0 are m1 , m2 and m3 , then the
solutions of the given ODE are

(a) If m1 6= m2 6= m3 , y = C1 em1 x + C2 em2 x + C3 em3 x ,

(b) If m1 = m2 6= m3 , y = (C1 + C2 x)em1 x + C3 em3 x ,

23
 (c) If m1 = m2 = m3 , y = (C1 + C2 x + C3 x2 )em1 x ,
(d) If m1 = α+iβ, m2 = α−iβ and m3 , y = eαx (C1 cos βx+C2 sin βx)+C3 em3 x .

13. Particular Integral (P.I.) By Short Method (Rules) of the form f (D)y =
X(x):
1
(a) If X = eax , P.I. = f (a) eax , provided f (a) 6= 0,
r
x e ax
= r!g(a) , where f (D) = (D − a)r g(D), g(a) 6= 0.
(b) If X = sin ax/ cos ax,
1
P.I. = φ(D1 2 ) sin ax = φ(−a 2
2 ) sin ax, provided φ(−a ) 6= 0, where f (D) =

φ(D2 ).
If φ(−a2 ) = 0 then P.I. = D21−a2 sin ax = − 2a x
cos ax and D21−a2 cos ax =
x
2a
sin ax.
1
(c) If X = V eax , V being functions of x only, P.I. = eax f (a+D) V.
1 1
(d) If X = xV , V being functions of x only, P.I. = x f (D) V − f ′ (D) [f (D)]2V .

7 )
(e) If X = P (x), where P (x) is a Polynomial function of x, then we have
1
20
to expand [f (D)]−1 and arrange the terms in ascending powers of D and
operate with P (x).
i (
h
Remark: With the help of Bernstein coefficient nr = n.(n−1).(n−2)...(n−r+1)


,

where r is a non negativea g c r!

integer, we can obtain the binomial series which

S B n nif|x| <1,n n

is valid for any real number

(1 + x)n = 1 + x+ x2 + x3 + . . . .
1 2 3

(f) If (D − a)y = X, X being functions of x only, P.I. = eax Xe−ax dx.

R

14. Solve the following differential equations:

(a) (D2 + 9)y = 9e3x P.I. = 21 e3x

x3 x
(b) (D3 − 3D2 + 3D − 1)y = ex P.I. = 6
e
(c) (D2 + 1)y = cos 2x P.I. = − cos 2x3
x cos x
(d) (D2 + 1)y = cos x P.I. = − 2
e3x
(e) (D2 − 2D + 1)y = x2 e3x P.I. = 8
(2x2 − 4x + 3)
(f) (D2 − 4D + 4)y = x2 ex . x 2
P.I. = e (x + 4x + 6)
x sin x 2 cos x
(g) (D2 − 4)y = x sin x P.I. = −5
− 25

(h) (D2 − 2D + 1)y = x sin x P.I. = 21 [x cos x + cos x − sin x]

(i) (D2 − 3D + 2)y = sin(e−x ) P.I. = −e2x sin(e−x )
x2 −3x
(j) (D3 + 3D2 + 2D)y = 2x P.I. = 2

24
 x sin 3x
(k) (D2 + 9)y = sec 3x P.I. = 3
− 19 cos 3x log sec 3x
1
(l) (D3 − 3D2 + 4D − 2)y = ex + cos x P.I. = xe + x
10
(cos x + 3 sin x)
x2
(m) (D2 − 1)y = x sin x + xex P.I. = 4
ex − x2 sin x − cos x
2
(n) (D2 + 2D + 2)y = x2 e−x P.I. = e−x [x2 − 2]
1 3x
(o) (D2 − 9)y = e3x cos x P.I. = − 37 e [cos x − 6 sin x]
ex x 4
(p) (D2 − 2D + 1)y = x2 ex . P.I. = 12
(q) (D2 + 1)y = sin x sin 2x P.I. = 14 x sin x + 1
16
cos 3x
2 1
(r) (D − D − 2)y = sin 2x P.I. = 20
[cos 2x − 3 sin 2x]
2 3 3
(s) (D − 1)y = x + 2x + 1 P.I. = x + 4x + 1

15. Linear Independence and the Wronskian of Two Functions:

Recall our definition of the linear dependence of two functions f and g on an
open interval I : f and g are linearly dependent if there exists constants c1 and
c2 , not both zero, such that

7 )
1
c1 f (t) + c2 g(t) = 0; ∀t ∈ I.
0
( 2
If we must choose c = 0 = c , then we
1 2
Since we are considering only two c
i say f and g are linearly independent.
h linear dependence is equivalent in
functions,
this special case to one function a g
being a scalar multiple of the other.

