ETH Zurich MSc in Geophysics course: 651-4017-00

Earth’s Core and the Geodynamo

Lecturer: Dr. Chris Finlay (NO H29, cfinlay@erdw.ethz.ch)

Format:
 Lectures: 2hrs per week (Mon. 10.15am-12.15am, ETH Zentrum, NO E39).
 Handouts: Copies of slides distributed at each lecture, make extra notes on these!
 Homework: Complete exercises/assignments each week (~4hrs per week).

Assessment:
 Exercises/assignments continually assessed (40%).
 End-of-semester exam on Monday 31st May 2010: 10am-12am, NO E39 (60%).
- Written exam
- Short questions based on knowledge and understanding.
- Long questions based on quantitative techniques.

What do you need to do?

 Listen to explanations in lectures & add your own extra comments to slide handouts.
 Re-read handouts and ask/email if you don’t understand.
 Carry out exercises as best you can and hand them in on time.
 Revise by re-reading handouts and reviewing exercises: Exam will be based on these.
Objectives of course:

(i) The development of geophysical and sometimes mathematical strategies

and methods for studying the deepest parts of the Earth. (TOOLS!)

i.e. -Adams-Williamson equation for radial density structure

-Adiabatic temperature gradient
-Spherical harmonics and global geomagnetic field modelling
-Magnetohydrodynamics
-Dynamo theory.

(ii) The development of knowledge concerning the physical properties of the

core, observational constraints and theoretical hypotheses concerning the
operation of the geodynamo (KNOWLEDGE!)

i.e. -Geochemistry, seismology and mineral physics=> core structure and properties
-Sources and measurements of Earth’s magnetic field
-Structure of the core-generated magnetic field, characteristics of its evolution
-Motions of the fluid outer core (core dynamics)
-Description of the geodynamo and constraints provided by geomagnetism
 Course Outline
(i) Structure and physical properties of the core (Lectures 1 - 3)

- Introduction
- Origin of the Earth and formation of the core
- Geochemical constraints on composition
- Constraints from seismology: PREM, Adams-Williamson Equation

- High Pressure Mineral Physics: Experimental and computational methods

- Iron alloy phases in the core

- Thermal structure: Adiabatic temperature profile and geotherms

- Power sources for the geodynamo
 Course Outline
(ii) Observational Geomagnetism (Lectures 4 - 8)

- Geomagnetic field sources

- Geomagnetic observations and types of data

- Spherical harmonics
- Magnetic field representation & IGRF

- Field modelling as an inverse problem

- Downward continuation to the CMB

- Recent field evolution: jerks, westward drift, dipole decay

- Long term field evolution: Past 5000 years, Polarity reversals, time-averaged
field
 Course Outline
(iii) Theory of the Geodynamo (Lectures 9 - 12)

- Maxwell's equations and the Induction Equation.

- Magnetohydrodynamics
- Frozen Flux and Magnetic Diffusion

- Self-exciting dynamos: The alpha-effect and omega-effect

- Mean field dynamo theory
- Dynamo experiments

- Core dynamics: Geostrophic balance, Thermal winds, rotating convection

- Influence of the Lorentz force and Alfven waves

- Numerical simulations of the geodynamo

 Suggested textbooks
BACKGROUND
- Fundamentals of Geophysics, W. Lowrie, Cambridge University Press. (2007)
Comprehensive introductory account of Earth structure. seismology & geomagnetism.

- The Solid Earth, C.R.M. Fowler, Cambridge University Press. (2005) Background
information on the structure and physical properties of the Earth, including the core.

MORE DETAILED ACCOUNTS

- Deep interior of the Earth. JA Jacobs, Chapman and Hall. (1992) Covers the origin,
constitution and physical properties of the core and observational geomagnetism.

- Potential Theory in Gravity and Magnetic Applications, RJ Blakely, Cambridge

University Press. (1995) Introduces spherical harmonics and geomagnetic field
modelling.

