‘The solution of Laplace’s equation for the spatial (x, z) variation of the hydraulic head is found using a graphical technique called flow net sketching, ot with numerical methods such as finite difference, finite Slement, and boundary element, or by using physical models to attempt to replicate the flow through the eal structure. The solution is found by transformation of the head into two functions. One is the velocity potential (E), which describes the variation of total head in a soil mass as & = KH where k is a generic hydraulic conductivity. The other isa stream function, ¥ (x, 2). The application of the velocity poten and potential functions leads to the following condition: 1. The velocity of flow (v) is normal to lines of constant total head (also called constant piezometric head or equipotential lines) as illustrated in Fig. 1.4. The direction of v is in the direction of decreasing total head. The head difference between two equipotential linesis called a potential drop or head loss. 2, If lines are drawn that are tangents to the velocity of flow at every point in the flow field in the x-z plane, we will get a series of lines that are normal to the equipotential lines. These tangential lines are called streamlines or flow lines (Fig. 1.4). A flow line represents the flow path that a particle of water is expected to take in steady-state flow. 3, Since flow lines are normal to equipotential lines, there can be no flow across flow lines. The rate of, flow between any two flow lines is constant. The area between two flow lines is called a flow channel (Fig. 1.4). Therefore, the rate of flow is constant in a flow channel. ‘There are several computer programs available to find solutions for Laplace’s equation. Geo- technical engineers often used them in conjunction with hand-drawn flow nets. The procedure to sketch flow nets for isotropic soils is as follows: 1. Draw the structure and soil mass to a suitable scale. 2. Identify impermeable and permeable boundaries. The soilimpermeable boundary interfaces are flow lines because water can flow along these interfaces. The soil-permeable boundary interfaces are equipotential lines because the total head is constant along these interfaces. 3. Sketch a series of flow lines (4 or 5) and then sketch an appropriate number of equipotential lines such that the area between a pair of flow lines and a pair of equipotential lines (cell) is approximately Flow channel Streamline or flow line ‘Ah = Head loss or potential drop Constant total head or he 2ah Sportal tne oe of FIGURE1.4 Illustration of ‘constant piezometric head ‘two-dimensional low terms.