S
If two differentiable functionsBf and g are linearly dependent, then their Wron-
skian is zero for all t ∈ I, i.e.,

W [f ; g](t) = f (t)g ′ (t) − g(t)f ′ (t) = 0; ∀t ∈ I

Thus, if the Wronskian is nonzero at any t ∈ I, the two functions must be

linearly independent. If we are considering f = y1 and g = y2 to be two
solutions to the ODE
(D2 + P D + Q)y = 0,
where P and Q are both continuous functions of x on some interval I, then the
Wronskian has some extra properties which are given by Abel’s Theorem:
R
W [y1 ; y2 ](x) = Ae− P dx
,

for some constant A.

This theorem essentially says that if two solutions the the ODE are linearly
independent, then the Wronskian of the two solutions is never zero on the
interval I, i.e., A 6= 0. Otherwise, the Wronskian is always zero, i.e., A = 0,
and the solutions are linearly dependent. This is the key result that we use
for checking for a fundamental set of two solutions to a second order linear
homogeneous differential equation.
Example 1: It can be easily verified that f (x) = 2x, and g(x) = 3x2 are linearly

25
 independent in the interval (−2, 2) but surprisingly Wronskian is not zero for
all x ∈ I:
W [f ; g] = 6x2 6= 0
as long as x 6= 0.

16. (a) Prove Abel’s Theorem.

(b) Prove that sin 2x and cos 2x are solutions of the differential equation (D2 +
4)y = 0 and these are linearly independent.
(c) Show that (D2 − 2D + 2)y = 0 has exactly two linearly independent so-
lutions. [These are ex sin x and ex cos 2x.] Find the solution y(x) with
y(0) = 2, y ′ (0) = −3.
(d) Show that the functions ex sin x and ex cos x are linearly independent so-
lutions of a 2nd order linear ODE. Write down the general solution y(x).
Also find y(x) with the conditions y(0) = 2, y(0) = −3.
(e) Suppose W [y1 ; y2 ](x) 6= 0 for some x, can the functions y1 and y2 be linearly
independent solutions of a 2nd order ODE?
7 )
2
02
1linearly
(f) Show that the functions x and x log x are independent and form
( 2
an ODE whose solutions are these functions.
2 2
[Hint. General solution of
the required ODE will be y = Axi + Bx log x , A, B-arbitrary constants.
h
Eliminate A and B to get thecODE].
g
(g) Show that e and e arealinearly independent solutions of (D − 1)y = 0
on any interval.
x

S B
−x 2

(h) Can you form a second order linear homogeneous ODE whose two inde-
pendent solutions are f (t) = 2t and g(t) = 3t2 in (−2, 2)?

17. Method of Variation of Parameters (2nd order)

Let us consider the general linear equation of second order
d2 y dy
2
+P + Qy = X (5)
dx dx
where P , Q and X are functions of x only.
Let
y = Au + Bv (6)

be the complementary function of the equation (5), where A and B are con-
stants and u and v are functions of x and are independent solutions of the
corresponding homogeneous equation. Thus

d2 u du d2 v dv
+ P + Qu = 0 and + P + Qv = 0. (7)
dx2 dx dx2 dx
Let us assume
y = φu + ψv (8)

26
 is complete primitive of (5), where we take φ and ψ in place of A and B and
they are no longer constants but functions of x, to be so chosen that (8) will
satisfy (5).
Differentiating (8) with respect to x, we get

dy du dv dφ dψ
=φ +ψ +u +v .
dx dx dx dx dx

Let us choose φ and ψ such that

dφ dψ
u +v = 0, (9)
dx dx
so that

dy du dv
=φ +ψ
dx dx dx
Differentiating this once again with respect to x, we get
7 )
1
d2 y d2 u d2 v dφ du dψ dv
( 20
dx2
=φ 2 +ψ 2 +
dx
h dx
+
i
dx dx dx dx
.

g c
Substituting these values of y,a and dy d2 y
in (5) and after rearrange, we get

SB
dx dx2

d2 u du d2 v dv dφ du dψ dv
φ( 2 + P + Qu) + ψ( 2 + P + Qv) + + =X
dx dy dx dy dx dx dx dx

dφ du dψ dv
+ =X (10)
dx dx dx dx
by virtue of (7).
dφ dψ
Solving for dx
and dx
from (9) and (10), we get

dφ vX dψ uX
= du dv
and = du dv
dx v dx − u dx dx v dx − u dx

Integrating we get

vXdx uXdx
Z Z
φ = C1 + du dv
and ψ = C2 +
v dx − u dx v du dv
− u dx
dx

Substituting these values of φ and ψ in (8), we get the complete solution of the
equation (5), C1 and C2 being arbitrary constants.