- An Introduction to Magnetohydrodynamics, PA Davidson, Cambridge University

Press. Very good for the combination of magnetism and fluid dynamics (MHD)
and provides an introduction to dynamo theory.

More specialized references will be given for each lecture.

 Key questions for this course
1. Why is the core an important part of the
Earth system and worth studying?

2. What are the physical properties of

Earth’s core and how are they known?

3. What are the observed features of the

geomagnetic field and how has it evolved?

4. How is the geomagnetic field generated

and maintained by a dynamo in Earth’s core?
 Earth’s core and the Geodynamo

(i) Structure and physical properties

of Earth’s core

Lecture 1:

Origin, Composition & Structure of the Core

Lecture 1: Origin, Composition &
Structure of the Core
1.1 Introduction to the core
1.2 Origin and formation of the core
1.3 Geochemical constraints on the core
1.4 Rotational constraints on the core
1.5 Seismological constraints on the core
1.6 Adams-Williamson equation
1.7 Summary
Lecture 1: Origin, Composition &
Structure of the Core
1.1 Introduction to the core
1.2 Origin and formation of the core
1.3 Geochemical constraints on the core
1.4 Rotational constraints on the core
1.5 Seismological constraints on the core
1.6 Adams-Williamson equation
1.7 Summary
 1.1.1 Why worry about the core?

• Contains ~30% of the mass and ~15% of the volume of Earth

• Only 2900 km away, and underlies all human activity on
surface: important to understand what happens there!
1.1.1 Why worry about the core?

Just Hollywood hype?

 1.1.1 Why worry about the core?

• Earth’s magnetic field generated in the core shields our

planet from the high energy charged particles of the solar wind
• It seems to be important ingredient necessary for planets
to support life
 1.1.1 Why worry about the core?

• The core is the lower boundary for Earth’s mantle: it supplies

basal heating that helps drive convection and plate tectonics

• It is an important part of the Earth system and must be

considered if we wish to understand and model our planet
 decade, Oldham identified seismic P- and S-waves several fundam
(1899) and interpreted the P-wave shadow as low convection in
velocity in a central core (Oldham, 1906). Shortly mantle convect
thereafter, Gutenberg (1912) determined the location tantly to the acc
of the core–mantle boundary, at depth of demonstrating t

1.1.2 Some history 2900 ! 20 km, consistent within his calculated uncer- The final pie
core was provi
tainty with the present-day value.
who discovered
placed at 4970
• 1897: Emil Wiechert: quantitative currently pref
Following Leh
model of Earth with a core succeeded in de
the inner-core
• 1906: Richard Oldham: seismic and Gilbert (19
by the 1964 Ala
waves indicated distinct core of its average ri
have determine

• 1912: Beno Gutenberg: core started

pic. Table 1
milestones in th

at depth of 2900km
8.01.2 Sta
• 1926: Harold Jeffreys: Tides, Earth’s A full review of
rotation & Seismology indicate in Chapter 2.05
brief summary
liquid core for purposes of
well-known ph

• 1936: Inge Lehmann: discovered lists some impo

properties (wh
the inner core and Figure 5 sh
The model
firmly in place
tury, and was
• 1971: Dziewonski and Gilbert use Figure 3 Emil Wiechert (1861–1928) constructed the first
quantitative Earth model with a core.
seismology (B
(Birch, 1952).
free oscillation modes of Earth
to prove inner core is solid
Lecture 1: Origin, Composition &
Structure of the Core
1.1 Introduction to the core
1.2 Origin and formation of the core
1.3 Geochemical constraints on the core
1.4 Rotational constraints on the core
1.5 Seismological constraints on the core
1.6 Adams-Williamson equation
1.7 Summary
 1.2.1 Formation of the Earth : Accretion
• Almost 4.6 Gyrs ago intersteller cloud of gas & dust collapsed
under action of gravity -> forming star (sun) + disk
• Dust particles aggregated into larger particles and via
collisions & sticking -> km sized ‘Planetesimals’ within 1Myr
• ‘Planetary embyros’ Moon to Mars size formed in next 1 Myr
by numerous impacts
• ‘Planetary embyros’ formed
quickly and likely partially
melted due to 26Al heating.

