Lecture 15: Experimental

Investigations on Yielding
Jayadeep U. B.
Dept. of Mechanical Engg., NIT Calicut.
 Introduction
The ultimate test on any mathematical model like a yield criterion
is the comparison with physical observation.
Hence, to decide about the superiority of Tresca or von Mises
criterion, their predictions must be compared with the
experimental results on yielding.
Since both match exactly for uniaxial conditions, uniaxial tensile
test is of no use for this purpose.
Pure shear tests like torsion can provide useful insights, but only
one data point is obtained from such tests.
Two classical experiments were done in early 20th century, which
can cover the entire range from uniaxial to pure shear:
Lodes experiment (1926)
Taylor and Quinney experiment (1931).
2 ME6302 Metal Forming
 Lodes Experiment (1926)
Most metals do not have a well-defined yield strength.
In addition, they are anisotropic to some extend.
Hence, convincing results for comparison of the two yield criteria
are given by tests conducted on the same specimen, which get rid
of the strain effects.
Lode achieved this by applying combined axial force and internal
pressure which can be independently varied in thin tubes.

F z z p F

3 ME6302 Metal Forming
 Lodes Experiment contd.
For this loading, we have the principal stresses as:
pr pr F
r 0, = & z = +
t 2t 2 rt
Since the pressure and axial force can be independently controlled, the
complete range from uniaxial stress state to pure shear state can
simulated using this setup.
Only the highest and lowest principal stresses influence yielding as per
Tresca criterion, while it is influenced by all the three principal stresses
in von Mises criterion.
Hence, to check the relative accuracy of these criteria, only the
influence of the intermediate principal stress on yielding be checked.
For this purpose, experiments were conducted using thin tubes made of
steel, copper and nickel.

4 ME6302 Metal Forming

 Lode Parameter
As the first step, the principal stresses are ordered: 1 2 3

Tresca criterion: 1 3 = Y 1 3 = 1
Y
2 2 1 3
Lode introduced the parameter: =
1 3
1 3 2
Hence, von Mises criterion becomes: =
Y 3+ 2
1 3
For uniaxial loading: = 1 =1
Y
1 3 2
For pure shear: = 0 = 1.155
Y 3

5 ME6302 Metal Forming

 Results of Lodes Experiment

1 3
Y
III
= I
0

ME6302 Metal Forming

6
 Experiments of Taylor and Quinney (1931)
Taylor and Quinney also conducted experiments on thin tubes,
but used twisting moment instead of internal pressure, along with
the axial force.
Since, the tube is assumed to be thin, both the normal stress due
to axial force, and the shear stress due to torsion may be assumed
to be uniformly distributed across the thickness.
Hence the state of stress is approximately plane stress, with the
following stress tensor:
0 T

= 0 0 F F
0 0 0
T
7 ME6302 Metal Forming
 Experiments of Taylor and Quinney contd.
The corresponding principal stresses are:

2

1, 3 = + 2 & 2 = 0
2 2
Von Mises criterion gives: 2 2
3
1 3 + = +
2 2 2
= 1
Y Y
1 3 Y

2 2
Tresca criterion: 2 + 2 2 = + 2 = 1
Y Y
Y

Both of these criteria result in ellipses on - plane, with slightly

different lengths for minor axis (pure shear).

8 ME6302 Metal Forming

 Experiments of Taylor and Quinney contd.

9 ME6302 Metal Forming

 Grooved and Notched Strips in Tension
Precisely controlling necking of thin
strips in uniaxial tension can
simulate any uniform plane stress
state for studying yielding.
Bijlaard (1940) suggested the use of
grooved specimens (a), but requires
high precision in making the
grooves.
Hill (1953) showed that it can be
achieved more conveniently by using
asymmetrically located notches (b).

10 where, 1 , 2 - Principal stresses, P - applied load, v - relative velocity vector

 Lianis and Ford Experiments (1957)
Lianis and Ford (1957) carried out experiments using
commercially pure aluminium, specially treated to get sharp yield.
Thin strips with a pair of asymmetrical notches were pulled to
obtain arbitrary uniform states of stress, as suggested by Hill
(1953).
This covers the entire range from uniaxial case to pure shear.
The method is capable of eliminating anisotropy completely, or
effectively controlling it at the least.
As shown in the next slide, results clearly favored von Mises
criterion.

11 ME6302 Metal Forming

 Lianis and Ford Experiments contd.

12 ME6302 Metal Forming

 Micromechanical Justification
Yielding being a shear-dominated phenomenon, Tresca criterion
appears more intuitive than von Mises criterion.
However, experimental results clearly suggest that von Mises
criterion is more accurate, in general.
There exists a micromechanical justification for this, which,
however, is not fully accepted by the experts in the field.
It is known that the metals in general are isotropic as they are
polycrystalline, with grains of random crystal directions.
Yielding occurs in any grain, when the resolved shear stress along
the slip direction (on the slip plane) reaches a critical value.
On averaging over all the grains, the ratio between von Mises and
Tresca shear yield strength (=1.155) is approximately obtained.
13 ME6302 Metal Forming
 References
Chakrabarty, J., Theory of plasticity, Butterworth-Heinemann.
Hill, R., The mathematical theory of plasticity, Oxford University
Press.
Hoffman, O. and Sachs, G., Introduction To The Theory Of
Plasticity For Engineers, Literary Licensing, LLC.

14 ME6302 Metal Forming