18. Solve, by the method of variation of parameters of the following differential

equations:

27
 d2 y
(a) dx2
+ a2 y = sec ax Ans:
y = C1 cos ax + C2 sin ax + xa sin ax + 1
a2
cos ax log(cos ax).
d2 y
(b) dx2
+ 4y = 4 tan 2x Ans:
y = C1 cos 2x + C2 sin 2x − cos 2x log(sec 2x + tan 2x).
d2 y 2 x
(c) dx2
−y = 1+ex
Ans: y = C1 ex + C2 e−x + ex log 1+e
ex
− ex log(1 + ex ) − 1.
d2 y
(d) dx2
+ y = cosec x Ans: y = C1 cos x + C2 sin x − x cos x + sin x log sin x.
d2 y
(e) dx2
+ y = cos x Ans: y = C1 sin x + C2 cos x + 12 x sin x + 14 cos x.
d2 y
(f) dx2
+ 4y = sin 2x Ans: y = C1 cos 2x + C2 sin 2x − 14 x cos 2x.
d2 y dy e−x
(g) dx2
+ 2 dx +y = x2
Ans: y = (C1 + C2 x)e−x − e−x (1 + log x).
d2 y
(h) dx2
+y =x Ans: y = C1 cos x + C2 sin x + x.

19. Solve the following simultaneous differential equations:

d

7)
(a) (D − 7)x + y = 0, (D − 5)y − 2x = 0; where D ≡ dt
(b) (D + 5)x + y = et , (D + 3)y − x = e2t ;
(c) (D − 3)x − 4y = 0, (D + 1)y + x =2 0 1
2

(d) (D + 2)x + (D + 1)y = 0, (D +h3)y

( 0;
i + 5x = 0.
2

20. Solve the following differential a

c
g of Simultaneous equations in the form
equations
dx
= = , where P ≡ P B
dy dz
P Q R

dy
S (x, y, z), Q ≡ Q(x, y, z), R ≡ R(x, y, z):
dx dz
(a) xy
= y2
= xyz−2x2
Ans: x = C1 y, x = log(yz − 2x) − log y + C2 .
adx bdy cdz
(b) = xz(c−a)
yz(b−c)
= xy(a−b) Ans: ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 = C1 ,
a x + b2 y 2 + c 2 z 2 = C 2 .
2 2

xdx dy dz
(c) z 2 −2yz−y 2
= y+z
= y−z
Ans: x2 + y 2 + z 2 = C1 , x2 − z 2 − 2yz = C2 .
dx dy dz
(d) 1+y
= 1+x
= z
Ans: z(x − y) = C1 , z = C2 (x + y + 2).
dx dy dz 1
(e) y2
= x2
= x2 y 2 z 4
Ans: x3 − y 3 = C1 , y 3 + z3
= C2 .
dx dy dz
(f) yz
= zx
= xy
Ans: x2 − y 2 = C1 , x2 − z 2 = C2 .
dx dy dz
(g) z
= −z
= z 2 +(x+y)2
Ans: x + y = C1 , log[(x + y)2 + z 2 ] − 2x = C2 .

dx dy dz
21. Geometrical interpretation of the equations P
= Q
= R
.
We know, from the geometry of three dimensions, that the direction cosines of
the tangent to a curve are dx , dy , dz , that is are in the ratio dx : dy : dz.
ds ds ds
Hence geometrically these equations represent a system of curves in space, such
that the direction cosines of the tangent to it at any point (x, y, z) are propor-
tional to P , Q, R.

28
 USEFUL FORMULAS

x −x ex +e−x
1. cosh x = e −e
2
, sinh x = 2
d
, dx (cosh x) = sinh x, d
dx
(sinh x) = cosh x,
2 2
cosh x − sinh x = 1.
2. ∞
x
X xn 1 n x n
e = , lim (1 + ) = e and lim (1 + ) = ex .
n=0
n! n→∞ n n→∞ n

3. The equation of the cardiod is r = a(1 + cos θ) and shape of the equation is in
Figure1.

7 )
1
( 20
h i
g c
a
Figure 1: Cardiod

SB *******

BOOKS: (TEXT/REFERENCES)

1. Babu Ram, Engineering Mathematics, Pearson. (You May Purchase).

2. C. G. Denlinger, Elements of Real Analysis.
3. E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, John Wiley.
4. S. C. Malik and S. Arora, Mathematical Analysis.
5. Piskunov, Differential and Integral Calculus Vol. I & II.
6. B. S. Grewal, Higher Engineering Mathematics.
7. Thomos and Finny, Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Addison Wesley.

For more information follow the following webpage

https://sites.google.com/site/satyabagchi

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