• Melting caused separation

of liquid Fe-alloy from
molten Silicate mantle:

‘Planetary embryos’ likely possessed cores!

 1.2.2 Giant Impacts and the moon

• The Earth was finally built from 100 or fewer of such embryos
in a series of giant impacts over the next 100 Myrs
• Last such giant impact with Mars-sized body probably formed
Earth’s moon.......
1.2.2 Last giant Impact and moon formation

0.32hr 0.86hr

• Example numerical simulation of lunar forming impact

from Canup (2008) [smooth particle hydrodynamics].
• Distance: 1000km units, colour is particle temperature (K).
• 0.89Me target & 0.13Me impactor: both with 30% Fe core.
 1.2.2 Last giant Impact and moon formation

2.2hr 10.3hr

• Impact material that grazes past target initially forms

elongated structure that winds up into a spiral arm.
• Inner parts of spiral arm (mostly Fe from impactors core)
form large clump which recollides with the planet.
 1.2.2 Last giant Impact and moon formation

31.3hr close-up

• Final bound planet-disc state has angular momentum same

as the Earth-Moon system.

• Note the partial red of high temperature material is iron from

the impactor’s core that has accreted onto Earth’s core.
 1.2.3 Possible core formation scenario
• Two scenarios debated:

(a) Fe droplets sink to form global layer. Then diapirs/dykes

from instability of layer sink through silicate layer.

(b) Sinking of intact impactor cores.

(From Stevenson, 2008)

Lecture 1: Origin, Composition &
Structure of the Core
1.1 Introduction to the core
1.2 Origin and formation of the core
1.3 Geochemical constraints on the core
1.4 Rotational constraints on the core
1.5 Seismological constraints on the core
1.6 Adams-Williamson equation
1.7 Summary
 1.3.1 Bulk composition of the Earth

• The solar system, including Earth, is thought to have formed

from condensation of a primordial solar nebula (gas cloud).
• The chemical composition of Earth is therefore derived from
that of the solar nebula at the radius where Earth formed.
 1.3.1 Bulk composition of the Earth
• Chondrites are primitive, stony meteorites that are thought to
have compositions representative of the solar nebula.

• By studying their composition

and modelling variations,
geochemists can estimate the
composition of the bulk Earth.

• The major elements are

found to be:
Magnesium (Mg)
Iron (Fe)
Silicon (Si)
(Sample from a carbonaceous chondrite meteorite found in Allende, Nickel (Ni)
Mexico. The small white specks are roughly spherical chondrules.)
 1.3.2 Composition of the Primitive Mantle
• Isotopic studies of mantle-derived rocks (e.g.mantle
peridotites, esp. xenoliths & ocean-island volcanic rocks)
• After corrections for effects of melting these are used to
determine primitive mantle composition.

Sample of olivine (Mg2SiO4 -Fe2SiO4)

structures in deformed mantle
peridotite (Mg rich Olivine + other
minor constituents), scale bar is 1mm

• Knowing the composition of the bulk Earth and the mantle,

subtraction yields an estimate of the core composition.
 1.3.3 Composition of the core
• Predominantly metallic Fe (and some Ni)
• Also need some lighter elements: either Si or O & S, C, P
• for
sitional Model Details of light
the Earth’s Core element uncertain and model dependent
(eg some authors believe Si, some O, some both)
Table 7 Compositional comparison of two models for
the Earth and core.
wt.% Si-bearing O-bearing
Earth Core Earth Core
Geochemical models of
Fe 32.0 85.5 32.9 88.3 Earth composition that
O 29.7 0 30.7 3 match the density of the
Si 16.1 6 14.2 0 outer core.
Ni 1.82 5.2 1.87 5.4
S 0.64 1.9 0.64 1.9 From McDonough (2004)
Cr 0.47 0.9 0.47 0.9
P 0.07 0.20 0.07 0.20
C 0.07 0.20 0.07 0.20
H 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.06

S would plot Mean atomic # 23.5 23.2

ccount for the
urther discu- Atomic proportions
ements in the Fe 0.768 0.783
condensation O 0.000 0.093
Lecture 1: Origin, Composition &
Structure of the Core
1.1 Introduction to the core
1.2 Origin and formation of the core
1.3 Geochemical constraints on the core
1.4 Rotational constraints on the core
1.5 Seismological constraints on the core
1.6 Adams-Williamson equation
1.7 Summary
1.4.1 A reminder: Moment of Inertia
1.4.2 Indications of a dense central core
from Earth’s moment of inertia
• For Earth:

k=Coefficient of moment of inertia

M= 5.98x1024 kg
R = 6.371x106 m
I = 8.07 x1037 kg m2
(I from procession)

=> k = 0.33

• Suggests earth
must possess a
dense core.....
Lecture 1: Origin, Composition &
Structure of the Core
1.1 Introduction to the core
1.2 Origin and formation of the core
1.3 Geochemical constraints on the core
1.4 Rotational constraints on the core
1.5 Seismological constraints on the core
1.6 Adams-Williamson equation
1.7 Summary
 1.5.1 Body waves and the core
0

0+I+0

0C0 00

0+0

0+)+0

&/#53 INNER OUTER

MANTLE
CORE CORE

3C3
3+)+3
Important body
33
wave phases in
3
Earth’s core 3+3
(From Lowrie, 2007) 0 WAVE
3 WAVE
 1.5.1 Body waves and the core

SHADOW
ZONE

(Illustration of P wave shadow zone, from Fowler, 2005)

• No direct P waves observed for epicentral distances

103-143 degrees (the shadow zone)=> dense core.
• No evidence for S waves in outer core, together with tidal
evidence this suggests outer core is liquid.
DS/GBP/GBC P2: FDS
ch 27, 2001 12:56 Annual Reviews AR125-03

1.5.1 Body waves and the core

• Paths of PKP(BC) and PKP(DF) through the mantle are
INNER-CORE ANISOTROPY AND ROTATION
similar, making it useful 53
for determining inner core properties.

(From
Tromp
2001)

• Shear
Figure 5 Ray waves propagating
geometry through
of PKP phases. The associatedthe innercurve
traveltime core have
is shown been
in Figure
2. Notice that as PKP(AB) and PKP(BC) travel through the outer core, PKP(CD), or PKiKP,
observed but very difficult to detect.
is reflected off the inner-core boundary (ICB), and PKP(DF), or PKIKP, travels through
the inner core. The compressional-wave velocity in the inner core is rather uniform (see
Figure 1), rendering the inner-core leg of the PKIKP ray basically straight. The ray paths
1.5.2 Free oscillation modes and the core
• When the Earth is perturbed it undergoes (normal) mode
free oscillations in response.
• Frequency of modes depends on the density and elastic
properties of the Earth.

(Some examples of free mode oscillations modes for a sphere, by Prof. G. Houseman)

• Modes sensitive to the core can therefore be used to

probe its physical properties.
 56 TROMP
1.5.2 Free oscillation modes and the core
hschule Zurich - Chemistry Biology Pharmacy Information Center on 02/15/08. For personal use only.
arth Planet. Sci. 2001.29:47-69. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

Figure 6 Sensitivity kernels (degree zero) of mantle-sensitive mode 1S4 (left) and inner-
core-sensitive mode 6S3 (right). The solid line represents sensitivity to shear velocity per-
turbations as a function of depth, the short-dashed line sensitivity to compressional velocity, (From
and the long-dashed line sensitivity to density. The locations of the 670 km discontinuity, Tromp
the core-mantle boundary (CMB), and the inner-core boundary (ICB) have been indicated. 2001)
Mode 1S4 is not sensitive to structure in the inner core, whereas the anomalously split mode
6S3 ‘sees’ the inner core.

in the inner core, Widmer et al (1992) speculated that the outer core might be
 1.5.3 Preliminary Reference Earth Model
• In 1981 Dziewonski and Anderson published PREM which is
now accepted as the standard model of Earth structure.
• Based on travel-times of P and S body waves and periods of
observed free oscillation modes and their attenuation factors.
• Model: Vp(r), Vs(r), ρ(r), qµ(r), qK(r), that satisfy Me and Ie.
• Earth is divided into radially symmetrical shells separated by
known discontinuities at 400, 670, 2890, 5150 km.
• Assumed above 670 km Birch’s Law (ρ=a+bVp) holds and
the Adams-Williamson equation holds in lower regions.
• Starting densities for below the crust, at base of mantle, and
density jump btw inner and outer core assumed.
• Inverse problem solved simultaneously for all parameters, by
perturbing the starting model to find best explanations of
observations.
 48 TROMP
1.5.3 Preliminary Reference Earth Model

VP
emistry Biology Pharmacy Information Center on 02/15/08. For personal use only.

VP

VS
01.29:47-69. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

VS

(From
Tromp
2001)

Figure 1 Compressional-wave velocity VP shear-wave velocity VS and density ρ as a function of

depth in the isotropic version of the Preliminary Reference Earth Model (PREM) (Dziewonski &
Anderson 1981). The locations of the inner-core boundary (ICB), core-mantle boundary (CMB),
and 670 km discontinuity (670) have been marked. The CMB has the most dramatic contrast in
model parameters of all of the Earth’s discontinuities, including the free surface.
 INNER-CORE ANISOTROPY AND ROTATION 51
Chemistry Biology Pharmacy Information Center on 02/15/08. For personal use only.
1.5.3 Preliminary Reference Earth Model
2001.29:47-69. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

Figure 4 Gravitational acceleration g (top) and hydrostatic pressure p as a function of

depth for the radial density distribution in Preliminary Reference Earth Model (PREM) (see (From
Tromp
Figure 1). Note that gravity is basically flat throughout the mantle and decreases linearly 2001)
to zero through the core. Pressure increases monotonically from 0 at the Earth’s surface to
364 GPa at the Earth’s center.
 1.5.4 Probing detailed outer core structure
• Modes indicate outer core not strongly stably stratified
except perhaps close to boundaries.
668 The Earth’s Cores
• PKP(BC) diffracted along ICB suggests lowest 150 km are
lower velocity.
Pou
am
• Some studies of SmKS suggest Th
a low velocity zone at top of core (19
but this is still controversial. obs
PK
obs
the
• P7KP (right) is observed as a (e.g
single phase, suggesting outer P7KP
han
core is laterally homogeneous. nor
cor
(From
we
Souriau Li
2007)
aly
Figure 7 Path of the P7KP wave inside the Earth. The pol
observation of this phase on single records is altogether a tot
 1.5.5 Probing detailed inner core structure

(Copyright: Prof E. Garnero)

• Both body waves and splitting of modes show

ANISOTROPY IN INNER CORE:
waves // rotation axis propagate faster & more attenuated.
 1.5.5 Probing detailed inner core structure
• Western hemisphere in upper part is more anisotropic,
innermost 500km may have different anisotropic structure.

Plot left: Outer surface is the inner core boundary (at

radius 1220 km). The opaque inner sphere is the
inner inner core (~500km) with different type of
anisotropy.

The sticks represent the alignments of iron crystals in

the outer part of the inner core. The longer the stick is,
the higher the degree of alignment is and the stronger
the seismic anisotropy is. The fast direction is parallel
to the spin axis. (Credit: Precision Graphics)

Sun and Song (2008) interpreted this as the outer

inner core being composed of iron crystals of a single
phase with different degrees of preferred alignment
along Earth's spin axis along with an inner inner core
that may be composed of a different phase of
crystalline iron or have a different pattern of
alignment.
 1.5.5 Probing detailed inner core structure
• Little/weaker anisotropy in upper 50 - 150 km where
isotropic velocity is ~0.8% faster in the E hemisphere.

• PKP(BC)-PKP(DF) residual studies indicate P-waves on EW

paths in top 100-500 km are faster in the eastern & slower in
western hemisphere.

Tanaka and Hamaguchi (1997)

1.5.5 Summary of inner core structure

(Courtesy of
P. Marti, ETHZ)
 March 27, 2001
P1: FDS/GBP/GBC
Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2001.29:47-69. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org
by Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule Zurich - Chemistry Biology Pharmacy Information Center on 02/15/08. For personal use only.

1.5.6 Inner core rotation

60
TROMP

P2: FDS
12:56
Annual Reviews
AR125-03
(From
Tromp
2001)
Figure 9 Seismograms of events in the South Sandwich Islands recorded at station COL in College, Alaska, over an almost 30-year
period from 1967 to 1995. The records are aligned on the arrival time of PKP(BC). The PKP(DF) waveforms are corrected to a
standard epicentral distance of 151◦ and amplified by a factor of 5. The PKP(AB) arrivals are inverse Hilbert transformed to remove
the 90◦ phase shift relative to PKP(BC) and PKP(DF) and referenced to an epicentral distance of 151◦ . Notice that PKP(DF) arrives
progressively earlier from 1967 to 1995. The dashed line through the PKP(DF) arrivals shows a prediction for the inner-core model of
Song & Richards (1996). (Courtesy of X Song.)

• Seismograms appear to show PKP(DF) arriving earlier as

time goes on.
 The Earth’s Cores 679

1.5.6 Inner core rotation

8) concluded that (a) (b)
CB. Kawakatsu (1992), N N

et al. (2005) conducted S

Kawakatsu failed to
arrived at a velocity of
on of a combination of
PKJKP þ SKJKP). Cao
with a 9 s early arrival
(From
dictions, implying that, Souriau
2007)
KJKP, vS in the inner FS S
han in PREM, a model
Figure 16 Principle of the detection of an inner core
ained by normal modes
differential rotation with respect to the mantle, from the
he inner core. The two drift of an inner core heterogeneity through a seismic ray.
f a very strong vS gra- Part (b) corresponds to a stage later than (a), assuming an
ner core. eastward (faster) rotation of the inner core.
possibility of a phase
• Song and
problem. Unambiguous Richards
magnetic (1996)
field models claimed
but also, if innerthis
corecould
deforms,be explained
llow us to specifybytheaS-super-rotation of Earth’s inner core by ~1 deg/yr.
on its viscosity, its level of heterogeneity, and the
center of the Earth, as
way anisotropy develops.
isotropy. These are the
The basic idea for detecting inner core rotation is to
know precisely the nat-
track inner core heterogeneities during some time
 March 27, 2001 12:56 Annual Reviews AR125-03

1.5.6 Free oscillation modes:

INNER-CORE ANISOTROPY AND ROTATION 63
no inner core rotation

• Laske and
h - Chemistry Biology Pharmacy Information Center on 02/15/08. For personal use only.

Masters (1999)
found mean
rotation rate
from modes
ci. 2001.29:47-69. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org

within error
bars of no
rotation
(From
Tromp
2001)

Figure 10 Inner-core rotation rates inferred from temporal longitudinal variations in the
splitting functions of nine core-sensitive modes listed in the column on the right. Laske
& Masters (1999) used 20 years of digital data to infer a mean rotation rate of 0.01 ± 0.21
degrees per year, suggesting that the inner core is gravitationally locked to the mantle
(Buffett 1996a,b). Results from a normal-mode study by Sharrock & Woodhouse (1998) and
traveltime studies by Song & Richards (1996) and Creager (1997) are shown for comparison.
(Courtesy of G Laske.)

4. INNER-CORE SHEAR WAVES

Lecture 1: Origin, Composition &
Structure of the Core
1.1 Introduction to the core
1.2 Origin and formation of the core
1.3 Geochemical constraints on the core
1.4 Rotational constraints on the core
1.5 Seismological constraints on the core
1.6 Adams-Williamson equation
1.7 Summary
 1.6 Adams-Williamson Equation
• The physical properties - bulk or compressibility modulus K
- shear modulus µ
- density ρ
are related to the seismic compression and shear wave
speeds VP and VS by the relations
! !
4
K + 3µ µ
VP = VS = (1)
ρ ρ
• These can be combined into a single seismic parameter
K 2 4 2
= VP − VS = Φ
ρ 3
• But, construction of global seismological models such as
PREM requires that ρ can be calculated given VP and VS:
this requires an additional equation.
• The Adams-Williamson equation provides this extra,
required relation.
 1.6 Adams-Williamson Equation
• Here, we follow the derivation from Fowler (2005) pp332-333:

dr Consider the increase in pressure dP

due to the weight of an infinitesimal shell
of material:

dF −g(r)ρ(r)dr.4πr2 dP
dP = = => = −g(r)ρ(r) (2)
A 4πr2 dr
• With Mr = mass within radius r,
GMr dP GMr ρ(r)
then g(r) = and =−
r2 dr r2
• Next using the chain rule,
dρ dP dρ GMr ρ(r) dρ
= =− (3)
dr dr dP r2 dP
 1.6 Adams-Williamson Equation
• For Adiabatic compression i.e. in the absence of heating,
then the bulk (compressibility) modulus is,
increase in pressure dP
K= =−
fractional change in volume dV /V
• But remembering that density is mass per unit volume,
m dρ m ρ
ρ= => =− 2 =−
V dV V V
• Using this in the form dV /V = −dρ/ρ , the bulk modulus is,
dP
K=ρ (4)
dρ
• Substituting from (4) into (3) gives,
dρ GMr ρ(r) ρ(r)
=− (5)
dr r2 K
 1.6 Adams-Williamson Equation
• Finally, as noted earlier, eqns (1) can be combined into an
expression known as the seismic parameter Φ,
K 2 4 2
= VP − VS = Φ
ρ 3
• Substituting this into (5) we arrive with an equation first
derived by Adams and Williamson in 1923:

dρ GMr ρ(r) Adams-

=− (6) Williamson
dr r2 Φ Equation
• This can be applied to thin shells of thickness dr in which the
seismic wave speed (and hence Φ) is known to calculate
the fractional change in density across the layer dρ/ρ.
! a=r ! a=R
_ 4π
• Note, Mr = 4π ρ(a)a2 da = Me − ρ(a)a2 da
a=0 a=r
Lecture 1: Origin, Composition &
Structure of the Core
1.1 Introduction to the core
1.2 Origin and formation of the core
1.3 Geochemical constraints on the core
1.4 Rotational constraints on the core
1.5 Seismological constraints on the core
1.6 Adams-Williamson equation
1.7 Summary
 1.7 Summary: self-assessment questions
(1) How might Earth’s core have formed?
(2) How do geochemists infer the composition of the core?
(3) What is the likely chemical composition of the core?
(4) How do we know Earth has a distinct metallic core?
(5) How do we know the outer core is liquid and the inner
core is solid?
(6) What is PREM and how was it constructed?
(7) What is known from seismology concerning the detailed
structure of the outer core and inner core?
(8) Can you derive the Adams-Williamson equation and use
it to determine the Earth’s radial density structure?
Next time: High pressure mineral physics, physical
properties and phase changes in Earth’s core.
 Homework for Lecture 1
• Exercise 1.1: Applying the Adams-Williamson equation.

• Exercise 1.2: Influence of form of gravity in determining

the distribution of radial density profile of a planet.
• Exercise 1.3: Understanding how density distributions
influence pressure distributions.
• Exercise 1.4: The PREM paper.

• Please hand in your answers to the exercises at the start

of Lecture 2 next Monday, 1st March.
 References
- Canup, R. M. (2008) Accretion of the Earth. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond
A., Vol 366, pp 4061-4075.
- Dziewonski A. and Anderson, D.L. (1981) Preliminary Earth reference
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